Nanotechnology ("nanotech") is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology
referred to the particular technological goal of precisely
manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products,
also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm
scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological
goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and
technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur
below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the
plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to
refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait
is size. Because of the variety of potential applications (including
industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars
in nanotechnology research. Through 2012, the USA has invested $3.7
billion using its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the European Union has invested $1.2 billion, and Japan has invested $750 million.
Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials
energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand,
nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology,
including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials,[9] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.
Origins
The concepts that seeded nanotechnology were first discussed in 1959 by renowned physicist Richard Feynman in his talk There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom,
in which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct
manipulation of atoms. The term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known.
Comparison of Nanomaterials Sizes
Inspired by Feynman's concepts, K. Eric Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his 1986 book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology,
which proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" which would be able
to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity
with atomic control. Also in 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute
(with which he is no longer affiliated) to help increase public
awareness and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications.
Thus, emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s
occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work,
which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for
nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew
additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of
matter. Since the popularity spike in the 1980s, most of nanotechnology
has involved investigation of several approaches to making mechanical
devices out of a small number of atoms.[10]
Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is a representative member of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.
Second, Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[13][14] C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related graphene tubes (called carbon nanotubes and sometimes called Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.
In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific,
political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and
progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential
implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.[15]
Challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications
envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in
a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.[16]
Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in
nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products are limited to
bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter. Some examples include the Silver Nano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based transparent sunscreens, carbon fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles.[17][18]
By the mid-2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish. Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps[19][20]
which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss
existing and projected capabilities, goals, and applications.
Fundamental concepts
Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the
molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are
more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the
projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using
techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high
performance products.
One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range 1 to 100 nm
following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative
in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has
the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter)
since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.
The upper limit is more or less arbitrary but is around the size below
which phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become
apparent and can be made use of in the nano device.[21] These new phenomena make nanotechnology distinct from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale and come under the description of microtechnology.[22]
To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a
nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the
earth.[23]
Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average
man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his
face.[23]
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the
"bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular
components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.[24] In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.[25]
Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the "quantum
size effect" where the electronic properties of solids are altered with
great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play
by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can
become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically
at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm.
Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical,
etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One
example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering
mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and
reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with
fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Mechanical
properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics
research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential
risks in their interaction with biomaterials.
Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties
compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique
applications. For instance, opaque substances can become transparent
(copper); stable materials can turn combustible (aluminium); insoluble
materials may become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is
chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst
at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from
these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the
nanoscale.[26]
Simple to complex: a molecular perspective
Modern synthetic chemistry
has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules
to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a
wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers.
This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to
the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single
molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.
These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up
approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important:
molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or
arrangement is favored due to non-covalentintermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein
itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be
complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex
and useful whole.
Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices
in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could
potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired
assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and
thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there
are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology,
most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate
interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these
principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural
ones.
Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view
Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing,
describes engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the
molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with
the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems
is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the
conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as
carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.
When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine
systems. The premise was that molecular scale biological analogies of
traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were
possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that
sophisticated, stochastically optimised biological machines can be produced.
It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers[27]
have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially
implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical
engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the
mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings,
motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable,
positional assembly to atomic specification.[28] The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book Nanosystems.
In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic
scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size
and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno,[29]
is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and
biological molecular machines. Richard Smalley argued that
mechanosynthesis are impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically
manipulating individual molecules.
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.[30] Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are
possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their
infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are
Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley.[1]
They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose
motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator,[31] and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.[32] See nanotube nanomotor for more examples.
An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at Cornell University
in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an
individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe)
sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe
by applying a voltage.
This DNA tetrahedron[33] is an artificially designed nanostructure of the type made in the field of DNA nanotechnology. Each edge of the tetrahedron is a 20 base pair DNA double helix, and each vertex is a three-arm junction.
Rotating view of C60, one kind of fullerene.
This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of quantum wells to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light.[34]
Nanomaterials
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study
materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale
dimensions.[35]
Interface and colloid science
has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology,
such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various
nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most
present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine.
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.
Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see quantum dots.
These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.
DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson–Crick
basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids.
Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis (Inorganic and organic synthesis) also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides[40]).
More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of
supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to
cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves
into some useful conformation.
Molecular Beam Epitaxy
allows for bottom up assemblies of materials, most notably
semiconductor materials commonly used in chip and computing
applications, stacks, gating, and nanowire lasers.
Top-down approaches
These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.
Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description,[41] as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of
Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics.[42]
Focused ion beams
can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable
precursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this
technique is used routinely to create sub-100 nm sections of material
for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy.
Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head"
to deposit a resist, which is then followed by an etching process to
remove material in a top-down method.
Functional approaches
These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled.
Magnetic assembly for the synthesis of anisotropic superparamagnetic materials such as recently presented magnetic nano chains.[24]
Molecular scale electronics
seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These
could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic
device.[43] For an example see rotaxane.
Bionics or biomimicry
seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to the
study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is one example of the systems studied.
These subfields seek to anticipate
what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an
agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a
big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its societal
implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be
created.
Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves
manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.
This is more theoretical than the other subfields, and many of its
proposed techniques are beyond current capabilities.
Nanorobotics
centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at
the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine,[46][47][48] but it may not be easy to do such a thing because of several drawbacks of such devices.[49]
Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and methodologies has
been demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing
devices for future commercial applications, which also progressively
helps in the development towards nanorobots with the use of embedded
nanobioelectronics concepts.[50][51]
Productive nanosystems are "systems of nanosystems" which will be
complex nanosystems that produce atomically precise parts for other
nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent properties,
but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing. Because of the
discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of
exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another
industrial revolution. Mihail Roco,
one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative,
has proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the
technical progress of the Industrial Revolution, progressing from
passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex nanomachines and ultimately to productive nanosystems.[52]
Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words picotechnology and femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally.
Dimensionality in nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be classified in 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D nanomaterials. The dimensionality play a major role in determining the characteristic of nanomaterials including physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in
surface-to-volume ratio is observed. This indicate that smaller
dimensional nanomaterials have higher surface area compared to 3D nanomaterials. Recently, two dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are extensively investigated for electronic, biomedical, drug delivery and biosensor applications.
Tools and techniques
Typical AFM setup. A microfabricated cantilever with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a phonograph but on a much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface.
The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning methodology may be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode.[53][54] However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.
Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires,
those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet
lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining,
nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor
deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques
such as those employing di-block copolymers. The precursors of these
techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the
development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were
devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology and which were
results of nanotechnology research.[55]
The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built
piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. Scanning
probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and
synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning
tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms
around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be
used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide
self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented
scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface
with scanning probe microscopy techniques.[53][54] At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation.
In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures
atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include chemical
synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. Dual polarisation interferometry is one tool suitable for characterisation of self assembled thin films. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories
like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and
implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples
made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall
effect for which the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. MBE allows
scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the
process, build up complex structures. Important for research on
semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for
the newly emerging field of spintronics.
However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the ultradeformable, stress-sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already approved for human use in some countries.[56]
Applications
One of the major applications of nanotechnology is in the area of nanoelectronics with MOSFET's being made of small nanowires ≈10 nm in length. Here is a simulation of such a nanowire.
Nanowire lasers for ultrafast transmission of information in light pulses
As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies
estimates that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are
publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4
per week.[18]
The project lists all of the products in a publicly accessible online
database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation"
passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen,
cosmetics, surface coatings,[57] and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape;
silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household
appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings,
paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel
catalyst.[17]
Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly straighter, and even bowling balls to become more durable and have a harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused with nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the summer. Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.[58]Video game consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to nanotechnology.[59]
Also, to build structures for on chip computing with light, for example
on chip optical quantum information processing, and picosecond
transmission of information.[60]
Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.[61] Cars are being manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future.[62]
Scientists are now turning to nanotechnology in an attempt to
develop diesel engines with cleaner exhaust fumes. Platinum is currently
used as the diesel engine catalyst
in these engines. The catalyst is what cleans the exhaust fume
particles. First a reduction catalyst is employed to take nitrogen atoms
from NOx molecules in order to free oxygen. Next the oxidation catalyst
oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide
and water.[63] Platinum is used in both the reduction and the oxidation catalysts.[64]
Using platinum though, is inefficient in that it is expensive and
unsustainable. Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million
in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology. The goal
of the project, launched in the autumn of 2014, is to maximize surface
area and minimize the amount of material required. Objects tend to
minimize their surface energy; two drops of water, for example, will
join to form one drop and decrease surface area. If the catalyst's
surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized,
efficiency of the catalyst is maximized. The team working on this
project aims to create nanoparticles that will not merge. Every time the
surface is optimized, material is saved. Thus, creating these
nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel
engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will
decrease cost. If successful, the team hopes to reduce platinum use by
25%.[65]
Nanotechnology also has a prominent role in the fast developing field of Tissue Engineering. When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to the mimic the nanoscale features of a Cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.[66] For example, when creating scaffolds to support the growth of bone, researchers may mimic osteoclastresorption pits.[67]
Researchers have successfully used DNA origami-based
nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to achieve targeted
drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of
these nanobots can be scaled up to that of a Commodore 64.[68]
Implications
An area of concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing
and use of nanomaterials would have on human health and the environment,
as suggested by nanotoxicology
research. For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology
be regulated by governments. Others counter that overregulation would
stifle scientific research and the development of beneficial
innovations. Public health research agencies, such as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health are actively conducting research on potential health effects stemming from exposures to nanoparticles.
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences. Researchers have discovered that bacteriostatic silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash.[71]
These particles are then flushed into the waste water stream and may
destroy bacteria which are critical components of natural ecosystems,
farms, and waste treatment processes.
Public deliberations on risk perception
in the US and UK carried out by the Center for Nanotechnology in
Society found that participants were more positive about
nanotechnologies for energy applications than for health applications,
with health applications raising moral and ethical dilemmas such as cost
and availability.[73]
Experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David Rejeski, have testified[74] that successful commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement. Berkeley, California is currently the only city in the United States to regulate nanotechnology;[75]Cambridge, Massachusetts in 2008 considered enacting a similar law,[76] but ultimately rejected it.[77] Relevant for both research on and application of nanotechnologies, the insurability of nanotechnology is contested.[78] Without state regulation of nanotechnology,
the availability of private insurance for potential damages is seen as
necessary to ensure that burdens are not socialised implicitly. Over the
next several decades, applications of nanotechnology will likely
include much higher-capacity computers, active materials of various
kinds, and cellular-scale biomedical devices.[79]
A video on the health and safety implications of nanotechnology
Nanofibers are used in several areas and in different products, in
everything from aircraft wings to tennis rackets. Inhaling airborne
nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.[80]
Researchers have found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the
particles settled in the brain and lungs, which led to significant
increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response[81] and that nanoparticles induce skin aging through oxidative stress in hairless mice.[82][83]
A two-year study at UCLA's School of Public Health found lab mice
consuming nano-titanium dioxide showed DNA and chromosome damage to a
degree "linked to all the big killers of man, namely cancer, heart
disease, neurological disease and aging".[84]
A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon
nanotubes – a poster child for the "nanotechnology revolution" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed to the article on carbon nanotubes
said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause
mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very
carefully."[85]
In the absence of specific regulation forthcoming from governments,
Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered
nanoparticles in food.[86]
A newspaper article reports that workers in a paint factory developed
serious lung disease and nanoparticles were found in their lungs.[87][88][89][90]
Regulation
Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred
alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks
of nanotechnology.[91]
There is significant debate about who is responsible for the regulation
of nanotechnology. Some regulatory agencies currently cover some
nanotechnology products and processes (to varying degrees) – by "bolting
on" nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps in
these regimes.[92] Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.[93]
Stakeholders concerned by the lack of a regulatory framework to
assess and control risks associated with the release of nanoparticles
and nanotubes have drawn parallels with bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow" disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food,[94] nuclear energy, reproductive technologies, biotechnology, and asbestosis.
Dr. Andrew Maynard, chief science advisor to the Woodrow Wilson
Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, concludes that there is
insufficient funding for human health and safety research, and as a
result there is currently limited understanding of the human health and
safety risks associated with nanotechnology.[95] As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle,
with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional
safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of
nanotechnology.[96][97]
The Royal Society report[15]
identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during
disposal, destruction and recycling, and recommended that "manufacturers
of products that fall under extended producer responsibility regimes
such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these
materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental
exposure" (p. xiii).
The Center for Nanotechnology in Society has found that people
respond to nanotechnologies differently, depending on application – with
participants in public deliberations
more positive about nanotechnologies for energy than health
applications – suggesting that any public calls for nano regulations may
differ by technology sector.
Pakistan (Urdu: پاکِستان), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اِسلامی
جمہوریہ پاکِستان), is a country in South Asia. It is the fifth-most populous country with a population exceeding 212,742,631 people. In area, it is the 33rd-largest country, spanning 881,913 square kilometres (340,509 square miles). Pakistan has a 1,046-kilometre (650-mile) coastline along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest, and China in the far northeast. It is separated narrowly from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor in the northwest, and also shares a maritime border with Oman.
The name Pakistan literally means "land of the pure" in Urdu and Persian. It alludes to the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto.[48] The suffix ـستان (-stān) is a Persian word meaning the place of, and also recalls the synonymous (and cognate) Sanskrit word sthānaस्थान.[49]
Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.[55] The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab.[56] The Indus region,
which covers most of present day Pakistan, was the site of several
successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic Mehrgarh[57] and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation[58][59][60][61][62] (2,800–1,800 BCE) at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
The Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BCE) was characterised by an Indo-Aryan culture; during this period the Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism, were composed, and this culture later became well established in the region.[65][66]Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre.[67] The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, now Taxila in the Punjab, which was founded around 1000 BCE.[68][57] Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the region: the Persian Achaemenid Empire (around 519 BCE), Alexander the Great's empire in 326 BCE[69] and the Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great, until 185 BCE.[57] The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.[57][70]
Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher
education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic
period in 6th century BCE.[71][72]
The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories
or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an
individualistic basis.[72]
The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of
Alexander the Great, "the like of which had not been seen in Greece,"
and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.[73][74][75][76]
The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh in 711 CE.[78][79][80][81][82] The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid[78][83][84] but the concept of Pakistan came in 19th century.The Early Medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufimissionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam.[85] These developments set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).
The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.[86] From the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal rule were Lahore and Thatta,[87] both of which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings.[88] In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire ruled by Muslim emperors.[89] By the early 18th century, increasing European influence contributed to the slow disintegration of the empire as the lines between commercial and political dominance became increasingly blurred.
During this time, the English East India Company had established coastal outposts.[89] Control over the seas, greater resources, technology, and British military protection led the Company to increasingly flex its military muscle, allowing the Company to gain control over the subcontinent by 1765 and sideline European competitors.[90] Expanding access beyond Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of region by the 1820s.[89] Many historians see this as the start of the region's colonial period.[89] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began more deliberately to enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[89] Such reforms included the enforcement of the English Education Act in 1835 and the introduction of the Indian Civil Service (ICS).[91] Traditional madrasahs—primary institutions of higher learning for Muslims in the subcontinent—were no longer supported by the English Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their financial endowment.[92]
Over
10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and travelled on
foot, bullock carts, and trains to their promised new home during the Partition of British India. During the partition, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.[103]
The 1946 elections
resulted in the Muslim League winning 90 percent of the seats reserved
for Muslims. Thus, the 1946 election was effectively a plebiscite in
which the Indian Muslims were to vote on the creation of Pakistan, a
plebiscite won by the Muslim League.[106] This victory was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress,
which initially denied the Muslim League's claim of being the sole
representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognise the fact.[106] The British
had no alternative except to take Jinnah's views into account as he had
emerged as the sole spokesperson of the
Entire British India's Muslims. However, the British did not want
British India to be partitioned, and in one last effort to prevent it
they devised the Cabinet Mission plan.[107]
In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions[116][117] while 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women also experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[118][119][120][121]
Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and
4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.[122] It was the largest mass migration in human history.[123][124][125] Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to the First Kashmir War in 1948.[126][127]
The American CIA film on Pakistan made in 1950 examines the history and geography of Pakistan.
"You are free; you are
free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to
any other place or worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to
any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the
business of the State."
The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders, among them Lord Mountbatten.[131] Mountbatten clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.[132] Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.[133]
When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have
sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis,
he replied 'most probably'.[134]
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played a pivotal role in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi
demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an explicit declaration
affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan.[135]
A significant result of the efforts of the Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. The Objectives Resolution, which Liaquat Ali Khan
called the second most important step in Pakistan's history, declared
that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone
and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan
through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by
Him is a sacred trust". The Objectives Resolution has been incorporated
as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.[136]
In 1970 Pakistan held its first democratic elections since independence, meant to mark a transition from military rule to democracy, but after the East Pakistani Awami League won against the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military establishment refused to hand over power.[140][141]Operation Searchlight, a military crackdown on the Bengali nationalist movement, led to a declaration of independence and the waging of a war of liberation by the Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan.[141][142] However, in West Pakistan the conflict was described as a civil war as opposed to a war of liberation.[143]
Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000
civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts
the number of dead at three million,[144] a figure that is now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.[145] Some academics such as Rudolph Rummel and Rounaq Jahan say both sides[146] committed genocide; others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.[147] In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.[141]
The idea of Pakistan, which had received overwhelming popular support
among Indian Muslims, especially those in the provinces of British India where Muslims were in a minority such as the United Provinces.,[171] was articulated in terms of an Islamic state by the Muslim League leadership, the ulama (Islamic clergy) and Jinnah.[172] Jinnah had developed a close association with the ulama and upon his death was described by one such alim, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, as the greatest Muslim after Aurangzeb and as someone who desired to unite the Muslims of the world under the banner of Islam.[173][174]
The Objectives Resolution in March 1949, which declared God as
the sole sovereign over the entire universe, represented the first
formal step to transform Pakistan into an Islamic state.[175][136] Muslim League leader Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman
asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after
bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.[176]
Keith Callard, one of the earliest scholars on Pakistani politics,
observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and
outlook in the Muslim world and assumed that Muslim from other countries
would share their views on the relationship between religion and
nationality.
However, Pakistan's pan-Islamist sentiments for a united Islamic bloc
called Islamistan were not shared by other Muslim governments,[178] although Islamists such as the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood,
became drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international
organization of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed.[179]
The strongest opposition to the Islamist ideological paradigm
being imposed on the state came from the Bengali Muslims of East
Pakistan[180]
whose educated class, according to a survey by social scientist Nasim
Ahmad Jawed, preferred secularism and focused on ethnic identity unlike
educated West Pakistanis who tended to prefer an Islamic identity.[181] The Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami
considered Pakistan to be an Islamic state and believed Bengali
nationalism to be unacceptable. In the 1971 conflict over East Pakistan
the Jamaat-e-Islami fought the Bengali nationalists on the Pakistan
Army's side.[182]
After Pakistan's first ever general elections the 1973 Constitution was created by an elected Parliament.[183] The Constitution
declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic and Islam as the state religion.
It also stated that all laws would have to be brought into accordance
with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.[31] The 1973 Constitution also created certain institutions such as the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to channel the interpretation and application of Islam.[184]
Pakistan's leftist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced vigorous opposition which coalesced into a movement united under the revivalist banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the prophet")[185]
which aimed to establish an Islamic state based on Sharia laws. Bhutto
agreed to some Islamist demands before being overthrown in a coup.[186]
In 1977 after taking power from Bhutto in a coup de'tat, General Zia-ul-Haq, who came from a religious background,[187] committed himself to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.[186] Zia established separate Shariat judicial courts[188] and court benches[189][190] to judge legal cases using Islamic doctrine.[191] Zia bolstered the influence of the ulama (Islamic clergy) and the Islamic parties.[191]Zia-ul-Haq forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobandi institutions[192] and even though most Barelvi ulama[193] and only a few Deobandi scholars had supported Pakistan's creation, Islamic state politics came to be mostly in favour of Deobandi (and later Ahl-e-Hadith/Salafi) institutions instead of Barelvi.[194] Sectarian tensions increased with Zia's anti-Shia policies.[195]
According to a PEW opinion poll a majority of Pakistanis support making Sharia the official law of the land.[196]
In a survey of several Muslim countries, the PEW Research Centre also
found that Pakistanis tend to identify with their religion more than
their nationality in contrast to Muslims in other nations such as Egypt,
Indonesia and Jordan.[197]
Geography, environment and climate
A satellite image showing the topography of Pakistan
The geography and climate of Pakistan are extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.[198] Pakistan covers an area of 881,913 km2 (340,509 sq mi), approximately equal to the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom. It is the 33rd-largest nation by total area,
although this ranking varies depending on how the disputed territory of
Kashmir is counted. Pakistan has a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along
the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south[199] and land borders of 6,774 km (4,209 mi) in total: 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.[200] It shares a marine border with Oman,[201] and is separated from Tajikistan by the cold, narrow Wakhan Corridor.[202] Pakistan occupies a geopolitically important location at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia.[12]
Geologically, Pakistan is located in the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone and overlaps the Indian tectonic plate in its Sindh and Punjab provinces; Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are within the Eurasian plate, mainly on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes. This region has the highest rates of seismicity and largest earthquakes in the Himalaya region.[203]
Ranging from the coastal areas of the south to the glaciated mountains
of the north, Pakistan's landscapes vary from plains to deserts,
forests, hills, and plateaus.
The Deosai Plains are the world's second highest alpine plain.
Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.[205] The northern highlands contain the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Pamir mountain ranges (see mountains of Pakistan), which contain some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), which attract adventurers and mountaineers from all over the world, notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[206] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert
in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries
flow through the country from the Kashmir region to the Arabian Sea.
There is an expanse of alluvial plains along it in the Punjab and Sindh.[207]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon
season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season
with significantly less rainfall or none at all. There are four distinct
seasons in Pakistan: a cool, dry winter from December through February;
a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or
southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the
retreating monsoon period of October and November.[93] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, and patterns of alternate flooding and drought are common.[208]
Flora and fauna
The diversity of the landscape and climate in Pakistan allows a wide
variety of trees and plants to flourish. The forests range from
coniferous alpine and subalpine trees such as spruce, pine, and deodar cedar in the extreme northern mountains to deciduous trees in most of the country (for example, the mulberry-like shisham found in the Sulaiman Mountains), to palms such as coconut and date in the southern Punjab, southern Balochistan, and all of Sindh. The western hills are home to juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses, and scrub plants. Mangrove forests form much of the coastal wetlands along the coast in the south.[209]
Coniferous forests are found at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to
4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most of the northern and
northwestern highlands. In the xeric regions of Balochistan, date palm and Ephedra
are common. In most of the Punjab and Sindh, the Indus plains support
tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forest as well as
tropical and xeric shrublands. These forests are mostly of mulberry, acacia, and eucalyptus.[210] About 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870 km2) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.[211]
Bear, Tibetan wolf, and snow leopard, respectively
The southern plains are home to mongooses, civets, hares, the Asiatic jackal, the Indian pangolin, the jungle cat, and the desert cat. There are mugger crocodiles in the Indus, and wild boar, deer, porcupines, and small rodents in the surrounding areas. The sandy scrublands of central Pakistan are home to Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas, wildcats, and leopards.[216][217]
The lack of vegetative cover, the severe climate, and the impact of
grazing on the deserts have left wild animals in a precarious position.
The chinkara is the only animal that can still be found in significant numbers in Cholistan. A small number of nilgai are found along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan.[216][218] A wide variety of animals live in the mountainous north, including the Marco Polo sheep, the urial (a subspecies of wild sheep), the markhor goat, the ibex goat, the Asian black bear, and the Himalayan brown bear.[216][219][220] Among the rare animals found in the area are the snow leopard[219] and the blind Indus river dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.[219][221]
In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22 amphibians, 198 freshwater fish
species and 5,000 species of invertebrates (including insects) have
been recorded in Pakistan.[212][213]
The flora and fauna of Pakistan suffer from a number of problems.
Pakistan has the second-highest rate of deforestation in the world,
which, along with hunting and pollution, has had adverse effects on the
ecosystem. The government has established a large number of protected
areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves to address these issues.[212][213]
Legislative: The bicameral legislature comprises a 104-member Senate (upper house) and a 342-member National Assembly (lower house). Members of the National Assembly are elected through the first-past-the-post system under universal adult suffrage, representing electoral districts known as National Assembly constituencies.
According to the constitution, the 70 seats reserved for women and
religious minorities are allocated to the political parties according to
their proportional representation. Senate members are elected by
provincial legislators, with all the provinces having equal
representation.
Executive: The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority rule party or a coalition in the National Assembly— the lower house. The Prime Minister serves as the head of government and is designated to exercise as the country's chief executive. The Prime Minister is responsible for appointing a cabinet
consisting of ministers and advisers as well as running the government
operations, taking and authorising executive decisions, appointments and
recommendations of senior civil servants that require executive confirmation of the Prime Minister.
Provincial governments: Each of the four province has a similar system of government, with a directly electedProvincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister. Chief Ministers oversee the provincial governments
and head the provincial cabinet. It is common in Pakistan to have
different ruling parties or coalitions in each of the provinces. The
provincial bureaucracy is headed by the Chief Secretary, who is appointed by the Prime Minister.
The provincial assemblies have power to make laws and approve the
provincial budget which is commonly presented by the provincial finance
minister every fiscal year. Provincial governors who are the ceremonial heads of the provinces are appointed by the President.[200]
Judicature: The judiciary
of Pakistan is a hierarchical system with two classes of courts: the
superior (or higher) judiciary and the subordinate (or lower) judiciary.
The Chief Justice of Pakistan is the chief judge who oversees the judicature's court system at all levels of command. The superior judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Federal Shariat Court and five High Courts, with the Supreme Court at the apex. The Constitution of Pakistan
entrusts the superior judiciary with the obligation to preserve,
protect and defend the constitution. Neither the Supreme Court nor a
High Court may exercise jurisdiction in relation to Tribal Areas, except
otherwise provided for. The disputed regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan have separate court systems.
As the Muslim world's second most populousnation-state (after Indonesia) and its only nuclear power state, Pakistan has an important role in the international community.[224][225] With a semi-agricultural and semi-industrialized economy, its foreign policy determines its standard of interactions for its organisations, corporations, and individual citizens.[226][227] Its geostrategic intentions
were explained by Jinnah in a broadcast message in 1947, which is
featured in a prominent quotation on the homepage of Pakistan's Ministry
of Foreign Affairs website: "The foundation of our foreign policy is
friendship with all nations across the globe."[228]
Since Independence, Pakistan has attempted to balance its relations with foreign nations. Pakistan is a major non-NATO ally of the United States in the war against terrorism—a status achieved in 2004.[232] Pakistan's foreign policy and geostrategy mainly focus on the economy and security against threats to its national identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of close relations with other Muslim countries.[233]
The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of contention between Pakistan and India; three of their four wars were fought over this territory.[234] Due partly to difficulties in relations with its geopolitical rival India, Pakistan maintains close political relations with Turkey and Iran,[235] and both countries have been a focal point in Pakistan's foreign policy.[235] Saudi Arabia also maintains a respected position in Pakistan's foreign policy.
Located in the strategic and geopolitical corridor of the world's
major maritime oil supply lines and communication fibre optics,
Pakistan has proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian
countries.[241] Briefing on the country's foreign policy in 2004, a Pakistani senator
reportedly explained: "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of
states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in
each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign
policy."[242] Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations and has a Permanent Representative to represent Pakistan's positions in international politics.[243] Pakistan has lobbied for the concept of "enlightened moderation" in the Muslim world.[244][245] Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Nations,[246] the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO),[247][248] and the G20 developing nations.
Because of ideological differences, Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union in the 1950s, and during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the United States. Relations between Pakistan and Russia have greatly improved since 1999, and co-operation in various sectors has increased.[251] Pakistan has had an "on-and-off" relationship with the United States. A close ally of the United States during the Cold war, Pakistan's relationship with the United States soured in the 1990s when the US imposed sanctions because of Pakistan's secretive nuclear development.[252] Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a close ally of the United States on the issue of counter-terrorism in the regions of the Middle East and South Asia, with the US supporting Pakistan with aid money and weapons.[253][254]
Initially, the United States-led war on terrorism led to an improvement
in the relationship, but it was strained by a divergence of interests
and resulting mistrust during the war in Afghanistan and by issues related to terrorism.[255][256][257][258]
Pakistan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel;[259] nonetheless, some Israeli citizens have visited the country on tourist visas.[260] However, an exchange took place between the two countries using Turkey as a communication conduit.[261] Despite Pakistan being the only country in the world that has not established diplomatic relations with Armenia, an Armenian community still resides in Pakistan.[262] Pakistan had warm relations with Bangladesh, despite some initial strains in their relationship.
Relations with China
Pakistan Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan. Pakistan is host to China's largest embassy.[263]
Pakistan was the first country to have established formal diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, and the relationship continues to be warm since China's war with India in 1962.[264]
In the 1960s to 1980s, Pakistan greatly helped China in reaching out to
the world's major countries and helped facilitate US President Nixon's state visit to China.[264] Despite the change of governments
in Pakistan and fluctuations in the regional and global situation,
China policy in Pakistan continues to be a dominant factor at all times.[264]
In return, China is Pakistan's largest trading partner, and economic
co-operation has flourished, with substantial Chinese investment in
Pakistan's infrastructural expansion such as the Pakistani deep-water
port at Gwadar.
Sino-Pakistani friendly relations touched new heights as both the
countries signed 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs)
in 2015 for co-operation in different areas.[265][266][267][268] Both countries signed a Free Trade Agreement in the 2000s, and Pakistan continues to serve as China's communication bridge to the Muslim world.[269] In 2016 China announced that it will set up an anti-terrorism alliance with Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.[270]
Emphasis on relations with Muslim world
After Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries[271] and made an active bid for leadership of the Muslim world, or at least for leadership in efforts to achieve unity.[272] The Ali
brothers had sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the
Islamic world, in part due to its large manpower and military strength.[273] A top-ranking Muslim League leader, Khaliquzzaman, declared that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan—a pan-Islamic entity.[274]
Such developments (along with Pakistan's creation) did not get American approval, and British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced international opinion at the time by stating that he wished that India and Pakistan would re-unite.[275] Since most of the Arab world was undergoing a nationalist awakening at the time, there was little attraction to Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.[276] Some of the Arab countries saw the 'Islamistan' project as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states.[277]
Pakistan vigorously championed the right of self-determination
for Muslims around the world. Pakistan's efforts for the independence
movements of Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Eritrea were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan.[278] However, Pakistan also masterminded an attack on the Afghan city of Jalalabad during the Afghan Civil War
to establish an Islamic government there. Pakistan had wished to foment
an 'Islamic Revolution' that would transcend national borders, covering
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.[279]
On the other hand, Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained at times due to sectarian tensions.[280] Iran and Saudi Arabia used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war, and by the 1990s Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban organisation in Afghanistan became a problem for Shia Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.[281]
Tensions between Iran and Pakistan intensified in 1998 when Iran
accused Pakistan of war crimes after Pakistani warplanes had bombarded
Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban.[282][283]
Pakistan is an influential and founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with the Arab world and other countries in the Muslim world is a vital factor in Pakistan's foreign policy.[284]
The local government system consists of a three-tier system of districts, tehsils, and union councils, with an elected body at each tier.[287] There are about 130 districts altogether, of which Azad Kashmir has ten[288] and Gilgit–Baltistan seven.[289] The Tribal Areas comprise seven tribal agencies and six small frontier regions detached from neighbouring districts.
Pakistan's "premier" intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), was formed just within a year after the Independence of Pakistan in 1947.[292] Pakistan's ISI was ranked as the top intelligence agency in the world in 2011 by the International Business Times UK.[293] ABC News Point in 2014 also reported that the ISI was ranked as the top intelligence agency in the world[294] while Zee News reported the ISI as ranking fifth among the world's most powerful intelligence agencies.[295]
The court system is organised as a hierarchy, with the Supreme Court at the apex, below which are High Courts, Federal Shariat Courts (one in each province and one in the federal capital), District Courts
(one in each district), Judicial Magistrate Courts (in every town and
city), Executive Magistrate Courts, and civil courts. The Penal code has limited jurisdiction in the Tribal Areas, where law is largely derived from tribal customs.[291][296]
Kashmir conflict
The areas shown in green are the Pakistani-controlled areas.
Azad Kashmir is part of Pakistan-controlled Kashmir.
India claims the Kashmir on the basis of the Instrument of Accession—a legal agreement with Kashmir's leaders executed by MaharajaHari Singh, who agreed to cede the area to India.[299]
Pakistan claims Kashmir on the basis of a Muslim majority and of
geography, the same principles that were applied for the creation of the
two independent states.[300][301] India referred the dispute to the United Nations on 1 January 1948.[302] In a resolution passed in 1948, the UN's General Assembly asked Pakistan to remove most of its troops as a plebiscite would then be held. However, Pakistan failed to vacate the region and a ceasefire was reached in 1949 establishing a Line of Control (LoC) that divided Kashmir between the two nations.[303]
India, fearful that the Muslim majority populace of Kashmir would
secede from India, did not allow a plebiscite to take place in the
region. This was confirmed in a statement by India's Defense Minister, Krishna Menon, who said: "Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan and no Indian Government responsible for agreeing to plebiscite would survive."[304]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the people of Jammu and Kashmir to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,[305] while India has stated that Kashmir is an integral part of India, referring to the Simla Agreement (1972) and to the fact that elections take place regularly.[306] In recent developments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.[234]
The law enforcement in Pakistan also has a Motorway Patrol which is responsible for enforcement of traffic and safety laws, security and recovery on Pakistan's inter-provincial motorway network. In each of provincial Police Service, it also maintains a respective Elite Police units led by the NACTA—a counter-terrorism police unit as well as providing VIP escorts. In the Punjab and Sindh, the Pakistan Rangers
are an internal security force with the prime objective to provide and
maintain security in war zones and areas of conflict as well as
maintaining law and order which includes providing assistance to the
police.[307] The Frontier Corps serves the similar purpose in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and the Balochistan.[307]
The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations and regularly export military equipment and technology transfer to Pakistan.[315] Joint logistics and major war games are occasionally carried out by the militaries of China and Turkey.[314][316][317] Philosophical basis for the military draft is introduced by the Constitution in times of emergency, but it has never been imposed.[318]
Pakistan has deployed its military in some Arab countries, providing defence, training, and playing advisory roles.[328][329] The PAF and Navy's fighter pilots have voluntarily served in Arab nations' militaries against Israel in the Six-Day War (1967) and in the Yom Kippur War (1973). Pakistan's fighter pilots shot down ten Israeli planes in the Six-Day War.[323] In the 1973 war one of the PAF pilots, Flt. Lt. Sattar Alvi (flying a MiG-21), shot down an Israeli Air Force Mirage and was honoured by the Syrian government.[330][331][332] Requested by the Saudi monarchy in 1979, Pakistan's special forces units, operatives, and commandos were rushed to assist Saudi forces in Mecca to lead the operation of the Grand Mosque. For almost two weeks Saudi Special Forces and Pakistani commandos fought the insurgents who had occupied the Grand Mosque's compound.[333][334][335] In 1991 Pakistan got involved with the Gulf War and sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition, specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia.
Despite the UN arms embargo on Bosnia, General Javed Nasir of the ISI
airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen which
turned the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to
lift the siege. Under Nasir's leadership the ISI was also involved in supporting Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang Province, rebel Muslim groups in the Philippines, and some religious groups in Central Asia.
Economists estimate that Pakistan was part of the wealthiest region
of the world throughout the first millennium CE, with the largest
economy by GDP. This advantage was lost in the 18th century as other
regions such as China and Western Europe edged forward.[349] Pakistan is considered a developing country[350][351] and is one of the Next Eleven, a group of eleven countries that, along with the BRICs, have a high potential to become the world's largest economies in the 21st century.[352]
In recent years, after decades of social instability, as of 2013, serious deficiencies in macromanagement and unbalanced macroeconomics in basic services such as rail transportation and electrical energy generation have developed.[353] The economy is considered to be semi-industrialized, with centres of growth along the Indus River. The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centres coexist with less-developed areas in other parts of the country, particularly in Balochistan.[355] According to the Economic complexity index, Pakistan is the 67th-largest export economy in the world and the 106th most complex economy.[357]
During the fiscal year 2015–16, Pakistan's exports stood at US$20.81
billion and imports at US$44.76 billion, resulting in a negative trade
balance of US$23.96 billion.
The Pakistan Stock Exchange is one of the best-performing markets in the world. According to Forbes, PSX delivered a return of 400% between 2010 and 2015.[359]
As of 2016 Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP is US$271 billion.[20] The GDP by PPP is US$946,667 million.[360] The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,561,[361] the GDP (PPP)/capita is US$5,010 (international dollars),[362] and the debt-to-GDP ratio is 66.50%.[363] According to the World Bank,
Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential.
The increasing proportion of Pakistan's youth provides the country with
both a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide
adequate services and employment.[364]
21.04% of the population live below the international poverty line of
US$1.25 a day. The unemployment rate among the aged 15 and over
population is 5.5%.[365] Pakistan has an estimated 40 million middle class citizens, projected to increase to 100 million by 2050.[366] A 2015 report published by the World Bank ranked Pakistan's economy at 24th-largest[367] in the world by purchasing power and 41st-largest[368] in absolute terms. It is South Asia's second-largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.
Pakistan's economic growth since its inception has been varied. It
has been slow during periods of democratic transition, but robust during
the three periods of martial law, although the foundation for sustainable and equitable growth was not formed.[138] The early to middle 2000s was a period of rapid economic reforms; the government raised development spending, which reduced poverty levels by 10% and increased GDP by 3%.[200][373] The economy cooled again from 2007.[200] Inflation reached 25.0% in 2008,[374] and Pakistan had to depend on a fiscal policy backed by the International Monetary Fund to avoid possible bankruptcy.[375][376] A year later, the Asian Development Bank reported that Pakistan's economic crisis was easing.[377] The inflation rate for the fiscal year 2010–11 was 14.1%.[378] Since 2013, as part of an International Monetary Fund program, Pakistan's economic growth has picked up. In 2014 Goldman Sachs
predicted that Pakistan's economy would grow 15 times in the next 35
years to become the 18th-largest economy in the world by 2050.[379] In his 2016 book, The Rise and Fall of Nations,Ruchir Sharma
termed Pakistan's economy as at a 'take-off' stage and the future
outlook until 2020 has been termed 'Very Good'. Sharma termed it
possible to transform Pakistan from a "low-income to a middle-income
country during the next five years".
Pakistan is one of the largest producers of natural commodities, and its labour market is the 10th-largest in the world. The 7-million–strong Pakistani diaspora contributed US$19.9 billion to the economy in 2015–16.[381][382] The major source countries of remittances to Pakistan are: the UAE;
the United States; Saudi Arabia; the Gulf states (Bahrain, Kuwait,
Qatar, and Oman); Australia; Canada; Japan; the United Kingdom; Norway;
and Switzerland.[383][384] According to the World Trade Organization, Pakistan's share of overall world exports is declining; it contributed only 0.128% in 2007.[385]
The structure of the Pakistani economy has changed from a mainly agricultural to a strong service base. Agriculture as of 2015 accounts for only 20.9% of the GDP.[344] Even so, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,
Pakistan produced 21,591,400 metric tons of wheat in 2005, more than
all of Africa (20,304,585 metric tons) and nearly as much as all of
South America (24,557,784 metric tons).[387]
Majority of the population, directly or indirectly, is dependent on
this sector. It accounts for 43.5% of employed labour force and is the
largest source of foreign exchange earnings.
A large portion of the country's manufactured exports are
dependent on raw materials such as cotton and hides that are part of the
agriculture sector, while supply shortages and market disruptions in
farm products do push up inflationary pressures. The country is also the
fifth-largest producer of cotton, with cotton production of 14 million
bales from a modest beginning of 1.7 million bales in the early 1950s;
is self-sufficient in sugarcane; and is the fourth-largest producer in
the world of milk. Land and water resources have not risen
proportionately, but the increases have taken place mainly due to gains
in labour and agriculture productivity. The major breakthrough in crop
production took place in the late 1960s and 1970s due to the Green Revolution
that made a significant contribution to land and yield increases of
wheat and rice. Private tube wells led to a 50 percent increase in the
cropping intensity which was augmented by tractor cultivation. While the
tube wells raised crop yields by 50 percent, the High Yielding
Varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice led to a 50–60 percent higher yield.[389] Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.
Industry is the third-largest sector of the economy, accounting for
20.3% of gross domestic product (GDP), and 13 percent of total
employment. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM), at 12.2% of GDP, dominates
the overall sector, accounting for 66% of the sectoral share, followed
by small-scale manufacturing, which accounts for 4.9% of total GDP.
Pakistan's cement industry is also fast growing mainly because of demand
from Afghanistan and from the domestic real estate sector. In 2013 Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement.[392]
Pakistan has an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons of cement
and 42,636,428 metric tons of clinker. In 2012 and 2013, the cement
industry in Pakistan became the most profitable sector of the economy.
The textile industry
has a pivotal position in the manufacturing sector of Pakistan. In
Asia, Pakistan is the eighth-largest exporter of textile products,
contributing 9.5% to the GDP and providing employment to around 15
million people (some 30% of the 49 million people in the workforce). Pakistan is the fourth-largest producer of cotton with the third-largest
spinning capacity in Asia after China and India, contributing 5% to the
global spinning capacity.[394]
China is the second largest buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing
US$1.527 billion of textiles last fiscal. Unlike the US, where mostly
value-added textiles are imported, China buys only cotton yarn and
cotton fabric from Pakistan. In 2012, Pakistani textile products
accounted for 3.3% or US$1.07bn of all UK textile imports, 12.4% or
$4.61bn of total Chinese textile imports, 2.98% or $2.98b of all US
textile imports, 1.6% or $0.88bn of total German textile imports and
0.7% or $0.888bn of total Indian textile imports.[395]
Services
Clifton Beach in Karachi, with under-construction skyscrapers in the background.
Services sector has 58.8% share in GDP[344] and has emerged as the main driver of economic growth.[396]
Pakistani society like other developing countries is a consumption
oriented society, having a high marginal propensity to consume. The
growth rate of services sector is higher than the growth rate of
agriculture and industrial sector. Services sector accounts for 54
percent of GDP in 2014 and little over one-third of total employment.
Services sector has strong linkages with other sectors of economy; it
provides essential inputs to agriculture sector and manufacturing
sector.[397] Pakistan's I.T sector is regarded as among the fastest growing sector's in Pakistan. The World Economic Forum,
assessing the development of Information and Communication Technology
in the country ranked Pakistan 110th among 139 countries on the
'Networked Readiness Index 2016'.[398]
As of 2016, Pakistan has over 35 million Internet users and is
ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth
rate in Internet penetration.[399] Overall, it has the 20th-largest population
of Internet users in the world. The current growth rate and employment
trend indicate that Pakistan's Information Communication Technology
(ICT) industry will exceed the $10-billion mark by 2020.[400] The sector employees 12,000 and count's among top five freelancing nations.[401][402]
The country has also improved its export performance in telecom,
computer and information services, as the share of their exports surged
from 8.2pc in 2005–06 to 12.6pc in 2012–13. This growth is much better
than that of China, whose share in services exports was 3pc and 7.7pc
for the same period respectively.
The KANUPP-I, a Candu-type nuclear reactor, was supplied by Canada in 1971—the country's first commercial nuclear power plant. The Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the early 1980s. After a Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation agreement in 1986,[413] China provided Pakistan with a nuclear reactor dubbed CHASNUPP-I for energy and industrial growth of the country. In 2005 both countries proposed working on a joint energy security plan, calling for a huge increase in generation capacity to more than 160,000 MWe
by 2030. Under its Nuclear Energy Vision 2050, the Pakistani government
plans to increase nuclear power generation capacity to 40,000 MWe,[414] 8,900 MWe of it by 2030.
Pakistan produced 1,135 megawatts of renewable energy for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expects to produce 3,000 megawatts of renewable energy by the beginning of 2019.[417]
With its diverse cultures, people, and landscapes, Pakistan attracted
around 1 million foreign tourists in 2014, contributing
PKR 94.8 billion to the country's economy,[420]
which represented a significant decline since the 1970s when the
country received unprecedented numbers of foreign tourists due to the
popular Hippie trail.
The trail attracted thousands of Europeans and Americans in the 1960s
and 1970s who travelled via land through Turkey and Iran into India
through Pakistan.[421] The main destinations of choice for these tourists were the Khyber Pass, Peshawar, Karachi, Lahore, Swat and Rawalpindi.[422] The numbers following the trail declined after the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet–Afghan War.[423]
The country continues to attract an estimated 500,000 foreign tourists annually.[424] Pakistan's tourist attractions range from the mangroves in the south to the Himalayan hill stations in the north-east. The country's tourist destinations range from the Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Taxila, to the 5,000-year-old cities of the Indus Valley Civilization such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.[425] Pakistan is home to several mountain peaks over 7,000 metres (23,000 feet).[426] The northern part of Pakistan has many old fortresses, examples of ancient architecture, and the Hunza and Chitral valleys, home to the small pre-Islamic animistKalasha community claiming descent from Alexander the Great. Pakistan's cultural capital, Lahore, contains many examples of Mughal architecture such as the Badshahi Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, the Tomb of Jahangir, and the Lahore Fort.
In October 2006, just one year after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian released what it described as "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" in order to help the country's tourism industry.[427] The five sites included Taxila, Lahore, the Karakoram Highway, Karimabad, and Lake Saiful Muluk. To promote Pakistan's unique cultural heritage, the government organizes various festivals throughout the year.[428] In 2015 the World Economic Forum's Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Pakistan 125 out of 141 countries.[429]
Highways
form the backbone of Pakistan's transport system; a total road length
of 263,942 kilometres (164,006 miles) accounts for 92% of passenger and
96% of inland freight traffic.[344] Road transport services are largely in the hands of the private sector. The National Highway Authority
is responsible for the maintenance of national highways and motorways.
The highway and motorway system depends mainly on north–south links
connecting the southern ports to the populous provinces of Punjab and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. Although this network only accounts for 4.59% of total road length,[344] it carries 85% of the country's traffic.
The Pakistan Railways, under the Ministry of Railways (MoR), operates the railroad system. From 1947 until the 1970s the train system was the primary means of transport until the nationwide constructions of the national highways and the economic boom of the automotive industry.
Beginning in the 1990s there was a marked shift in traffic from rail to
highways; dependence grew on roads after the introduction of vehicles in the country. Now the railway's share of inland traffic is below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight traffic.[344]
As personal transportation began to be dominated by the automobile,
total rail track decreased from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in
1990–91 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.[433][435] Pakistan expects to use the rail service to boost foreign trade with China, Iran, and Turkey.
In 2010 Pakistan was ranked 43rd in the world in terms of published scientific papers.[452] The Pakistan Academy of Sciences,
a strong scientific community, plays an influential and vital role in
formulating recommendations regarding science policies for the
government.
The 1960s saw the emergence of an active space program led by SUPARCO that produced advances in domestic rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy.[454] The space program recorded a few notable feats and achievements. The successful launch of its first rocket into space made Pakistan the first South Asian country to have achieved such a task.[454] Successfully producing and launching the nation's first space satellite in 1990, Pakistan became the first Muslim country and second South Asian country to put a satellite into space.
Pakistan witnessed a
fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade
surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than
9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than
the BRIC countries put together.
Pakistan is the first and only Muslim country that maintains an active research presence in Antarctica. Since 1991 Pakistan has maintained two summer research stations and one
weather observatory on the continent and plans to open another
full-fledged permanent base in Antarctica.
Energy consumption by computers and usage has grown since the 1990s when PCs
were introduced; Pakistan has about 30 million Internet users and is
ranked as one of the top countries that have registered a high growth
rate in Internet penetration as of 2013.[465]
Key publications have been produced by Pakistan, and domestic software
development has gained considerable international praise.
Government College University is one of the oldest universities in Pakistan as well as one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the Muslim world.
Literacy rate of over-15 Pakistan population (1980–2015) by UNESCO Institute of Statistics
Education in Pakistan is divided into six main levels: nursery (preparatory classes); primary (grades one through five); middle (grades six through eight); matriculation (grades nine and ten, leading to the secondary certificate); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher secondary certificate); and university programmes leading to graduate and postgraduate degrees.[472] There is a network of private schools that constitutes a parallel secondary education system based on a curriculum set and administered by the Cambridge International Examinations of the United Kingdom. Some students choose to take the O-level and A level exams conducted by the British Council.[476] According to the International Schools Consultancy, Pakistan has 439 international schools.
As a result of initiatives taken in 2007, the English medium education has been made compulsory in all schools across the country.[478][479]
Additional reforms enacted in 2013 required all educational
institutions in Sindh to begin offering Chinese language courses,
reflecting China's growing role as a superpower and its increasing influence in Pakistan.[480] The literacy rate of the population is ~58 %. The rate of male literacy is ~70.2% while the rate of female literacy is 46.3%.[378] Literacy rates vary by region and particularly by sex; as one example, female literacy in tribal areas is 3.0%.[481]
With the advent of computer literacy in 1995, the government launched a
nationwide initiative in 1998 with the aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic education to all children.[482] Through various educational reforms, by 2015 the Ministry of Education
expected to attain 100.00% enrolment levels among children of primary
school age and a literacy rate of ~86% among people aged over 10.[483] Pakistan is currently spending 2.2 percent of its GDP on education;[484] which according to the Institute of Social and Policy Sciences is one of the lowest in South Asia.[485]
Demographics
The Kalash people maintain a unique identity and religion within Pakistan.
According to Provisional results of 2017 Census in Pakistan, the total population in Pakistan was 207.8 million, representing a 57% increase in 19 years.[486][487][488] which is equivalent to 2.57% of the world population.[489] Pakistan's census provisional results exclude data from Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, which is likely to be included in the final report.[490][491] Noted as the sixth most populated country in the world, its growth rate in 2016 was reported to be 1.45%, which is the highest of the SAARC nations, though this growth rate has been decreasing in recent years.[492] The population is projected to reach 210.13 million by 2020.
At the time of the partition in 1947, Pakistan had a population of 32.5 million;[384][493] the population increased by ~57.2% between the years 1990 and 2009.[494] By 2030 Pakistan is expected to surpass Indonesia as the largest Muslim-majority country in the world.[495][496] Pakistan is classified as a "young nation", with a median age of 23.4 in 2016;[492] about 104 million people were under the age of 30 in 2010. In 2016 Pakistan's fertility rate was estimated to be 2.68,[492] higher than its neighbour India (2.45).[497] Around 35% of the people are under 15.[384] The vast majority of those residing in southern Pakistan live along the Indus River, with Karachi being the most populous commercial city in the south.[498] In eastern, western, and northern Pakistan, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Islamabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar.[200] During 1990–2008, city dwellers made up 36% of Pakistan's population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia, which increased to 38% by 2013.[200][384][499] Furthermore, 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people or more.[500]
Expenditure on healthcare was ~2.8% of GDP in 2013. Life
expectancy at birth was 67 years for females and 65 years for males in
2013.[499]
The private sector accounts for about 80% of outpatient visits.
Approximately 19% of the population and 30% of children under five are
malnourished.[356] Mortality of the under-fives was 86 per 1,000 live births in 2012.[499]
Languages
More than sixty languages are spoken in Pakistan, including a number of provincial languages. Urdu—the lingua franca and a symbol of Muslim identity
and national unity—is the national language understood by over 75% of
Pakistanis. It is the main medium of communication in the country but
the primary language of only 8% of Pakistan's population. Urdu and English are the official languages of Pakistan, with English primarily used in official business and government, and in legal contracts;[200] the local variety is known as Pakistani English. The Punjabi language, the most common in Pakistan and the first language of 44.15% of Pakistan's population, is mostly spoken in the Punjab. Saraiki, mainly spoken in South Punjab and Hindko, is predominant in the Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pashto is the provincial language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and is well understood in Sindh and Balochistan.[10] The Sindhi language is commonly spoken in Sindh while the Balochi language is dominant in Balochistan. Brahui, a Dravidian language, is spoken by the Brahui people who live in Balochistan.[10][93][504][505]Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi. Marwari, a Rajasthani language, is also spoken in parts of Sindh. Various languages such as Shina, Balti, and Burushaski are spoken in Gilgit-Baltistan, whilst languages such as Pahari, Gojri, and Kashmiri are spoken by many in Azad Kashmir.
Immigration
Pakistan hosts the second largest refugee population globally after Turkey.[507] An Afghan refugee girl near Tarbela Dam
Even after partition in 1947, Indian Muslims continued to migrate to
Pakistan throughout the 1950s and 1960s, and these migrants settled
mainly in Karachi and other towns of Sindh province.[508] The wars in neighboring Afghanistan during the 1980s and 1990s also forced millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan. The Pakistan Census excludes the 1.41 million registered refugees from Afghanistan,[509] who are found mainly in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal belt, with small numbers residing in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan is home to one of the world's largest refugee populations.[510] In addition to Afghans, around 2 million Bangladeshis and half a million other undocumented people live in Pakistan. They are claimed to be from other areas such as Myanmar, Iran, Iraq, and Africa.[511]
Experts say that the migration of both Bengalis and Burmese (Rohingya)
to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued until 1998. Shaikh
Muhammad Feroze, the chairman of the Pakistani Bengali Action Committee,
claims that there are 200 settlements of Bengali-speaking people in
Pakistan, of which 132 are in Karachi. They are also found in various
other areas of Pakistan such as Thatta, Badin, Hyderabad, Tando Adam,
and Lahore.[512]
Large-scale Rohingya migration to Karachi made that city one of the
largest population centres of Rohingyas in the world after Myanmar.[513]
The Burmese community of Karachi is spread out over 60 of the city's
slums such as the Burmi Colony in Korangi, Arakanabad, Machchar colony,
Bilal colony, Ziaul Haq Colony, and Godhra Camp.[514]
Thousands of Uyghur
Muslims have also migrated to the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan,
fleeing religious and cultural persecution in Xinjiang, China.[515] Since 1989 thousands of Kashmiri
Muslim refugees have sought refuge in Pakistan, complaining that many
of the refugee women had been raped by Indian soldiers and that they
were forced out of their homes by the soldiers.[516]
Social groups
The population is dominated by four main ethnic groups: Punjabis, Pashtuns (Pathans), Sindhis, and Balochs.[517] Rough accounts from 2009 indicate that the Punjabis dominate with 78.7 million (~45%) while the Pashtuns are the second-largest group with ~29.3 million (15.42%).[517] The number of Sindhis is estimated at 24.8 million (14.1%), with the number of Seraikis (a sub-group of Punjabis) estimated at 14.8 million (8.4%).[517] The number of Urdu-speakingMuhajirs (the Indian emigrants) stands at ~13.3 million (7.57%) while the number of Balochs is estimated at 6.3 million (3.57%)—the smallest group in terms of population.[517][518] The remaining 11.1 million (4.66%) consist of various ethnic minorities such as the Brahuis,[504] the Hindkowans, the various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan, the Kashmiris, the Sheedis (who are of African descent),[519] and the Hazaras.[517] There is also a large Pakistani diaspora worldwide, numbering over seven million,[518] which has been recorded as the sixth largest diaspora in the world.[520]
Urbanisation
Since achieving independence as a result of the partition of India, the urbanisation has increased exponentially, with several different causes.[498] The majority of the population in the south resides along the Indus River, with Karachi the most populous commercial city.[498] In the east, west, and north, most of the population lives in an arc formed by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar.
During the period 1990–2008, city dwellers made up 36.0% of Pakistan's
population, making it the most urbanised nation in South Asia.
Furthermore, more than 50% of Pakistanis live in towns of 5,000 people
or more.[500]Immigration,
from both within and outside the country, is regarded as one of the
main factors contributing to urbanisation in Pakistan. One analysis of
the 1998 national census highlighted the significance of the partition of India in the 1940s as it relates to urban change in Pakistan.[521]
During and after the independence period, Urdu speaking Muslims from India migrated in large numbers to Pakistan, especially to the port city of Karachi, which is today the largest metropolis in Pakistan.[521]Migration from other countries,
mainly from those nearby, has further accelerated the process of
urbanisation in Pakistani cities. Inevitably, the rapid urbanisation
caused by these large population movements has also created new
political and socio-economic challenges.[521]
In addition to immigration, economic trends such as the green
revolution and political developments, among a host of other factors,
are also important causes of urbanisation.
About 96.4% of Pakistanis are Muslim. Pakistan has the second-largest number of Muslims in the world after Indonesia.[529][530] The majority of them are Sunni (estimated between 75 and 95%) while Shias represent between 5–20%. Pakistan, like India, is said to have at least 16 million Shias. A PEW survey in 2012 found that only 6% of Pakistani Muslims were Shia.[536]
The Ahmadis, a small minority representing 0.22–2% of Pakistan's population,[539] are officially considered non-Muslims by virtue of the constitutional amendment.[540] The Ahmadis are particularly persecuted, especially since 1974 when they were banned from calling themselves Muslims. In 1984, Ahmadiyya places of worship were banned from being called "mosques".[541] As of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.[542] There are also several Quraniyoon communities.[543][544]
Sufism,
a mystical Islamic tradition, has a long history and a large following
among the Sunni Muslims in Pakistan, at both the academic and popular
levels. Popular Sufi culture is centered around gatherings and
celebrations at the shrines of saints and annual festivals that feature
Sufi music and dance. Two Sufis whose shrines receive much national
attention are Ali Hajweri in Lahore (c. 12th century)[545] and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan, Sindh (c. 12th century).[546]
There are two levels of Sufism in Pakistan. The first is the
'populist' Sufism of the rural population. This level of Sufism involves
belief in intercession through saints, veneration of their shrines, and
forming bonds with a pir (saint). Many rural Pakistani Muslims associate with pirs and seek their intercession.[547]
The second level of Sufism in Pakistan is 'intellectual Sufism', which
is growing among the urban and educated population. They are influenced
by the writings of Sufis such as the medieval theologian al-Ghazali, the Sufi reformer Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindi, and Shah Wali Allah.[548]
Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists criticise Sufism's popular
character, which in their view does not accurately reflect the teachings
and practice of Muhammad and his companions.[549]
Hinduism is the second-largest religion in Pakistan after Islam, according to the 1998 census.[550] As of 2010, Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population in the world.[551]
In the 1998 census the Hindu (jati) population was found to be
2,111,271 while the Hindu (scheduled castes) numbered an additional
332,343.[550] Hindus are found in all provinces of Pakistan but are mostly concentrated in Sindh. They speak a variety of languages such as Sindhi, Seraiki, Aer, Dhatki, Gera, Goaria, Gurgula, Jandavra, Kabutra, Koli, Loarki, Marwari, Sansi, Vaghri,[552] and Gujarati.
At the time of Pakistan's creation the 'hostage theory' gained currency.
According to this theory, the Hindu minority in Pakistan was to be
given a fair deal in Pakistan in order to ensure the protection of the
Muslim minority in India.[553][554] However, Khawaja Nazimuddin, the secondPrime Minister of Pakistan, stated:
I
do not agree that religion is a private affair of the individual nor do
I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no
matter what his caste, creed or faith be.[555]
Some Hindus in Pakistan feel that they are treated as second-class citizens and many have continued to migrate to India.[556] Pakistani Hindus faced riots after the Babri Masjid demolition,[557] endured a massacre (in 2005) by security forces in Balochistan,[558] and have experienced other attacks, forced conversions, and abductions.
Christianity and other religions
Christians formed the next largest religious minority, after Hindus,
with a population of 2,092,902, according to the 1998 census.[562] They were followed by the Bahá'í Faith, which had a following of 30,000, then Sikhism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, each back then claiming 20,000 adherents,[563] and a very small community of Jains. There is a Roman Catholic community in Karachi that was established by Goan and Tamil migrants when Karachi's infrastructure was being developed by the British during the colonial administration between World War I and World War II. The influence of atheism is very small, with 1.0% of the population identifying as atheist in 2005.[564] However, the figure rose to 2.0% in 2012 according to Gallup.[564]
Culture and society
Truck art is a distinctive feature of Pakistani culture.
Civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasising local cultural etiquette and traditional Islamic values that govern personal and political life. The basic family unit is the extended family,[565] although for socio-economic reasons there has been a growing trend towards nuclear families.[566] The traditional dress for both men and women is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, jeans, and shirts are also popular among men.[67]
In recent decades, the middle class has increased to around 35 million
and the upper and upper-middle classes to around 17 million, and power
is shifting from rural landowners to the urbanised elites.[567] Pakistani festivals, including Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramazan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali, are mostly religious in origin.[565] Increasing globalisation has resulted in Pakistan ranking 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index.[568]
Clothing, arts, and fashion
The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa as well as in FATA and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style of Shalwar Kameez. Pakistanis wear clothes in a range of exquisite colours and designs and in type of fabric (silk, chiffon, cotton, etc.).[569] Besides the national dress, domestically tailored suits and neckties are often worn by men, and are customary in offices, schools, and social gatherings.[569]
The fashion industry
has flourished in the changing environment of the fashion world. Since
Pakistan came into being, its fashion has evolved in different phases
and developed a unique identity. Today, Pakistani fashion is a
combination of traditional and modern dress and has become a mark of
Pakistani culture. Despite modern trends, regional and traditional forms
of dress have developed their own significance as a symbol of native
tradition. This regional fashion continues to evolve into both more
modern and purer forms. The Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in Lahore organizes PFDC Fashion Week and the Fashion Pakistan Council based in Karachi organizes Fashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's first fashion week was held in November 2009.[570]
The Lollywood, Kariwood, Punjabi, and Pashto film industry is based in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. While Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 until 2008, they have remained an important part of popular culture.[575][576] In contrast to the ailing Pakistani film industry, Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances continue to be popular, as many entertainment media outlets air them regularly.[577]Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, which has launched critically acclaimed miniseries and featured popular actors and actresses since the 1990s.[578] In the 1960s–1970s, pop music and disco (1970s) dominated the country's music industry. In the 1980s–1990s, British influencedrock music appeared and jolted the country's entertainment industry.[579] In the 2000s, heavy metal music gained popular and critical acclaim.[580]
Pakistani music ranges from diverse forms of provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern musical forms that fuse traditional and western music. Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of Afghan refugees
in the western provinces has stimulated interest in Pashto music,
although there has been intolerance of it in some places.[583]
Diaspora
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora in the world.[520] Statistics gathered by the Pakistani government show that there are around 7 million Pakistanis residing abroad, with the vast majority living in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.[584] Pakistan ranks 10th in the world for remittances sent home.[585][586] The largest inflow of remittances, as of 2016, is from Saudi Arabia, amounting to $5.9 billion.[587] The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognised by the Government of Pakistan. The Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis
was established in 2008 to deal exclusively with all matters of
overseas Pakistanis such as attending to their needs and problems,
developing projects for their welfare, and working for resolution of
their problems and issues. Overseas Pakistanis are the second-largest
source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan after exports. Over
the last several years, home remittances have maintained a steadily
rising trend, with a more than 100% increase from US$8.9 billion in
2009–10 to US$19.9 billion in 2015–16.
The Overseas Pakistani Division (OPD) was created in September 2004 within the Ministry of Labour
(MoL). It has since recognised the importance of overseas Pakistanis
and their contribution to the nation's economy. Together with Community
Welfare Attaches (CWAs) and the Overseas Pakistanis Foundation (OPF),
the OPD is making efforts to improve the welfare of Pakistanis who
reside abroad. The division aims to provide better services through
improved facilities at airports, and suitable schemes for housing,
education, and health care. It also facilitates the reintegration into
society of returning overseas Pakistanis. Notable members of the
Pakistani diaspora include London MayorSadiq Khan, UK Cabinet Member Sajid Javid, former UK Conservative Party Chair Baroness Warsi, singers Zayn Malik and Nadia Ali, MIT Physics Professor Dr. Nergis Mavalvala, actors Riz Ahmed and Kumail Nanjiani, businessmen Shahid Khan and Sir Anwar Pervez, Boston University professors Adil Najam and Hamid Nawab, Texas A&M Professor Muhammad Suhail Zubairy, Yale Professor Sara Suleri, UC San Diego Professor Farooq Azam, and historian Ayesha Jalal.
Literature and philosophy
Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet who conceived the idea of Pakistan
Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and many other languages.[588] The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a large literary community that promotes literature and poetry in Pakistan and abroad.[589] The National Library publishes and promotes literature in the country. Before the 19th century, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry and mystical and folkloric works. During the colonial period, native literary figures were influenced by western literary realism and took up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fiction is now very popular.
Minar-e-Pakistan is a national monument marking Pakistan's independence movement.
Four periods are recognised in Pakistani architecture: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilization around the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE,[603] an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large buildings, some of which survive to this day.[604]Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic settlements that are now tourist attractions.[206] The rise of Buddhism and the influence of Greek civilisation led to the development of a Greco-Buddhist style,[605] starting from the 1st century CE. The high point of this era was the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.
The arrival of Islam in what is today Pakistan meant the sudden end
of Buddhist architecture in the area and a smooth transition to the
predominantly pictureless Islamic architecture. The most important Indo-Islamic-style building still standing is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam
in Multan. During the Mughal era, design elements of Persian-Islamic
architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of
Hindustani art. Lahore, as the occasional residence of Mughal rulers,
contains many important buildings from the empire. Most prominent among
them are the Badshahi Mosque, the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful, Mughal-style Wazir Khan Mosque,[607] the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the Shahjahan Mosque in Thatta.
In the British colonial period, predominantly functional buildings of
the Indo-European representative style developed from a mixture of
European and Indian-Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity
is expressed in modern structures such as the Faisal Mosque, the Minar-e-Pakistan, and the Mazar-e-Quaid.[608] Several examples of architectural infrastructure demonstrating the influence of British design can be found in Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.
Food and drink
A Pakistani dish prepared using the tandoori method
Pakistani cuisine is similar to that of other regions of South Asia,
since much of it originated from the royal kitchens of 16th-century
Mughal emperors. Most of those dishes have their roots in British, Central Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. Unlike Middle Eastern cuisine, Pakistani cooking uses large quantities of spices, herbs, and seasoning. Garlic, ginger, turmeric, red chili, and garam masala are used in most dishes, and home cooking regularly includes curry, roti,
a thin flatbread made from wheat, is a staple food, usually served with
curry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common; it is served
plain, fried with spices, and in sweet dishes.
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