Mastery learning (or, as it was initially called, "learning for mastery"; also known as "mastery-based learning") is an instructional strategy and educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968.
Mastery learning maintains that students must achieve a level of
mastery (e.g., 90% on a knowledge test) in prerequisite knowledge before
moving forward to learn subsequent information. If a student does not
achieve mastery on the test, they are given additional support in
learning and reviewing the information and then tested again. This cycle
continues until the learner accomplishes mastery, and they may then
move on to the next stage.
Mastery learning methods suggest that the focus of instruction
should be the time required for different students to learn the same
material and achieve the same level of mastery. This is very much in
contrast with classic models of teaching that focus more on differences
in students' ability and where all students are given approximately the
same amount of time to learn and the same set of instructions.
In mastery learning, there is a shift in responsibilities, so
that the students' failure is considered to be more due to the
instruction and not necessarily their lack of ability. This also means
teachers' attention to individual students is emphasised as opposed to
assessing group performance. Therefore, in a mastery learning
environment, the challenge becomes providing enough time and employing
instructional strategies so that all students can achieve the same level
of learning.
Since its conception, mastery learning has empirically been
demonstrated to be effective in improving education outcomes in a
variety of settings.
Its effectiveness is influenced by the subject being taught, whether
testing is designed locally or nationally, course pace and the amount of
feedback provided to students.
Definition
Mastery
learning is a set of group-based, individualized, teaching and learning
strategies based on the premise that students will achieve a high level
of understanding in a given domain if they are given enough time.
Motivation
The
motivation for mastery learning comes from trying to reduce achievement
gaps for students in average school classrooms. During the 1960s John B. Carroll and Benjamin S. Bloom pointed out that, if students are normally distributed
with respect to aptitude for a subject and if they are provided uniform
instruction (in terms of quality and learning time), then achievement
level at completion of the subject is also expected to be normally
distributed. This can be illustrated as shown below:
Mastery Learning approaches propose that, if each learner were to
receive optimal quality of instruction and as much learning time as they
require, then a majority of students could be expected to attain
mastery. This situation would be represented as follows:
In many situations educators preemptively use the normal curve
for grading students. Bloom was critical of this usage, condemning it
because it creates expectation by the teachers that some students will
naturally be successful while others will not. Bloom defended that, if
educators are effective, the distribution of achievement could and
should be very different from the normal curve. Bloom proposed Mastery
Learning as a way to address this. He believed that by using his
approach, the majority of students (more than 90 percent) would achieve
successful and rewarding learning.
As an added advantage, Mastery Learning was also thought to create
more positive interest and attitude towards the subject learned if
compared with usual classroom methods.
Related terms
Individualized instruction
has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it
dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more capable or
more motivated students to progress ahead of others while maximizing
teacher interaction with those students who need the most assistance.
Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem
is an educational phenomenon observed where the average student tutored
one-to-one (using mastery learning techniques) performed two standard
deviations better than students who learn via conventional instructional
methods.
Competency-based learning is a framework for the assessment of learning based on predetermined competencies. It draws inspiration from mastery learning.
History
In the 1920s there were at least two attempts to produce mastery in students' learning: the Winnetka Plan, by Carleton Washburne and associates, and another approach by Henry C. Morrison, at the University of Chicago Laboratory School.
Both these projects provided school situations where mastery of
particular learning tasks - rather than time spent - was the central
theme. While these ideas were popular for a while, they faded due
primarily to the lack of technologies that could sustain a successful
implementation.
The idea of mastery learning resurfaced in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a corollary of programmed instruction, a technology invented by B.F. Skinner to improve teaching.
Underlying programmed instruction was the idea that the learning of any
behavior, no matter how complex, rested upon the learning of a sequence
of less-complex component behaviors.
Around that same time, John B. Carroll
was working on his "Model of School Learning" - a conceptual paradigm
which outlined the major factors influencing student success in school
learning and indicating how these factors interacted.
Carroll's model stemmed from his previous work with foreign language
learning. He found that a student's aptitude for a language predicted
not only the level to which they learned in a given time, but also the
amount of time they required to learn to a given level. Carroll then
suggests that aptitudes are actually a way to measure the amount of time
required to learn a task up to a certain level (under ideal
instructional conditions). As such, Carroll's model implies that, if
each student is given the sufficient time they needed to learn to any
particular level, then they would be expected to attain it.
Later in the 1960s Benjamin Bloom
and his graduate students were researching individual differences in
school learning. They observed that teachers displayed very little
variation in their instructional practices and yet, there was a lot of
variation in student's achievements. Bloom used Carroll's conceptual
model to create his own working model of Mastery Learning. Bloom
realized that, if aptitudes were predictive of the rate at which a
student can learn (and not necessarily the level to which), it should be
possible to fix the degree of learning expected to some mastery level
and then systematically manipulate the variables in Carroll's model such
that all or almost all students attained that level.
Also in the 1960s, Fred S. Keller
was collaborating with colleagues developing his own instructional
methods of Mastery Learning. Keller's strategies were based on the ideas
of reinforcement as seen in operant conditioning theories. Keller formally introduced his teaching method, Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) - sometimes referred to as Keller Plan), in his 1967 paper, "Engineering personalized instruction in the classroom".
From the late 1960s to the early 1980s, there was a surge of research on both Keller's and Bloom's instruction methods.
Most of these studies showed that mastery learning has a positive
effect on achievement, for all subjects and at all levels. Also, mastery
learning brings positive affective outcomes for both students and
teachers. These studies also showed that there are many variables that
are either affected by mastery learning or that influence it somehow:
student entry variables, curriculum, type of test, pacing, level of
mastery, and time.
Despite those mostly positive research results, interest in
mastery learning strategies decreased throughout the 1980s, as reflected
in publication activity in professional journals and presentations at
conferences. Many explanations were put forward to justify this decline,
like alleged recalcitrance of the educational establishment to change, or the ineffective implementations of mastery learning methods, or the extra time demanded in setting up and maintaining a mastery learning course
or even concerns that behavioristic-based models for teaching would
conflict with the generally humanistic-oriented teachers and the
surrounding culture.
Mastery learning strategies are best represented by Bloom's Learning For Mastery (LFM) and Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).
Bloom's approach was focused in the schoolroom, whereas Keller
developed his system for higher education. Both have been applied in
many different contexts and have been found to be very powerful methods
for increasing student performance in a wide range of activities.
Despite sharing some commonalities in terms of goals, they are built on
different psychological principles.
Learning For Mastery (LFM)
Variables of LFM
Bloom,
when first proposing his mastery learning strategy in 1968, was
convinced that most students can attain a high level of learning
capability if the following conditions are available:
instruction is approached sensitively and systematically
students are helped when and where they have learning difficulties
students are given sufficient time to achieve mastery
there is some clear criterion of what constitutes mastery.
Many variables will influence achievement levels and learning outcomes:
Aptitude
Aptitude,
measured by standard aptitude tests, in this context is interpreted as
"the amount of time required by the learner to attain mastery of a
learning task".
Several studies show that majority of students can achieve mastery in a
learning task, but the time that they need to spend on is different.
Bloom argues that there are 1 to 5 percent of students who have special
talent for learning a subject (especially music and foreign languages)
and there are also around five percent of students who have special
disability for learning a subject. For other 90% of students, aptitude
is merely an indicator of the rate of learning.
Additionally, Bloom argues that aptitude for a learning task is not
constant and can be changed by environmental conditions or learning
experience at school or home.
Quality of instruction
The
quality of instruction is defined as the degree to which the
presentation, explanation, and ordering of elements of the task to be
learned approach the optimum for a given learner.
Bloom insists that the quality of instruction has to be evaluated
according to its effect on individual students rather than on random
groups of students.
Bloom shows that while in traditional classrooms, the relationship
between students' aptitude test for mathematics and their final grade in
algebra is very high, this relationship is almost zero for students who
are receiving tutorial instruction in the home. He argues that a good
tutor tries to find the quality of learning best fit to the given
students, thus the majority of students would be able to master a
subject if they have access to a good tutor.
Ability to understand instruction
According
to Bloom the ability to understand instruction is defined as the nature
of the task that a learner is to learn and the procedure that the
learner is to follow. Verbal ability and reading comprehension are two
language abilities that are highly related to student achievements.
Since the ability to understand instruction varies significantly among
students, Bloom recommends that teachers modify their instruction,
provide help, and teaching aids to fit the needs of different students.
Some of the teaching aids that could be provided according to the
ability of the learner are:
Alternative Textbooks
Group Studies and Peer Tutoring
Workbooks
Programmed Instruction Units
Audiovisual Methods
Academic Games
Laboratory experiences
Simple demonstrations
Puzzles
Perseverance
Perseverance
in this context is defined as the time the learner is willing to spend
in learning. According to Bloom, a student who demonstrates a low level
of perseverance in one learning task might have a very high level of
perseverance in a different learning task. He suggests that students'
perseverance be enhanced by increasing the frequency of reward and
providing evidence of success in learning. He recommends that teachers
use frequent feedback accompanied by specific help to improve the
quality of instruction, thus reducing the perseverance required for
learning.
Time allowed for learning
According
to the International Study of Education in 12 countries, if the top 5%
of students are omitted, the ratio of the time needed for slower and
faster learners of a subject such as mathematics is 6 to 1 while there
is zero or slightly negative relationship between the final grades and
the amount of time spent on homework.
Thus, the amount of time spent on homework is not a good indicator of
mastery in a subject. Bloom postulates that the time required for a
learner to achieve mastery in a specific subject is affected by various
factors such as:
the student's aptitude for that subject,
The student's verbal ability,
the quality of instruction, and
the quality of the help provided.
LFM strategy
LFM
curricula generally consists of discrete topics which all students
begin together. After beginning a unit, students will be given a
meaningful and formative assessment so that the teacher can conclude
whether or not an objective has been mastered. At this step, instruction
goes in one of two directions. If a student has mastered an objective,
he or she will begin on a path of enrichment activities that correspond
to and build upon the original objective. Students who do not
satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until
they succeed. If a student does not demonstrate that he or she has
mastered the objective, then a series of correctives will be employed.
These correctives can include varying activities, individualized
instruction, and additional time to complete assignments.
These students will receive constructive feedback on their work and
will be encouraged to revise and revisit their assignment until the
objective is mastered.
Preconditions
There
are some preconditions for the process of mastery learning. First, the
objectives and content of instruction have to be specified and clarified
to both the students and the teacher. Another precondition is that the
summative evaluation criteria should be developed and both the teacher
and the learner should be clear about the achievement criteria. Bloom
suggests that using absolute standards rather than competitive criteria,
helps students to collaborate and facilitates mastery.
Operating procedures
The
operating procedures are the methods used to provide detailed feedback
and instructional help to facilitate the process of mastery in learning.
The main operation procedures are:
Formative Evaluation, and
Alternative Learning Resources
Formative evaluation
Formative
Evaluation in the context of mastery learning is a diagnostic progress
tests to determine whether or not the student has mastered the subject
unit.
Each unit is usually a learning outcome that could be taught in a week
or two of learning activity.
The formative tests are administered at the learning units. Bloom
insists that the diagnostic process has to be followed by a prescription
and the result of formative assessment is better to express in
not-grade format since the use of grades on repeated progress
evaluations prepare students for accepting a level of learning less than
mastery.
Alternative learning resources
The
progress tests should be followed by detailed feedback and specific
suggestions so that the students could work on their difficulties. Some
of the alternative learning resources are:
Small groups of students (two or three) meet and work together
Tutorial help
Reviewing the instructional material
Reading alternative textbooks
Using workbook or programmed texts
Using selected audiovisual materials
Outcomes
The outcomes of mastery learning could be summarized into two groups:
1- Cognitive Outcomes
2- Affective Outcomes.
Cognitive outcomes
The
cognitive outcomes of mastery learning are mainly related to increase
in student excellence in a subject. According to one study, applying the
strategies of mastery learning in a class resulted in the increase of
students with the grade of A from 20 percent to 80 percent (about two
standard deviation), and using the formative evaluation records as a
base for quality control helped the teacher to improve the strategies
and increase the percent of students with a grade of A to 90% in the
following year.
Affective outcomes
Affective outcomes of mastery are mainly related to the sense of self-efficacy
and confidence in the learners. Bloom argues that when the society
(through education system) recognizes a learner's mastery, profound
changes happen in his or her view of self and the outer world. The
learner would start believing that he or she is able to adequately cope
with problems, would have higher motivation for learning the subject in
a higher level of expertise, and would have a better mental state due
to less feeling of frustration. Finally, it is argued that in a modern
society that lifelong learning is a necessity, mastery learning can
develop a lifelong interest and motivation in learning.
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
Personalized System of Instruction, also known as the Keller Plan was developed in the mid 1960s by Fred Keller and colleagues. It was developed based on the idea of reinforcement in teaching processes.
Keller gives the following description to a group of psychology
students enrolled in his course developed using mastery learning theory:
"This is a course through which you may move, from start to finish, at
your own pace. You will not be held back by other students or forced to
go ahead until you are ready. At best, you may meet all the course
requirements in less than one semester; at worst, you may not complete
the job within that time. How fast you go is up to you" (Keller, 1968,
pg 80-81).
Five elements of PSI
There are five main elements in PSI as described in Keller's paper from 1967:
"The go-at-your-own-pace feature, which permits a student to
move through the course at a speed commensurate with his ability and
other demands upon his time.
The unit-perfection requirement for advance, which lets the student
go ahead to new material only after demonstrating mastery of that which
preceded.
The use of lectures and demonstrations as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of critical information.
The related stress upon the written word in teacher-student communication.
The use of proctors, which permits repeated testing, immediate
scoring, almost unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the
personal-social aspect of the educational process".
Assessment
In
a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of
group-based instructional techniques, with frequent and specific
feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests,
as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their
learning path. Assessment in the mastery learning classroom is not used
as a measure of accountability but rather as a source of evidence to
guide future instruction. A teacher using the mastery approach will use
the evidence generated from his or her assessment to modify activities
to best serve each student. Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather than norm-referenced tests.
In this sense, students are not competing against each other, but
rather competing against themselves in order to achieve a personal best.
Criticism
Time-achievement equality dilemma
The
goal of mastery learning is to have all students reach a prescribed
level of mastery (i.e. 80–90% on a test). In order to achieve this, some
students will require more time than others, either in practice or
instruction, to achieve success. The Time-Achievement Equality Dilemma
refers to this relationship between time and achievement in the context
of individual differences. If achievement is held constant, time will
need to vary. If time is held constant (as with modern learning models),
achievement will vary. According to its critics, mastery theory doesn't
accurately address this relationship.
Bloom's original theory assumes that with practice, the slower
learners will become faster learners and the gap of individual
differences will disappear. Bloom believes these differences in learning
pace occur because of lack of prerequisite knowledge and if all
children have the same prerequisite knowledge, then learning will
progress at the same rate. Bloom places the blame on teaching settings
where students aren't given enough time to reach mastery levels in
prerequisite knowledge before moving on to the new lesson. He also uses
this to explain why variance in student learning is smaller in the first
grade when compared to students in the 7th grade (the smart get
smarter, and the slower fall further behind). He referred to this
learning rate variance as the Vanishing Point.
A four-year longitudinal study by Arlin (1984)
found no indication of a vanishing point in students who learned
arithmetic through a mastery approach. Students who required extra
assistance to learn material in the first year of the study required
relatively the same amount of additional instruction in the 4th year.
Individual differences in learning rates appear to be impacted by more
than just method of instruction, contrary to Bloom's opinions.
Methodology errors in research
Experimental vs. control groups
In
studies investigating the effectiveness of mastery learning, control
and experimental groups were not always valid. Experimental groups
typically consisted of courses that were developed to adhere to the best
principles of mastery. However, control groups were sometimes existing
classes to use as a comparison. This poses a problem since there was no
way to test the effectiveness of the control group to begin with - it
could have been a poorly constructed course being compared against a
strictly designed mastery course.
Measurement tools
In
studies where the largest effect sizes were found, experimenter-made
tests were used to test the mastery levels of students in the
experiments. By using tests designed for the experiment, the mastery
instruction intervention may have been able to better tailor the
learning goals of the class to align with the measurement tool.
Conversely, these dramatic effect sizes essentially disappeared when
standardized tests were used to measure mastery levels in control and
experimental groups.
Study duration
There
are very few studies that investigate the long-term effects of mastery
learning. Many studies included an arbitrary 3-4 week intervention
period and results were based on findings from this time period. It's
important to consider the length of time students were immersed in a
mastery learning program to get a greater understanding of the long-term
effects of this teaching strategy.
General concerns and opinions
Typical
mastery programs involve providing class instruction then testing using
reliable tools (i.e. multiple choice unit test). This format of
learning may only be beneficial to learners who are interested in
surface rather than deep processing of information.
This contradicts many of today's modern learning approaches which focus
less on direct assessment of knowledge, and more on creating meaningful
applications and interpretations of the obtained knowledge (see Constructivism (philosophy of education))
The Chicago Mastery Learning Reading program was criticized for a
focus on testing. A concern is that children were taught to pass tests
without a focus on enduring skills. The duration of the retention of
skills was questioned.
A love of reading was not promoted. Students rarely read books or
stories. Student failure was an aspect of the program design. 80% was
required on 80% of the test to pass. This resulted in huge retention
levels. Ultimately, the program was not practical to implement.
The value of having all children achieve mastery brings into
question our general view of success. If the goal of education became
having children become experts, grades would become much less varied.
That is, you would theoretically have a high school graduating class all
with grades above 90%. Universities would have to make selections from a
pool of applicants with similar grades, how would admission
requirements have to change to account for uniform ratings of
intelligence? Would time it took to reach mastery become a new measure
of success? These questions about the wider implications of mastery as a
new standard raise discussion about its actual value.
Mastery learning today
Mastery
Learning has been one of the most highly investigated teaching methods
over the past 50 years. While it has been the subject of high criticism,
it has also been found to have resounding success when implemented
correctly. A meta-analysis by Guskey & Pigott (1988)
looked at 46 studies that implemented group-based mastery learning
classrooms. Results found consistently positive effects for a number of
variables including "student achievement, retention of learned material,
involvement in learning activities, and student affect".
However, a notable variation was found within student achievement and
it was believed this was due mainly to the subject being taught. Courses
such as science, probability, and social studies yielded the most
consistent positive results, while other subjects were varied.
Another large-scale meta analysis conducted by Kulik et al. (1990)
investigated 108 studies of mastery programs being implemented at the
elementary, secondary, and post-secondary level. Results revealed
positive effects in favour of these teaching strategies, with students
also reporting positive attitudes toward this style of learning. This
study also found mastery programs to be most effective for weaker
students.
Despite the empirical evidence, many mastery programs in schools
have been replaced by more traditional forms of instruction due to the
level of commitment required by the teacher and the difficulty in
managing the classroom when each student is following an individual
course of learning. However, the central tenets of mastery learning are still found in today's teaching strategies such as differentiated instruction and understanding by design.
Researchers at Northwestern University led by Drs. Diane Wayne,
Jeff Barsuk and William McGaghie pioneered the use of mastery learning
in the health professions. In 2006 they investigated mastery learning
vs. traditional medical education in advanced cardiac life support
techniques and showed that internal medicine resident trainees
significantly improved adherence to American Heart Association protocols
after mastery training.
Subsequent investigations showed improved patient care practices as a
result of this rigorous education including reduced patient
complications and healthcare costs.
These effects on patient care were seen in operating rooms, cardiac
catheterization lab, intensive care units and patient floors at a large
urban teaching hospital in Chicago. Further study also involved
communication skills such as breaking bad news and end of life
discussions, and patient self-management skills. In 2020 the
Northwestern group published an important textbook entitled Mastery
Learning in Health Professions Education.
The approach designed by Northwestern investigators is currently in use
at other health care institutions and medical schools throughout the US
and the world.
In 2012, Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams published the book Flip Your Classroom, Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day.
The second half of the book was dedicated to how to implement what they
called the Flipped-Mastery Model. They merged mastery learning with
flipped learning and saw significant results. The book has spurred many
teachers across the world to adopt the Flipped-Mastery approach.
Bergmann and Sams show that the logistical problems associated with
setting up a mastery learning program are now solved by technology. If
teachers have to deliver direct instruction, this can be time-shifted
with either an instructional video or a flipped-reading assignment. The
issue of multiple assessments is also solved by programs that allow for
testing to be much more seamless and less burdensome.
Death typically occurs within hours to days after birth.
Anencephaly is the absence of a major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp that occurs during embryonic development. It is a cephalic disorder that results from a neural tube defect that occurs when the rostral (head) end of the neural tube fails to close, usually between the 23rd and 26th day following conception.
Strictly speaking, the Greek term translates as "without a brain" (or
totally lacking the inside part of the head), but it is accepted that
children born with this disorder usually only lack a telencephalon, the largest part of the brain consisting mainly of the cerebral hemispheres, including the neocortex, which is responsible for cognition. The remaining structure is usually covered only by a thin layer of membrane—skin, bone, meninges, etc., are all lacking. With very few exceptions, infants with this disorder do not survive longer than a few hours or days after birth.
Signs and symptoms
The
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
describes the presentation of this condition as follows: "A baby born
with anencephaly is usually blind, deaf, unaware of its surroundings and
unable to feel pain. Although some individuals with anencephaly may be
born with a main brain stem,
the lack of a functioning cerebrum permanently rules out the
possibility of ever gaining awareness of their surroundings. Reflex
actions such as breathing and responses to sound or touch may occur."
Due to the presence of the brainstem,
children with anencephaly have almost all the primitive reflexes of a
newborn, responding to auditory, vestibular and painful stimuli. This means that the child can move, smile, suckle and breathe without the aid of devices.
A side view of an anencephalic fetus
A front view of an anencephalic fetus
X-ray of an anencephalic stillborn fetus
Causes
Folic acid has been shown to be important in neural tube formation since at least 1991,
and as a subtype of neural tube defect, folic acid may play a role in
anencephaly. Studies have shown that the addition of folic acid to the diet
of women of child-bearing age may significantly reduce, although not
eliminate, the incidence of neural tube defects. Therefore, it is
recommended that all women of child-bearing age consume 0.4 mg of folic
acid daily, especially those attempting to conceive or who may possibly conceive, as this can reduce the risk to 0.03%.
It is not advisable to wait until pregnancy has begun, since, by the
time a woman knows she is pregnant, the critical time for the formation
of a neural tube defect has usually already passed. A physician may prescribe even higher dosages of folic acid (5 mg/day) for women having had a previous pregnancy with a neural tube defect.
Neural tube defects can follow patterns of heredity, with direct evidence of autosomal recessive inheritance. As reported by Bruno Reversade and colleagues, the homozygous inactivation of the NUAK2 kinase leads to anencephaly in humans. Animal models indicate a possible association with deficiencies of the transcription factorTEAD2.
Studies show that a woman who has had one child with a neural tube
defect such as anencephaly has about a 3% risk of having another child
with a neural tube defect, as opposed to the background rate of 0.1% occurrence in the population at large. Genetic counseling is usually offered to women at a higher risk of having a child with a neural tube defect to discuss available testing.
It is known that people taking certain anticonvulsants and people with insulin-dependent diabetes have a higher risk of having a child with a neural tube defect.
Anencephaly can often be diagnosed before birth through an ultrasound examination. The maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP screening) and detailed fetal ultrasound can be useful for screening for neural tube defects such as spina bifida or anencephaly.
Meroanencephaly
Meroanencephaly is a rare form of anencephaly characterized by malformed cranial
bones, a median cranial defect, and a cranial protrusion called area
cerebrovasculosa. Area cerebrovasculosa is a section of abnormal,
spongy, vascular tissue admixed with glial tissue ranging from simply a membrane to a large mass of connective tissue, hemorrhagic vascular channels, glial nodules, and disorganized choroid plexuses.
Holoanencephaly
The
most common type of anencephaly, where the brain has entirely failed to
form, except for the brain stem. Infants rarely survive more than one
day after birth with holoanencephaly.
The most severe type of anencephaly where area cerebrovasculosa and area medullovasculosa fill both cranial defects and the spinal column. Craniorachischisis is characterized by anencephaly accompanied by bony defects in the spine and the exposure of neural tissue as the vault of the skull fails to form.
Craniorachischisis occurs in about 1 of every 1000 live births, but
various physical and chemical tests can detect neural tube closure
during early pregnancy.
Prognosis
There
is no cure or standard treatment for anencephaly. Prognosis is
extremely poor, as many anencephalic fetuses do not survive birth and
infants that are not stillborn will usually die within a few hours or days after birth from cardiorespiratory arrest.
Epidemiology
In the United States, anencephaly occurs in about 1 out of every 10,000 births. Rates may be higher among Africans with rates in Nigeria estimated at 3 per 10,000 in 1990 while rates in Ghana estimated at 8 per 10,000 in 1992. Rates in China are estimated at 5 per 10,000.
Research has suggested that, overall, female babies are more likely to be affected by the disorder.
Ethical issues
Organ donation
One issue concerning anencephalic newborns is organ donation.
Initial legal guidance came from the case of Baby Theresa in 1992, in
which the boundaries of organ donation were tested for the first time. Infant organs are scarce, and the high demand for pediatric organ transplants
poses a major public health issue. In 1999, it was found that for
American children under the age of two who are waiting for a transplant,
30–50% die before an organ becomes available.
Within the medical community, the main ethical issues with organ donation are a misdiagnosis of anencephaly, the slippery slope
argument, that anencephalic neonates would rarely be a source of
organs, and that it would undermine confidence in organ transplantation.
Slippery slope concerns are a major issue in personhood debates, across
the board. In regards to anencephaly, those who oppose organ donation
argue that it could open the door for involuntary organ donors such as
an elderly person with severe dementia. Another point of contention is
the number of children who would actually benefit. There are
discrepancies in statistics; however, it is known that most anencephalic
children are stillborn.
Proposals have been made to bypass the legal and ethical issues
surrounding organ donation. These include waiting for death to occur
before procuring organs, expanding the definition of death, creating a
special legal category for anencephalic infants, and defining them as
non-persons.
In the United Kingdom,
a child born with anencephaly was reported as the country's youngest
organ donor. Teddy Houlston was diagnosed as anencephalic at 12 weeks of
gestation. His parents, Jess Evans and Mike Houlston, decided against
abortion and instead proposed organ donation. Teddy was born on 22 April
2014, in Cardiff, Wales, and lived for 100 minutes, after which his heart and kidneys were removed. His kidneys were later transplanted into an adult in Leeds. Teddy's twin, Noah, was born healthy.
Brain death
There are four different concepts used to determine brain death: failure of heart, failure of lungs, whole brain death, and neocortical death.
Neocortical death, similar to a persistent vegetative state (PVS), involves loss of cognitive functioning of the brain. A proposal by law professor David Randolph Smith, in an attempt to prove that neocortical death should legally be treated the same as brain death, involved PET scans
to determine the similarities. However, this proposal has been
criticized on the basis that confirming neocortical death by PET scan
may risk indeterminacy.
Pregnancy termination
Anencephaly
can be diagnosed before delivery with a high degree of accuracy.
Although anencephaly is a fatal condition, the option of abortion is
dependent on the abortion laws in the state. According to a 2013 report, 26% of the world's population reside in a country where abortion is generally prohibited.
In 2012, Brazil extended the right of abortion to mothers with
anencephalic fetuses. This decision is, however, receiving much
disapproval by several religious groups.
Legal proceedings
The case of baby Theresa was the beginning of the ethical debate over anencephalic infant organ donation.
The story of baby Theresa remains a focus of basic moral philosophy.
Baby Theresa was born with anencephaly in 1992. Her parents, knowing
that their child was going to die, requested that her organs be given
for transplantation. Although her physicians agreed, Florida law
prohibited the infant's organs from being removed while she was still
alive. By the time she died nine days after birth, her organs had
deteriorated past the point of being viable.
United States uniform acts
The Uniform Determination of Death Act
(UDDA) is a model bill, adopted by many US states, stating that an
individual who has sustained either 1) irreversible cessation of
circulatory and respiratory functions or 2) irreversible cessation of
all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead.
This bill was a result of much debate over the definition of death and
is applicable to the debate over anencephaly. A related bill, the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act
(UAGA), grants individuals and, after death, their family members the
right to decide whether or not to donate organs. Because it is against
the law for any person to pay money for an organ, the person in need of
an organ transplant must rely on a volunteer.
There have been two state bills that proposed to change current
laws regarding death and organ donation. California Senate Bill 2018
proposed to amend the UDDA to define anencephalic infants as already
dead, while New Jersey Assembly Bill 3367 proposed to allow anencephalic
infants to be organ sources even if they are not dead.
Research
Some genetic research has been conducted to determine the causes of anencephaly. It has been found that cartilage homeoprotein (CART1) is selectively expressed in chondrocytes
(cartilage cells). The CART1 gene to chromosome 12q21.3–q22 has been
mapped. Also, it has been found that mice homozygous for deficiency in
the Cart1 gene manifested acrania and meroanencephaly, and prenatal treatment with folic acid will suppress acrania and meroanencephaly in the Cart1-deficient mutants.
Khan Academy is an American non-profit educational organization created in 2008 by Salman Khan. Its goal is creating a set of online tools that help educate students. The organization produces short lessons in the form of videos.
Its website also includes supplementary practice exercises and
materials for educators. It has produced over 8,000 video lessons
teaching a wide spectrum of academic subjects, originally focusing on mathematics and sciences. All resources are available for free to users of the website and application.
As of 2018, over 70 million people use Khan Academy, out of which 2.3 million students use it to prepare for the SAT. As of November 2022, the Khan Academy channel on YouTube has 7.59 million subscribers and Khan Academy videos have been viewed over 2 billion times.
History
Starting in 2004, Salman "Sal" Khan began tutoring one of his cousins in mathematics on the Internet using a service called Yahoo! Doodle Images.
After a while, Khan's other cousins began to use his tutoring service.
Due to the demand, Khan decided to make his videos watchable on the
Internet, so he published his content on YouTube. Later, he used a drawing application called SmoothDraw, and now uses a Wacom tablet to draw using ArtRage. The video tutorials were recorded on his computer.
Positive responses prompted Khan to incorporate Khan Academy in
2008 and to quit his job in 2009, to focus full-time on creating
educational tutorials (then released under the name Khan Academy). Khan Lab School, a school founded by Sal Khan and associated with Khan Academy, opened on September 15, 2014, in Mountain View, California.
In June 2017, Khan Academy officially launched the Financial Literacy
Video Series for college graduates, jobseekers and young professionals.
Funding
Khan Academy is a 501(c)(3)nonprofit organization, mostly funded by donations coming from philanthropic organizations.
On its IRS form 990, the organization reported $31 million in revenues
in 2018 and $28 million in 2019, including $839,000 in 2019 compensation
for Khan as CEO.
In 2010, Google donated $2 million for creating new courses and translating content into other languages, as part of their Project 10100 program. In 2013, Carlos Slim from the Luis Alcazar Foundation in Mexico, made a donation for creating Spanish versions of videos. In 2015, AT&T contributed $2.25 million to Khan Academy for mobile versions of the content accessible through apps. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has donated $1.5 million to Khan Academy. On January 11, 2021, Elon Musk donated $5 million through his Musk foundation.
Content
Khan Academy's website aims to provide a free personalized learning experience, that are built on the videos, hosted on YouTube.
The website is meant to be used as a supplement to its videos, because
it includes other features such as progress tracking, practice
exercises, and teaching tools. The material can also be accessed through mobile applications.
The videos display a recording of drawings on an electronic
blackboard, which are similar to the style of a teacher giving a
lecture. The narrator describes each drawing and how they relate to the
material being taught.
Furthermore, throughout the lessons, users can earn badges and energy
points, which can be displayed on their profiles. Non-profit groups have
distributed offline versions of the videos to rural areas in Asia,
Latin America, and Africa.
Videos range from all subjects covered in school and for all grades
from kindergarten up through high school. The Khan Academy website also
hosts content from educational YouTube channels and organizations such
as Crash Course and the Museum of Modern Art. It also provides online courses for preparing for standardized tests, including the SAT, AP Chemistry, Praxis Core and MCAT and released LSAT preparation lessons in 2018.
They also have a collaboration with independent chemists, which are
mentioned in their, "Meet the chemistry professional". Khan Academy has
also supported Code.org’s Hour of Code, providing coding lessons on its website.
Khan
Academy videos have been translated into several languages, with close
to 20,000 subtitle translations available. These translations are mainly
volunteer-driven with help from international partnerships.
The Khan Academy platform is fully available in English (en), Bangla
(bn), Bulgarian (BG), Chinese (ZH), French (fr), German (de), Georgian
(ka), Norwegian (nb), Polish (pl) Portuguese (pt), Spanish (es), Serbian
(sr), Turkish (tr) and Uzbek (uz), and partially available in 28 other languages.
Official SAT preparation
Since 2015, Khan Academy has been the official SAT
preparation website. According to reports, studying for the SAT for 20
hours at Khan Academy is associated with a 115-point average score
increase. Many book exercises select questions from the Khan Academy site to be published.
Pixar in a Box
In 2015, Khan Academy teamed up with Pixar to create a new course named Pixar in a Box, which teaches how skills learned in school help the creators at Pixar.
Official Test Preparation
Khan Academy also provides free test preps for SAT, LSAT, and MCAT.
Khan Academy Kids
In
2018, Khan Academy created an application called Khan Academy Kids. It
is used by two to six-year-old children to learn basic skills (primarily
mathematics and language arts) before progressing to grade school.
Teachers
Teachers
can set up a classroom within Khan Academy. This classroom allows
teachers to assign courses within Khan Academy's database to their
students. Teachers can also track their student's progress as they work through the assigned tutorials.
Criticism
Khan Academy has been criticized because its creator, Sal Khan, lacks a formal background or qualifications in pedagogy. Statements made in certain mathematics and physics videos have been questioned for their technical accuracy.
In response to these criticisms, the organization has corrected errors
in its videos, expanded its faculty and formed a network of over 200
content experts.
In an interview from January 2016, Khan defended the value of Khan Academy online lectures
while acknowledging their limitations: "I think they're valuable, but
I'd never say they somehow constitute a complete education."
Khan Academy positions itself as a supplement to in-class learning,
with the ability to improve the effectiveness of teachers by freeing
them from traditional lectures and giving them more time to tend to
individual students' needs.
Recognition
Khan Academy has gained recognition both in the US and internationally:
In April 2012, Khan was listed among TIME's 100 Most Influential People for 2012.
In 2012, Khan Academy won a Webby Award in the category Websites and Mobile Sites, Education.
Khan was one of five winners of the 2013 Heinz Award. His award was in the area of "Human Condition."
In 2016, Khan Academy won a Shorty Award for Best in Education.
Outcome-based education or outcomes-based education (OBE) is an educational theory that bases each part of an educational system
around goals (outcomes). By the end of the educational experience, each
student should have achieved the goal. There is no single specified
style of teaching or assessment in OBE; instead, classes, opportunities,
and assessments should all help students achieve the specified
outcomes. The role of the faculty adapts into instructor, trainer, facilitator, and/or mentor based on the outcomes targeted.
Outcome-based methods have been adopted in education systems
around the world, at multiple levels.
Australia and South Africa adopted OBE policies from the 1990s to the
mid 2000s, but were abandoned in the face of substantial community
opposition. The United States has had an OBE program in place since 1994 that has been adapted over the years. In 2005, Hong Kong adopted an outcome-based approach for its universities. Malaysia implemented OBE in all of their public schools systems in 2008. The European Union has proposed an education shift to focus on outcomes, across the EU. In an international effort to accept OBE, The Washington Accord
was created in 1989; it is an agreement to accept undergraduate
engineering degrees that were obtained using OBE methods. As of 2017,
the full signatories are Australia, Canada, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India,
Ireland, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Russia, Singapore, South
Africa, Sri Lanka, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Pakistan, China and the
United States.
Differences from traditional education methods
OBE can primarily be distinguished from traditional education method
by the way it incorporates three elements: theory of education, a
systematic structure for education, and a specific approach to
instructional practice.
It organizes the entire educational system towards what are considered
essential for the learners to successfully do at the end of their
learning experiences.
In this model, the term "outcome" is the core concept and sometimes
used interchangeably with the terms "competency, "standards,
"benchmarks", and "attainment targets". OBE also uses the same methodology formally and informally adopted in actual workplace to achieve outcomes. It focuses on the following skills when developing curricula and outcomes:
Life skills;
Basic skills;
Professional and vocational skills;
Intellectual skills;
Interpersonal and personal skills.
In a regional/local/foundational/electrical education system,
students are given grades and rankings compared to each other. Content
and performance expectations are based primarily on what was taught in
the past to students of a given age of 12-18. The goal of this education
was to present the knowledge and skills of an older generation to the
new generation of students, and to provide students with an environment
in which to learn. The process paid little attention (beyond the
classroom teacher) to whether or not students learn any of the material.
Benefits of OBE
Clarity
The focus on outcomes creates a clear expectation of what needs to be
accomplished by the end of the course. Students will understand what is
expected of them and teachers will know what they need to teach during
the course. Clarity is important over years of schooling and when team
teaching is involved. Each team member, or year in school, will have a
clear understanding of what needs to be accomplished in each class, or
at each level, allowing students to progress.
Those designing and planning the curriculum are expected to work
backwards once an outcome has been decided upon; they must determine
what knowledge and skills will be required to reach the outcome.
Flexibility
With a clear sense of what needs to be accomplished, instructors will
be able to structure their lessons around the student’s needs. OBE does
not specify a specific method of instruction, leaving instructors free
to teach their students using any method. Instructors will also be able
to recognize diversity among students by using various teaching and
assessment techniques during their class. OBE is meant to be a student-centered learning
model. Teachers are meant to guide and help the students understand the
material in any way necessary, study guides, and group work are some of
the methods instructors can use to facilitate students learning.
Comparison
OBE can be compared across different institutions. On an individual
level, institutions can look at what outcomes a student has achieved to
decide what level the student would be at within a new institution. On
an institutional level, institutions can compare themselves, by checking
to see what outcomes they have in common, and find places where they
may need improvement, based on the achievement of outcomes at other
institutions.
The ability to compare easily across institutions allows students to
move between institutions with relative ease. The institutions can
compare outcomes to determine what credits to award the student. The
clearly articulated outcomes should allow institutions to assess the
student’s achievements rapidly, leading to increased movement of
students. These outcomes also work for school to work transitions. A
potential employer can look at records of the potential employee to
determine what outcomes they have achieved. They can then determine if
the potential employee has the skills necessary for the job.
Involvement
Student involvement in the classroom is a key part of OBE. Students
are expected to do their own learning, so that they gain a full
understanding of the material. Increased student involvement allows
students to feel responsible for their own learning, and they should
learn more through this individual learning.
Other aspects of involvement are parental and community, through
developing curriculum, or making changes to it. OBE outcomes are meant
to be decided upon within a school system, or at a local level. Parents
and community members are asked to give input in order to uphold the
standards of education within a community and to ensure that students
will be prepared for life after school.
Drawbacks of OBE
Definition
The definitions of the outcomes decided upon are subject to
interpretation by those implementing them. Across different programs or
even different instructors outcomes could be interpreted differently,
leading to a difference in education, even though the same outcomes were
said to be achieved.
By outlining specific outcomes, a holistic approach to learning is
lost. Learning can find itself reduced to something that is specific,
measurable, and observable. As a result, outcomes are not yet widely
recognized as a valid way of conceptualizing what learning is about.
Assessment problems
When determining if an outcome has been achieved, assessments may
become too mechanical, looking only to see if the student has acquired
the knowledge. The ability to use and apply the knowledge in different
ways may not be the focus of the assessment. The focus on determining if
the outcome has been achieved leads to a loss of understanding and
learning for students, who may never be shown how to use the knowledge
they have gained.
Instructors are faced with a challenge: they must learn to manage an
environment that can become fundamentally different from what they are
accustomed to. In regards to giving assessments, they must be willing to
put in the time required to create a valid, reliable assessment that
ideally would allow students to demonstrate their understanding of the
information, while remaining objective.
Generality
Education outcomes can lead to a constrained nature of teaching and
assessment. Assessing liberal outcomes such as creativity, respect for
self and others, responsibility, and self-sufficiency, can become
problematic. There is not a measurable, observable, or specific way to
determine if a student has achieved these outcomes. Due to the nature of
specific outcomes, OBE may actually work against its ideals of serving
and creating individuals that have achieved many outcomes.
Involvement
Parental involvement, as discussed in the benefits section can also
be a drawback, if parents and community members are not willing to
express their opinions on the quality of the education system, the
system may not see a need for improvement, and not change to meet
student’s needs. Parents may also become too involved, requesting too
many changes, so that important improvements get lost with other changes
that are being suggested.
Instructors will also find that their work is increased; they must work
to first understand the outcome, then build a curriculum around each
outcome they are required to meet. Instructors have found that
implementing multiple outcomes is difficult to do equally, especially in
primary school. Instructors will also find their work load increased if
they chose to use an assessment method that evaluates students
holistically.
Adoption and removal
Australia
In the early 1990s, all states and territories in Australia developed
intended curriculum documents largely based on OBE for their primary
and secondary schools. Criticism arose shortly after implementation.
Critics argued that no evidence existed that OBE could be implemented
successfully on a large scale, in either the United States or Australia.
An evaluation of Australian schools found that implementing OBE was
difficult. Teachers felt overwhelmed by the amount of expected
achievement outcomes. Educators believed that the curriculum outcomes
did not attend to the needs of the students or teachers. Critics felt
that too many expected outcomes left students with shallow understanding
of the material. Many of Australia’s current education policies have
moved away from OBE and towards a focus on fully understanding the
essential content, rather than learning more content with less
understanding.
Western Australia
Officially, an agenda to implement Outcomes Based Education took place between 1992 and 2008 in Western Australia.
Dissatisfaction with OBE escalated from 2004 when the government
proposed the implementation of an alternative assessment system using
OBE 'levels' for years 11 and 12. With government school teachers not
permitted to publicly express dissatisfaction with the new system, a
community lobby group called PLATO as formed in June 2004 by high school science teacher Marko Vojkavi.
Teachers anonymously expressed their views through the website and
online forums, with the website quickly became one of the most widely
read educational websites in Australia with more 180,000 hits per month
and contained an archive of more than 10,000 articles on the subject of
OBE implementation. In 2008 it was officially abandoned by the state
government with Minister for Education Mark McGowan remarking that the 1990s fad "to dispense with syllabus" was over.
European Union
In December 2012, the European Commission presented a new strategy to decrease youth unemployment rate, which at the time was close to 23% across the European Union. The European Qualifications Framework
calls for a shift towards learning outcomes in primary and secondary
schools throughout the EU. Students are expected to learn skills that
they will need when they complete their education. It also calls for
lessons to have a stronger link to employment through work-based learning (WBL). Work-based learning for students should also lead to recognition of vocational training
for these students. The program also sets goals for learning foreign
languages, and for teachers continued education. It also highlights the
importance of using technology, especially the internet, in learning to
make it relevant to students.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong’s University Grants Committee
adopted an outcomes-based approach to teaching and learning in 2005. No
specific approach was created leaving universities to design the
approach themselves. Universities were also left with a goal of ensuring
an education for their students that will contribute to social and
economic development, as defined by the community in which the
university resides. With little to no direction or feedback from the
outside universities will have to determine if their approach is
achieving its goals on their own.
Malaysia
OBE has been practiced in Malaysia since the 1950s; however, as of
2008, OBE is being implemented at all levels of education, especially
tertiary education. This change is a result of the belief that the
education system used prior to OBE inadequately prepared graduates for
life outside of school. The Ministry of Higher Education
has pushed for this change because of the number of unemployed
graduates. Findings in 2006 state that nearly 70% of graduates from
public universities were considered unemployed. A further study of those
graduates found that they felt they lacked, job experience,
communication skills, and qualifications relevant to the current job
market. The Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) was created to oversee quality of education and to ensure outcomes were being reached. The MQA created a framework
that includes eight levels of qualification within higher education,
covering three sectors; skills, vocational and technical, and academic. Along with meeting the standards set by the MQA, universities set and monitor their own outcome expectations for students
South Africa
OBE was introduced to South Africa in the late 1990s by the post-apartheid government as part of its Curriculum 2005 program.
Initial support for the program derived from anti-apartheid education
policies. The policy also gained support from the labor movements that
borrowed ideas about competency-based education, and Vocational education
from New Zealand and Australia, as well as the labor movement that
critiqued the apartheid education system. With no strong alternative
proposals, the idea of outcome-based education, and a national
qualification framework, became the policy of the African National Congress
government. This policy was believed to be a democratization of
education, people would have a say in what they wanted the outcomes of
education to be. It was also believed to be a way to increase education
standards and increase the availability of education. The National
Qualifications Framework (NQF) went into effect in 1997. In 2001 people
realized that the intended effects were not being seen. By 2006 no
proposals to change the system had been accepted by the government,
causing a hiatus of the program.
The program came to be viewed as a failure and a new curriculum
improvement process was announced in 2010, slated to be implemented
between 2012 and 2014.
United States
In 1983, a report from the National Commission on Excellence in
Education declared that American education standards were eroding, that
young people in the United States were not learning enough. In 1989, President Bush and the nation’s governors set national goals to be achieved by the year 2000. Goals 2000: Educate America Act was signed in March 1994. The goal of this new reform was to show that results were being achieved in schools. In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act took the place of Goals 2000.
It mandated certain measurements as a condition of receiving federal
education funds. States are free to set their own standards, but the
federal law mandates public reporting of math and reading test scores
for disadvantaged demographic subgroups, including racial minorities,
low-income students, and special education students. Various
consequences for schools that do not make "adequate yearly progress" are
included in the law. In 2010, President Obama proposed improvements for
the program. In 2012, the U.S. Department of Education invited states
to request flexibility waivers in exchange for rigorous plans designed
to improve students' education in the state.
India
India has become the permanent signatory member of the Washington Accord on 13 June 2014. India has started implementing OBE in higher technical education like diploma and undergraduate programmes. The National Board of Accreditation, a body for promoting international quality standards for technical education in India has started accrediting only the programmes running with OBE from 2013.
The National Board of Accreditation
mandates establishing a culture of outcomes-based education in
institutions that offer Engineering, Pharmacy, Management programs.
Outcomes analysis and using the analytical reports to find gaps and
carry out continuous improvement is essential cultural shift from how
the above programs are run when OBE culture is not embraced. Outcomes
analysis requires huge amount of data to be churned and made available
at any time, anywhere. Such an access to scalable, accurate, automated
and real-time data analysis is possible only if the institute adopts
either excelsheet based measurement system or some kind of home-grown or
commercial software system. It is observed that excelsheet based
measurement and analysis system doesn't scale when the stakeholders want
to analyse longitudinal data.
Gifted education (also known as gifted and talented education (GATE), talented and gifted programs (TAG), or G/T education) is a broad group of special practices, procedures, and theories used in the education of children who have been identified as gifted or talented.
The main approaches to gifted education are enrichment and acceleration.
An enrichment program teaches additional, related material, but keeps
the student progressing through the curriculum at the same rate as other
students. For example, after the gifted students have completed the
normal work in the curriculum, an enrichment program might provide them
with additional information about a subject. An acceleration program
advances the student through the standard curriculum faster than normal.
This is done through many different approaches.
There is no standard global definition of what a gifted student
is; multiple definitions exist. Most definitions select the students who
are the most skilled or talented in a given area, e.g., the students
with the most skill or talent in music, language, logical reasoning, or
mathematics. The percentage of students selected varies, generally with
10% or fewer being selected for gifted education programs. However,
since students vary in their aptitudes and achievements, a student who
is not gifted in one area, such as music, may be considered gifted in
another, such as language. Consequently, even if all programs agreed to
include only the top 5% of students in their area, more than just 5% of
students would be identified as gifted.
Forms
Attempts
to provide gifted education can be classified in several ways. Most
gifted students benefit from a combination of approaches at different
times.
Pupils are advanced to a higher-level class covering material more
suited to their abilities and preparedness. This may take the form of skipping grades
or completing the normal curriculum in a shorter-than-normal period of
time ("telescoping"). Subject acceleration (also called partial
acceleration) is a flexible approach that can advance a student in one
subject, such as mathematics or language, without changing other
studies, such as history or science. This type of acceleration is usually based upon achievement testing, rather than IQ.
Some colleges offer early entrance programs that give gifted younger students the opportunity to attend college early. In the U.S., many community colleges allow advanced students to enroll with the consent of school officials and the pupil's parents.
Acceleration
presents gifted children with academic material from established
curricula that is commensurate with their ability and preparedness, and
for this reason is a low-cost option from the perspective of the school.
This may result in a small number of children taking classes targeted
at older children. For the majority of gifted students, acceleration is
beneficial both academically and socially.
Whole grade skipping is considered rapid acceleration. Some advocates
have argued that the disadvantages of being retained in a standard
mixed-ability classroom are substantially worse than any shortcomings of
acceleration. For example, psychologist
Miraca Gross reports: "the majority of these children [retained in a
typical classroom] are socially rejected [by their peers with typical
academic talents], isolated, and deeply unhappy. Children of IQ 180+ who are retained in the regular classroom are even more seriously at risk and experience severe emotional distress." These accelerated children should be placed together in one class if possible.
Research suggests that acceleration might have an impact long after
students graduate from high school. For example, one study shows that
high-IQ individuals who experienced full-grade acceleration earned
higher incomes as adults.
Cluster grouping
Cluster grouping
is the gathering of four to six gifted and talented and/or high
achieving students in a single classroom for the entire school day.
Cluster teachers are specially trained in differentiating for gifted
learners. Clusters are typically used in upper elementary grades.
Within a cluster group, instruction may include enrichment and
extensions, higher-order thinking skills, pretesting and
differentiation, compacting, an accelerated pace, and more complexity in
content.
Colloquium
Like acceleration, colloquium provides advanced material for high school students. In colloquium, students take Advanced Placement
(AP) courses. However, colloquium is different from AP classes because
students are usually given more projects than students in AP classes.
Students in colloquium also generally study topics more in depth and
sometimes in a different way than students enrolled in AP classes do.
Colloquium is a form that takes place in a traditional public school. In
colloquium, subjects are grouped together. Subjects are taught at
different times of the day; however, usually what is being taught in one
subject will connect with another subject. For example, if the students
are learning about colonial America in History, then they might also be
analyzing text from The Scarlet Letter
in English. Some schools may only have colloquium in certain subjects.
In schools where colloquium is only offered in English and History,
colloquium students usually take Advanced Placement courses in math and science and vice versa.
Compacting
In
compacting, the regular school material is compacted by pretesting the
student to establish which skills and content have already been
mastered. Pretests can be presented on a daily basis (pupils doing the
most difficult items on a worksheet first and skipping the rest if they
are performed correctly), or before a week or longer unit of
instructional time. When a student demonstrates an appropriate level of
proficiency, further repetitive practice can be safely skipped, thus
reducing boredom and freeing up time for the student to work on more
challenging material.
Enrichment
On
the primary school level, students spend all class time with their
peers, but receive extra material to challenge them. Enrichment may be
as simple as a modified assignment provided by the regular classroom teacher, or it might include formal programs such as Odyssey of the Mind, Destination Imagination or academic competitions such as Brain Bowl, Future Problem Solving, Science Olympiad, National History Day, science fairs, or spelling bees.
Programmes of enrichment activities may also be organised outside the
school day (e.g. the ASCEND project in secondary science education).
This work is done in addition to, and not instead of, any regular
school work assigned. Critics of this approach argue that it requires
gifted students to do more work instead of the same amount at an
advanced level. On the secondary school level sometimes an option is to
take more courses such as English, Spanish, Latin, philosophy, or science
or to engage in extracurricular activities. Some perceive there to be a
necessary choice between enrichment and acceleration, as if the two
were mutually exclusive alternatives. However, other researchers see the
two as complements to each other.
Some gifted students are educated in either a separate class or a
separate school. These classes and schools are sometimes called
"congregated gifted programs" or "dedicated gifted programs."
Some independent schools have a primary mission to serve the
needs of the academically gifted. Such schools are relatively scarce and
often difficult for families to locate. One resource for locating
gifted schools in the United States can be found on the National Association for Gifted Children's
"Resource Directory" accessible through their home page. Such schools
often need to work to guard their mission from occasional charges of
elitism, support the professional growth and training of their staff,
write curriculum units that are specifically designed to meet the
social, emotional, and academic talents of their students, and educate
their parent population at all ages.
Some gifted and talented classes offer self-directed or
individualized studies, where the students lead a class themselves and
decide on their own task, tests, and all other assignments. These
separate classes or schools tend to be more expensive than regular
classes, due to smaller class sizes and lower student-to-teacher
rations. Not-for-profit
(non-profit) schools often can offer lower costs than for-profit
schools. Either way, they are in high demand and parents often have to
pay part of the costs.
An
umbrella term encompassing a variety of educational activities
conducted at home, including those for gifted children: part-time
schooling; school at home; classes, groups, mentors and tutors; and unschooling. In many US states, the population of gifted students who are being homeschooled is rising quite rapidly,
as school districts responding to budgetary issues and standards-based
policies are cutting what limited gifted education programs remain in
existence, and families seek educational opportunities that are tailored to each child's unique needs.
Gifted students are pulled out of a heterogeneous classroom to spend a portion of their time in a gifted class.
These programs vary widely, from carefully designed half-day academic
programs to a single hour each week of educational challenges.
Generally, these programs are ineffective at promoting academic
advancement unless the material covered contains extensions and
enrichment to the core curriculum. The majority of pull-out programs
include an assortment of critical thinking drills, creative exercises,
and subjects typically not introduced in standard curricula. Much of the
material introduced in gifted pull-out programs deals with the study of
logic, and its application to fields ranging from philosophy to mathematics.
Students are encouraged to apply these empirical reasoning skills to
every aspect of their education both in and outside of class.
Self-pacing
Self-pacing methods, such as the Montessori Method,
use flexible grouping practices to allow children to advance at their
own pace. Self-pacing can be beneficial for all children and is not
targeted specifically at those identified as gifted or talented, but it
can allow children to learn at a highly accelerated rate. Directed
Studies are usually based on self-pacing.
Summer enrichment
These
offer a variety of courses that mainly take place in the summer. Summer
schools are popular in the United States. Entrance fees are required
for such programs, and programs typically focus on one subject, or
class, for the duration of the camp.
Within the United States, in addition to programs designed by the
state, some counties also choose to form their own Talented and Gifted
Programs. Sometimes this means that an individual county will form its
own TAG program; sometimes several counties will come together if not
enough gifted students are present in a single county. Generally, a TAG
program focuses on a specific age group, particularly the local TAG
programs. This could mean elementary age, high school age, or by years
such as ages 9 through 14.
These classes are generally organized so that students have the
opportunity to choose several courses they wish to participate in.
Courses offered often vary between subjects, but are not typically
strictly academically related to that subject. For example, a TAG course
that could be offered in history could be the students learning about a
certain event and then acting it out in a performance to be presented
to parents on the last night of the program. These courses are designed
to challenge the students to think in new ways and not merely to be
lectured as they are in school.
The term "Gifted Assessment" is typically applied to a process of
using norm-referenced psychometric tests administered by a qualified
psychologist or psychometrist with the goal of identifying children
whose intellectual functioning is significantly advanced as compared to
the appropriate reference group (i.e., individuals of their age, gender,
and country). The cut-off score for differentiating this group is
usually determined by district school boards and can differ slightly
from area to area, however, the majority defines this group as students
scoring in the top 2 percentiles on one of the accepted tests of
intellectual (cognitive) functioning or IQ. Some school boards also
require a child to demonstrate advanced academic standing on
individualized achievement tests and/or through their classroom
performance. Identifying gifted children is often difficult but is very
important because typical school teachers are not qualified to educate a
gifted student. This can lead to a situation where a gifted child is
bored, underachieves and misbehaves in class.
Individual IQ testing is usually the optimal method to identify
giftedness among children. However it does not distinguish well among
those found to be gifted. Therefore, examiners prefer using a variety of
tests to first identify giftedness and then further differentiate. This
is often done by using individual IQ tests and then group or individual
achievement tests. There is no standard consensus on which tests to
use, as each test is better suited for a certain role.
The two most popular tests for identifying giftedness in the school-age population are the WISC IV and the SB5. The WIAT III is considered the most popular academic achievement test to determine a child's aggregate learned knowledge.
Although a newer WISC version, the WISC V, was developed in late
2014, the WISC IV is still the most commonplace test. It has been
translated into several languages including Spanish, Portuguese,
Norwegian, Swedish, French, German, Dutch, Japanese, Chinese, Korean,
and Italian. The WISC-IV assesses a child's cognitive abilities, with
respect to age group. Coupled with results from other tests, the WISC
accurately depicts a child's developmental and psychological needs for
the future.
The SB5 is an intelligence test that determines cognitive
abilities and can be administered to persons in virtually any age group.
It assesses a series of intelligence indicators including fluid
reasoning, general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, spatial
processing, and working memory. The SB5 makes use of both verbal and
nonverbal testing.
The WIAT-III cannot assess all components of learned knowledge,
but does give an understanding of a child's ability to acquire skills
and knowledge through formal education. This test measures aspects of
the learning process that take place in a traditional school setting in
reading, writing, math, and oral language. Although the WIAT-III tests a
wide range of material, it is designed primarily to assess children's
learning before adolescence.
Versions of these tests exist for each age group. However it is
recommended to begin assessment as early as possible, with approximately
eight years of age being the optimal time to test. Testing allows
identification of specific needs of students and help to plan an
education early.
Out-of-group achievement testing (such as taking the SAT or ACT early) can also help to identify these students early on (see SMPY)
and is implemented by various talent search programs in use by
education programs. Out-of-group testing can also help to differentiate
children who have scored in the highest percentiles in a single IQ test.
Testing alone cannot accurately identify every gifted child.
Teacher and parent nominations are essential additions to the objective
information provided by grades and scores. Parents are encouraged to
keep portfolios of their children's work, and documentation of their
early signs of gifted behavior.
The development of early intelligence tests by Alfred Binet
led to the Stanford-Binet IQ test developed by Lewis Terman. Terman
began long-term studies of gifted children with a view to checking if
the popular view "early ripe, early rot" was true. The Terman Genetic
Studies of Genius longitudinal study has been described by successor
researchers who conducted the study after Terman's death and also by an
independent researcher who had full access to the study files.
Modern studies by James and Kulik conclude that gifted students benefit least from working in a mixed-level class, and benefit most from learning with other similarly advanced students in accelerated or enriched classes.
Definition of giftedness
Educational authorities differ on the definition of giftedness: even when using the same IQ
test to define giftedness, they may disagree on what gifted means—one
may take up the top 2 percent of the population, another might take up
the top 5 percent of a population, which may be within a state,
district, or school. Within a single school district, there can be
substantial differences in the distribution of measured IQ. The IQ for
the top percentile at a high-performing school may be quite different
from that at a lower performing school.
Peter Marshall obtained his doctorate in 1995, for research
carried out in this field in the years from 1986. At the time, he was
the first Research Director of the Mensa Foundation for Gifted Children.
His work challenged the difficult childhood hypothesis, concluding that
gifted children, by and large, do not have any more difficult
childhoods than mainstream children and, in fact, that where they do,
their giftedness probably helps them cope better than mainstream
children and provided the material for his subsequent book Educating a Gifted Child.
In Identifying Gifted Children: A Practical Guide, Susan
K. Johnsen (2004) explains that gifted children all exhibit the
potential for high performance in the areas included in the United
States federal definition of gifted and talented students:
The term 'gifted and talented' when used in respect to students, children, or youth means [those who show] evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities.
— P.L. 103–382, Title XIV, p. 388
The National Association for Gifted Children in the United States defines giftedness as:
Gifted individuals are those who
demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional
ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or
achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include
any structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g.,
mathematics, music, language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g.,
painting, dance, sports).
The development of ability or talent is a lifelong process. It can be
evident in young children as exceptional performance on tests and/or
other measures of ability or as a rapid rate of learning, compared to
other students of the same age, or in actual achievement in a domain. As
individuals mature through childhood to adolescence, however,
achievement and high levels of motivation in the domain become the
primary characteristics of their giftedness. Various factors can either
enhance or inhibit the development and expression of abilities.
This definition has been adopted in part or completely by the
majority of the states in the United States. Most have some definition
similar to that used in the State of Texas, whose definition states:
[The phrase] 'gifted and talented
student' means a child or youth who performs at or shows the potential
for performing at a remarkably high level of accomplishment when
compared to others of the same age, experience, or environment, and who:
exhibits high performance capability in an intellectual, creative, or artistic area;
possesses an unusual capacity for leadership; or
excels in a specific academic field.
— 74th legislature of the State of Texas, Chapter 29, Subchapter D, Section 29.121
The major characteristics of these definitions are (a) the diversity
of areas in which performance may be exhibited (e.g., intellectual,
creative, artistic, leadership, academic), (b) the comparison with other
groups (e.g., those in general education classrooms or of the same age,
experience, or environment), and (c) the use of terms that imply a need
for development of the gift (e.g., capability and potential).
Reliance on IQ
In her book, Identifying Gifted Children: A Practical Guide,
Susan K. Johnsen (2004) writes that schools should use a variety of
measures of students' capability and potential when identifying gifted
children. These measures may include portfolios of student work,
classroom observations, achievement measures, and intelligence scores.
Most educational professionals accept that no single measure can be used
in isolation to accurately identify every gifted child.
Even if the notion of IQ is generally useful for identifying
academically talented students who would benefit from further services,
the question of the cutoff point for giftedness is still important. As
noted above, different authorities often define giftedness differently.
History
Classical era to Renaissance
Gifted and talented education dates back thousands of years. Plato (c. 427–c. 347 BCE) advocated providing specialized education for intellectually gifted young men and women. In China's Tang Dynasty (580-618 CE), child prodigies were summoned to the imperial court for specialized education. Throughout the Renaissance, those who exhibited creative talent in art, architecture, and literature were supported by both the government and private patronage.
Francis Galton
Francis Galton
conducted one of the earliest Western studies of human intellectual
abilities. Between 1888 and 1894, Galton tested more than 7,500
individuals to measure their natural intellectual abilities. He found
that if a parent deviates from the norm, so will the child, but to a
lesser extent than the parent. This was one of the earliest observed examples of regression toward the mean. Galton believed that individuals could be improved through interventions in heredity, a movement he named eugenics. He categorized individuals as gifted, capable, average,
or degenerate, and he recommended breeding between the first two
categories, and forced abstinence for the latter two. His term for the
most intelligent and talented people was "eminent". After studying
England's most prominent families, Galton concluded that one's eminence
was directly related to the individual's direct line of heredity.
Lewis Terman
At Stanford University in 1918, Lewis Terman adapted Alfred Binet's Binet-Simon intelligence test into the Stanford-Binet test, and introduced intelligence quotient
(IQ) scoring for the test. According to Terman, the IQ was one's mental
age compared to one's chronological age, based on the mental age norms
he compiled after studying a sample of children. He defined intelligence as "the ability to carry on abstract thinking". During World War I
Terman was a commissioned officer of the United States Army, and
collaborated with other psychologists in developing intelligence tests
for new recruits to the armed forces. For the first time, intelligence
testing was given to a wide population of drafted soldiers.
After the war, Terman undertook an extensive longitudinal study of 643 children in California who scored at IQ 140 or above, the Genetic Studies of Genius,
continuing to evaluate them throughout their lives. Subjects of these
case studies were called "Termites" and the studies contacted the
children in 1921, and again in 1930, 1947, and 1959 after his death.
Terman's studies have to date been the most extensive on
high-functioning children, and are still quoted in psychological
literature today. Terman claimed to have disproven common
misconceptions, such as that highly intelligent children were prone to
ill physical and mental health, that their intelligence burned out early
in their lives, or that they either achieved greatly or underachieved.
Leta Hollingworth
A professional colleague of Terman's, Leta Hollingworth
was the first in the United States to study how best to serve students
who showed evidence of high performance on tests. Although recognizing
Terman's and Galton's beliefs that heredity played a vital role in
intelligence, Hollingworth gave similar credit to home environment and
school structure. Hollingworth worked to dispel the pervasive belief that "bright children take care of themselves"
and emphasized the importance of early identification, daily contact,
and grouping gifted children with others with similar abilities.
Hollingworth performed an 18-year-long study of 50 children in New York
City who scored 155 or above on the Stanford-Binet, and studied smaller
groups of children who scored above a 180. She also ran a school in New
York City for bright students that employed a curriculum of student-led
exploration, as opposed to a teacher providing students with a more
advanced curriculum they would encounter later in life.
Cold War
One unforeseen result of the launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union was the immediate emphasis on education for bright students in the United States, and this settled the question whether the federal government should get involved in public education at all. The National Defense Education Act
(NDEA) was passed by Congress in 1958 with $1 billion US to bolster
science, math, and technology in public education. Educators immediately
pushed to identify gifted students and serve them in schools.
Students chosen for gifted services were given intelligence tests with a
strict cutoff, usually at 130, which meant that students who scored
below 130 were not identified.
Marland Report
The impact of the NDEA
was evident in schools for years after, but a study on how effective
education was meeting the needs of gifted students was initiated by the United States Department of Education in 1969. The Marland Report,
completed in 1972, for the first time presented a general definition of
giftedness, and urged districts to adopt it. The report also allowed
students to show high functioning on talents and skills not measurable
by an intelligence test. The Marland Report defined gifted as
"Children
capable of high performance include those with demonstrated achievement
and/or potential ability in any of the following areas, singly or in
combination:
The report's definition continues to be the basis of the definition of giftedness in most districts and states.
A Nation at Risk
In 1983, the result of an 18-month-long study of secondary students was published as A Nation at Risk,
and claimed that students in the United States were no longer receiving
superior education, and in fact, could not compete with students from
other developed countries in many academic exercises. One of the
recommendations the book made was to increase services to gifted
education programs, citing curriculum enrichment or acceleration
specifically. The US federal government was also urged to create
standards for the identification and servicing of gifted students.
Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act
The Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act was passed in 1988 as part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Instead of funding district-level gifted education programs, the Javits Act instead has three primary components: the research
of effective methods of testing, identification, and programming, which
is performed at the National Research Center on the Gifted and
Talented; the awarding of grants to colleges, states, and districts that
focus on underrepresented populations of gifted students; and grants
awarded to state and districts for program implementation.
Annual funding for grants must be passed by US Congress, and totaled $9.6 million US in 2007, but the money is not promised. While he was president, George W. Bush
eliminated the money every year of his term, but members of Congress
overrode the president to make sure the grant money was distributed.
No Child Left Behind
The most recent US federal education initiative was signed into law in 2002. The goal of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is to bring the proficiency of all students to grade level
but critics note it does not address the needs of gifted students who
perform above grade level. The act imposes punishments on schools,
administrators, and teachers when students do not achieve to the plan's
designs, but does not address any achievement standards for
high-functioning students, forcing schools and teachers to spend their
time with low-achieving students. An article in The Washington Post
declared, "The unmistakable message to teachers -- and to students --
is that it makes no difference whether a child barely meets the
proficiency standard or far exceeds it." Gifted services have been recently eroding as a result of the new legislation, according to a 2006 article in The New York Times.
Public gifted education in Australia varies significantly from state to state. New South Wales
has 95 primary schools with opportunity classes catering to students in
year 5 and 6. New South Wales also has 17 fully selective secondary
schools and 25 partially selective secondary schools. Western Australia has selective programs in 17 high schools, including Perth Modern School, a fully selective school. Queensland has 3 Queensland Academies catering to students in years 10,11 and 12. South Australia has programs in 3 public high schools catering to students in years 8,9 and 10, including Glenunga International High School. The Victorian Government commissioned a parliamentary inquiry into the education of gifted and talented children in 2012.
One recommendation from the inquiry was for the Victorian Government to
list the schools with programs, but the government has not implemented
this recommendation. Some private schools have developed programs for
gifted children.
The Centre for Talent and Potential Development (CEDET) is a special education center created by Zenita Guenther in Lavras,
MG, Brazil, in 1993. CEDET is run by the Lavras School System with
technical and civil responsibility delegated to the Association of
Parents and Friends for Supporting Talent (ASPAT). Its main goal is to
cultivate the proper physical and social environment for complementing
and supplementing educational support to the gifted and talented
student. At present, there are 512 gifted students age 7 to 17 enrolled
at CEDET, around 5% of Lavras Basic School population. The students come
from thirteen Municipal Schools, eight State Schools and two private
schools, plus a group of students from nearby communities brought in by
their families.
Canada
Queen Elizabeth High School in Calgary offers the GATE Program to both Division 3 and 4 (in total, Grades 7–12)
In Alberta, the Calgary Board of Education
(CBE) has various elementary, middle and high schools offering the GATE
Program, standing for Gifted and Talented Education, for Grades 4–12,
or Divisions 2–4. The program for students, who, through an IQ test,
ranked in the Very Superior Range; falling into Gifted or Genius. For
each of the three divisions, there are 2 schools offering GATE, one for
the North Side of the city (CBE Areas I, II and III) and one for the
South Side (CBE Areas IV and V). For Division 2, or Grades 4–6, it is
available at Hillhurst Elementary School for the North and Nellie
McClung Elementary School for the South. For Division 3, or Grades 7–9,
it is available at Queen Elizabeth High School
for the North and John Ware Junior High School for the South. For
Division 3, or Grades 10–12, Queen Elizabeth High School, which is a
joint Junior High-Senior High offers it for the North and Henry Wise Wood Senior High School
offers it for the south. GATE classes go more in-depth and cover some
curriculum for the following grade level, with tougher assignments and a
faster learning pace. Students benefit from being around other students
like them. These students attend the school alongside regular students
and those in other programs (e.g. IB and AP.)
In the 2014–15 school year, students from Grades 4–7 in the south will
be attending Louis Riel Junior High School, already home to a science
program, and students in the regular program there will be moved to
Nellie McClung and John Ware. Students at John Ware will be phased out:
eighth grade GATE will end in June 2015, and ninth grade GATE will end
in 2016, while GATE will be expanding to Grade 9 at Louis Riel by
September 2016. Prior to John Ware, the GATE program was housed at
Elboya. A large number of teachers from Nellie McClung and John Ware
will be moving to the new location, which was picked to deal with
student population issues and to concentrate resources. Notable alumni of the CBE GATE Program include the 36th mayor of Calgary, Naheed Nenshi, from Queen Elizabeth High School.
In British Columbia, the Vancouver Board of Education's gifted
program is called Multi-Age Cluster Class or MACC. This is a
full-time program for highly gifted elementary students from grades 4 to
7. Through project-based learning, students are challenged to use
higher order thinking skills. Another focus of the program is autonomous
learning; students are encouraged to self-monitor, self-reflect and
seek out enrichment opportunities. Entrance to the program is initiated
through referral followed by a review by a screening committee. IQ tests
are used but not exclusively. Students are also assessed by
performance, cognitive ability tests, and motivation. There are 4 MACCs
in Vancouver: grade 4/5 and grade 6/7 at Sir William Osler Elementary,
grade 5/6/7 at Tecumseh Elementary, and a French Immersion grade 5/6/7
at Kerrisdale Elementary.
At a lower scale, in Ontario, the Peel District School Board operates its Regional Enhanced Program at The Woodlands School, Lorne Park Secondary School, Glenforest Secondary School, Heart Lake Secondary School and Humberview Secondary School
to provide students an opportunity to develop and explore skills in a
particular area of interest. Students identified as gifted (which the
PDSB classifies as "enhanced") may choose to attend the nearest of these
high schools instead of their assigned home high school. In the
Regional Enhanced Program, enhanced students take core courses
(primarily, but not limited to English, mathematics, and the sciences)
in an environment surrounded by fellow enhanced peers. The classes often
contain modified assignments that encourage students to be creative.
Hong Kong
Definition of giftedness
The Education Commission Report No.4 issued in 1990 recommended a policy on gifted education for schools in Hong Kong and suggested that a broad definition of giftedness using multiple criteria should be adopted.
Gifted children generally have exceptional achievement or potential in one or more of the following domains:
a high level of measured intelligence;
specific academic aptitude in a subject area;
creative thinking;
superior talent in visual and performing arts;
natural leadership of peers; and
psychomotor ability - outstanding performance or ingenuity in
athletics, mechanical skills or other areas requiring gross or fine
motor coordination;
In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was
generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was
inherited; and that human beings - initially a blank slate - could be
trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an
appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers believe
precisely the opposite; that there exists a multitude of intelligences,
quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own
strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at
birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go
against early 'naive' theories of that challenge the natural lines of
force within an intelligence and its matching domains. (Gardner 1993:
xxiii)
Howard Gardner
initially formulated a list of seven intelligences, but later added an
eighth, that are intrinsic to the human mind: linguistic,
logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, musical, bodily kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist intelligences.
It has become widely accepted at both local and international scales to
adopt a broad definition of giftedness using multiple criteria to
formulate gifted education policy.
Mission and principles
The
mission of gifted education is to systematically and strategically
explore and develop the potential of gifted students. Gifted learners
are to be provided with opportunities to receive education at
appropriate levels in a flexible teaching and learning environment.
The guiding principles for gifted education in Hong Kong are:
Nurturing multiple intelligences as a requirement of basic
education for all students and an essential part of the mission for all
schools
The needs of gifted children are best met within their own schools
though it is recognized that opportunities to learn with similarly
gifted students are important. Schools have an obligation to provide
stimulating and challenging learning opportunities for their students
The identification of gifted students should recognize the breadth of multiple intelligences
Schools should ensure that the social and emotional, as well as the
intellectual, needs of gifted children are recognized and met.
Framework
Based on these guiding principles, a three-tier gifted education framework
was adopted in 2000. Levels 1 & 2 are recognised as being
school-based whilst Level 3 is the responsibility of the HKAGE. The
intention is that Level 1 serves the entire school population,
irrespective of ability, that Level 2 deals with between 2-10% of the
ability group, and that Level 3 caters for the top 2% of students.
Level 1:
A. To immerse the core elements advocated in gifted education
i.e. High-order thinking skills, creativity and personal-social
competence in the curriculum for ALL students;
B. To differentiate teaching through appropriate grouping of
students to meet the different needs of the groups with enrichment and
extension of curriculum across ALL subjects in regular classrooms.
Level 2:
C. To conduct pull-out programmes of generic nature outside the
regular classroom to allow systematic training for a homogeneous group
of students (e.g. Creativity training, leadership training, etc.);
D. To conduct pull-out programme in specific areas (e.g. Maths,
Arts, etc.) outside the regular classroom to allow systematic training
for students with outstanding performance in specific domains.
Level 3:
E. Tertiary institutions and other educational organizations /
bodies, such as the Hong Kong Academy for Gifted Education and other
universities in Hong Kong to provide a wide and increasing range of
programmes for gifted students
India
In India, Jnana Prabodhini Prashala
started in 1968, is probably the first school for gifted education. The
motto is "motivating intelligence for social change." The school,
located in central Pune, admits 80 students each year, after thorough
testing, which includes two written papers and an interview. The
psychology department of Jnana Prabodhini has worked on J. P. Guilford's
model of intelligence.
Iran
National Organization for Development of Exceptional Talents (NODET), also known as SAMPAD (Persian: سمپاد, which stands for سازمان ملی پرورش استعدادهای درخشان
in Persian), are national middle and high schools in Iran developed
specifically for the development of exceptionally talented students in
Iran. NODET was first established in 1976 and re-established in 1987.
Admission to NODET schools is selective and based on a comprehensive nationwide entrance examination procedure.
Every year thousands of students apply to enter the schools, from
which less than 5% are chosen for the 99 middle schools and 98 high
schools within the country. All applicants must have a minimum GPA of 19
(out of 20) for attending the entrance exam. In 2006, 87,081 boys and
83,596 girls from 56 cities applied, and 6,888 students were accepted
for the 2007 middle school classes. The admission process is much more
selective in big cities like Tehran, Isfahan, Mashhad and Karaj in which less than 150 students are accepted after two exams and interviews, out of over 50,000 applicants.
The top NODET (and Iranian) schools are Allameh Helli High School and Shahid Madani High School (in Tabriz), Farzanegan High School located in Tehran, Shahid Ejei High School located in Isfahan, Shahid Hashemi Nejad High School located in Mashhad and Shahid Soltani School located in Karaj. Courses taught in NODET schools are college-level in fields such as biology, chemistry, mathematics, physics and English.
The best teachers from the ministry of education are chosen mainly by
the school's principal and faculty to teach at NODET schools. Schools
mainly have only two majors (normal schools have three majors),
math/physics and experimental sciences (like math/physics but with
biology as the primary course). Even though social sciences are taught,
there is much less emphasis on these subjects due to the lack of
interest by both students and the organization.
Norway
Norway has no centre for gifted or talented children or youth. However, there is the privately run Barratt Due Institute of Music
which offers musical kindergarten, evening school and college for
highly talented young musicians. There is also the public secondary
school for talents in ballet at Ruseløkka school in Oslo, which admits
the top 15 dancers. In athletics, the privately run Norwegian Elite
Sports Gymnasium (NTG) offers secondary school for talents in five
locations in Norway. This account might not be complete.
Education for the scientifically gifted in Korea can be traced back to the 1983 government founding of Gyeonggi Science High School. Following three later additions (Korea Science Academy of KAIST, Seoul Science High School and Daegu Science High School),
approximately 1,500, or 1 in 1,300 (0.08 percent) of high school
students are currently enrolled among its four gifted academies. By
2008, about 50,000, or 1 in 140 (0.7 percent) of elementary and middle
school students participated in education for the gifted. In 2005, a
program was undertaken to identify and educate gifted children of
socioeconomically underprivileged people. Since then, more than 1,800
students have enrolled in the program.
Gradually the focus has expanded over time to cover informatics,
arts, physical education, creative writing, humanities, and social
sciences, leading to the 2008 creation of the government funded Korean National Institute for the Gifted Arts.
To pluralize the need for trained professional educators, teachers
undergo basic training (60 hours), advanced training (120 hours), and
overseas training (60 hours) to acquire skills necessary to teach gifted
youth.
In Singapore, the Gifted Education Programme
(GEP) was introduced in 1984 and is offered in the upper primary years
(Primary 4–6, ages 10–12). Pupils undergo rigorous testing in Primary 3
(age 9) for admission into the GEP for Primary 4 to 6. About 1% of the
year's cohort are admitted into the programme.
The GEP is offered at selected schools, meaning that these pupils
attend school alongside their peers in the mainstream curriculum but
attend separate classes for certain subjects. As of the 2016 academic
year, there are 9 primary schools which offer the GEP.
Slovakia
The
School for Gifted Children in Bratislava was established in 1998. It
offers education known as APROGEN—Alternative Program for Gifted
Education.
Turkey
The UYEP Research and Practice Center offers enriched programs for gifted students at Anadolu University. The center was founded by Ugur Sak in 2007. ANABILIM Schools
have special classrooms for gifted and talented students. These schools
apply the differentiated curriculum in the sciences, mathematics,
language arts, social studies, and the arts for K8 gifted and talented
students and enriched science and project-based learning
in high school. There are over 200 science and art centers operated by
the Ministry of Education that offer special education for gifted and
talented students throughout the country. The Ministry uses the Anadolu
Sak Intelligence Scale (ASIS) and the Wechsler Scales to select students for these centers. Four universities offer graduate programs in gifted education.
United Kingdom
In
England, schools are expected to identify 5-10% of students who are
gifted and/or talented in relation to the rest of the cohort in that
school—an approach that is pragmatic (concerned with ensuring schools
put in place some provision for their most able learners) rather than
principled (in terms of how to best understand giftedness).
The term gifted applies to traditional academic subjects, and talented
is used in relation to high levels of attainment in the creative arts
and sports. The National Academy for Gifted and Talented Youth ran from 2002 to 2007 at the University of Warwick. Warwick University decided not to reapply for the contract to run NAGTY in 2007, instead introducing its own programme, the International Gateway for Gifted Youth in 2008. In January 2010, the government announced that NAGTY was to be scrapped the following month.
United States
In the United States, each state department of education
determines if the needs of gifted students will be addressed as a
mandatory function of public education. If so, the state determines the
definition of which students will be identified and receive services,
but may or may not determine how they shall receive services. If a state
does not consider gifted education mandatory, individual districts may,
thus the definition of what gifted is varies from state or district.
In contrast with special education, gifted education is not regulated on a federal level, although recommendations by the US Department of Education
are offered. As such, funding for services is not consistent from state
to state, and although students may be identified, the extent to which
they receive services can vary widely depending upon a state or
district's budget.
Although schools with higher enrollment of minority or low-income
students are just as likely to offer gifted programs as other schools,
differing enrollment rates across racial and ethnic groups has raised
concerns about equity in gifted education in the U.S.
Gifted education programs are also offered at various private schools. For example, the Mirman School caters to children with an IQ of 138 and above.
Commonly used terms
Source: National Association for Gifted Children—Frequently Used Terms in Gifted Education
Affective curriculum: A curriculum that is designed to teach gifted students about emotions, self-esteem, and social skills.
This can be valuable for all students, especially those who have been
grouped with much older students, or who have been rejected by their
same-age, but academically typical, peers.
Differentiation:
modification of a gifted student's curriculum to accommodate their
specific needs. This may include changing the content or ability level
of the material.
Heterogeneous grouping: a strategy that groups students of varied
ability, preparedness, or accomplishment in a single classroom
environment. Usually this terminology is applied to groupings of
students in a particular grade, especially in elementary school. For
example, students in fifth grade would be heterogeneously grouped in
math if they were randomly assigned to classes instead of being grouped
by demonstrated subject mastery. Heterogeneous grouping is sometimes
claimed to provide a more effective instructional environment for less
prepared students.
Homogeneous grouping: a strategy that groups students by specific
ability, preparedness, or interest within a subject area. Usually this
terminology is applied to groupings of students in a particular grade,
especially in elementary school. For example, students in fifth grade
would be homogeneously grouped in math if they were assigned to classes
based on demonstrated subject mastery rather than being randomly
assigned. Homogeneous grouping can provide more effective instruction
for the most prepared students.
Individualized Education Program
(IEP): a written document that addresses a student's specific
individual needs. It may specify accommodations, materials, or classroom
instruction. IEPs are often created for students with disabilities, who
are required by law to have an IEP when appropriate. Most states are
not required to have IEPs for students who are only identified as
gifted. Some students may be intellectually gifted in addition to having
learning and/or attentional disabilities, and may have an IEP that
includes, for instance, enrichment activities as a means of alleviating boredom or frustration,
or as a reward for on-task behavior. In order to warrant such an IEP, a
student needs to be diagnosed with a separate emotional or learning disability that is not simply the result of being unchallenged in a typical classroom. These are also known as Individual Program Plans, or IPPs.
Justification
Researchers
and practitioners in gifted education contend that, if education were
to follow the medical maxim of "first, do no harm," then no further
justification would be required for providing resources for gifted
education as they believe gifted children to be at-risk. The notion that gifted children are "at-risk" was publicly declared in the Marland Report in 1972:
Gifted and Talented children are, in fact, deprived and can suffer
psychological damage and permanent impairment of their abilities to
function well which is equal to or greater than the similar deprivation
suffered by any other population with special needs served by the Office
of Education.
Three decades later, a similar statement was made by researchers in the field:
National efforts to increase the availability of a variety of
appropriate instructional and out-of-school provisions must be a high
priority since research indicates that many of the emotional or
social difficulties gifted students experience disappear when their
educational climates are adapted to their level and pace of learning." [emphasis added]
Controversies
Controversies
concerning gifted education are varied and often highly politicized.
They are as basic as agreeing upon the appropriateness of the term
'gifted' or the definition of 'giftedness'. For example, does
'giftedness' refer to performance or potential (such as inherent
intelligence)? Many students do not exhibit both at the same time.
Measures of general intelligence also remain controversial. Early
IQ tests were notorious for producing higher IQ scores for privileged
races and classes and lower scores for disadvantaged subgroups. Although
IQ tests have changed substantially over the past half century, and
many objections to the early tests have been addressed by 'culture
neutral' tests (such as the Raven test),
IQ testing remains controversial. Regardless of the tests used to
identify children for gifted programs, many school districts in the
United States still have disproportionately more White and Asian
American students enrolled in their gifted programs, while Hispanic and
African American students are usually underrepresented. However, research shows that this may be not be a fault of tests, but rather a result of the achievement gap in the United States.
Some schools and districts only accept IQ tests as evidence of
giftedness. This brings scrutiny to the fact that many affluent families
can afford to consult with an educational psychologist to test their children, whereas families with a limited income cannot afford the test and must depend on district resources.
Appropriateness of forms of gifted education
This
is the most hotly debated aspect of gifted education. Some people
believe that gifted education resources lack availability and
flexibility. They feel that in the alternative methods of gifted
education, the gifted students "miss out" on having a "normal"
childhood, at least insofar as "normal childhood" is defined as
attending school in a mixed-ability classroom. Others believe that
gifted education allows gifted students to interact with peers that are
on their level, be adequately challenged, and leaves them better
equipped to take on the challenges of life.
Another facet of this controversy is the effectiveness of the
programs dependent upon resources that are pushed more toward students
who are struggling. Gifted Education is not mandated in many states,
making it elective for districts to earmark money for. Many
lower-achieving districts and schools must make crisis decisions on
programs that are not high priorities. As a result, gifted students at
these schools are not served, or not served effectively.
Class and ethnicity
Gifted
programs are often seen as being elitist in places where the majority
of students receiving gifted services are from a privileged background.
Identifying and serving gifted children from poverty presents unique
challenges, ranging from emotional issues arising from a family's
economic insecurity, to gaps in pre-school cognitive development due to
the family's lack of education and time.
In New York City experience has shown that basing admission to
gifted and talented programs on tests of any sort can result in
selection of substantially more middle-class and white or Asian students
and development of more programs in schools that such students attend.
Emotional aspects
While
giftedness is seen as an academic advantage, psychologically it can
pose other challenges for the gifted individual. A person who is
intellectually advanced may or may not be advanced in other areas. Each
individual student needs to be evaluated for physical, social, and
emotional skills without the traditional prejudices which prescribe
either "compensatory" weaknesses or "matching" advancement in these
areas.
It is a common misconception that gifted students are universally gifted in all areas of academics,
and these misconceptions can have a variety of negative emotional
effects on a gifted child. Unrealistically high expectations of academic
success are often placed on gifted students by both parents and
teachers.
This pressure can cause gifted students to experience high levels of
anxiety, to become perfectionists, and to develop a fear of failure.
Gifted students come to define themselves and their identity through
their giftedness, which can be problematic as their entire self-concept
can be shaken when they do not live up to the unrealistically high
expectations of others.
A person with significant academic talents often finds it difficult to fit in with schoolmates. These pressures often wane during adulthood, but they can leave a significant negative impact on emotional development.
Social pressures can cause children to "play down" their intelligence in an effort to blend in with other students. "Playing down" is a strategy often used by students with clinical depression
and is seen somewhat more frequently in socially acute adolescents.
This behavior is usually discouraged by educators when they recognize
it. Unfortunately, the very educators who want these children to
challenge themselves and to embrace their gifts and talents are often
the same people who are forced to discourage them in a mixed-ability
classroom, through mechanisms like refusing to call on the talented
student in class so that typical students have an opportunity to
participate.
Students who are young, enthusiastic or aggressive are more
likely to attract attention and to disrupt the class by working ahead,
giving the correct answers all the time, asking for new assignments, or
finding creative ways to entertain themselves while the rest of the
class finishes an assignment. This behavior can be mistaken for ADHD.
Many parents of gifted find that it is the social-emotional
aspect of their children's lives that needs support. Schools and talent
development programs often focus on academic enrichment rather than
providing time for gifted children to have the social interaction with
true peers that is required for healthy development. National
organizations such as Supporting Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG) as well as local organizations, have emerged in an effort to meet these needs.
It can also happen that some unidentified gifted students will
get bored in regular class, daydream and lose track of where the class
is in a lecture, and the teacher becomes convinced that the student is
slow and struggling with the material.
Finally, gifted and talented students are statistically somewhat more likely to be diagnosed with a mental disorder such as bipolar disorder and to become addicted to drugs or alcohol. Gifted and talented students also have a higher chance of co-occurring learning disability. Gifted students with learning disabilities are often called twice exceptional. These students can require special attention in school.
Gender
Another
area of controversy has been the marginalization of gifted females with
studies attributing it to self-efficacy, acculturation and biological
differences in aptitude between boys and girls for advanced mathematics.
Test preparation
In
the United States, particularly in New York City where qualifying
children as young as four are enrolled in enriched kindergarten classes
offered by the public schools, a test preparation
industry has grown up which closely monitors the nature of tests given
to prospective students of gifted and talented programs. This can result
in admission of significant numbers of students into programs who lack
superior natural intellectual talent and exclusion of naturally talented
students who did not participate in test preparation or lacked the
resources to do so.
It is virtually impossible to train a child for a WISC test or other gifted test.
Some websites are known for publishing test questions and answers,
although using these is considered illegal since it is highly
confidential information. It would also be disastrous if a non-gifted student was placed in a gifted program.
Reviewing actual test questions can confuse children and stifles their
natural thinking process, however reviewing similar style questions is a
possibility.
Private gifted assessment is usually expensive and educators
recommend that parents take advantage of online screening tests to give a
preliminary indication of potential giftedness.
Another way to screen for giftedness before requesting a psychological
assessment is to do a curriculum-based assessment. Curriculum-based
assessment is a form of achievement testing that focuses specifically on
what the child has been exposed to in their academic career. It can be
done through school or a private educational center. Although this can
determine if a child's performance in school potentially signifies
giftedness, there are complications. For example, if a child changes
school districts or country of residence, the different terminology of
curriculum could hold that child back. Secondly, discrepancies between
school districts, along with public and private education, create a very
wide range of potential knowledge bases.
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