Benzene in soft drinks is of potential concern due to the carcinogenic nature of the benzene molecule. This contamination is a public health
concern and has caused significant outcry among environmental and
health advocates. Benzene levels are regulated in drinking water
nationally and internationally, and in bottled water in the United States, but only informally in soft drinks. The benzene forms from decarboxylation of the preservativebenzoic acid in the presence of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and metal ions (iron and copper) that act as catalysts, especially under heat and light.
Benzene in soft drinks has to be seen in the context of other
environmental exposure. Taking the worst example found to date of a soft
drink containing 87.9 ppb benzene,
someone drinking a 350 ml (12 oz) can would ingest 31 μg (micrograms)
of benzene, almost equivalent to the benzene inhaled by a motorist
refilling a fuel tank for three minutes. While there are alternatives to
using sodium benzoate as a preservative, the casual consumption of such
a drink is unlikely to pose a significant health hazard to a particular
individual (see, for example, the EPA IRIS document on benzene).
The UK Food Standards Agency has stated that people would need to
drink at least 20 litres (5.5 gal) per day of a drink containing
benzene at 10 μg to equal the amount of benzene they would breathe from
city air every day. Daily personal exposure to benzene is determined by adding exposure from all sources.
Air: A European study found that people breathe in 220 μg of
benzene every day due to general atmospheric pollution. A motorist
refilling a fuel tank for three minutes would inhale a further 32 μg. The estimated daily exposure from "automobile-related activities" is 49 μg and for driving for one hour is 40 μg.
Smoking: For smokers, cigarette smoking is the main source of
exposure to benzene. Estimates are 7900 μg per day (smoking 20
cigarettes per day), 1820 μg/day, and 1800 μg/day.
Passive smoking: Benzene intake from passive smoking is estimated at 63 μg/day (Canada) and 50 μg/day.
Diet and drinking water: 0.2 to 3.1 μg per day.
History
1990s
In 1990, a study reported having found benzene in bottles of Perrier for sale in the United States, resulting in a voluntary product recall.
In the early 1990s, the soft drink industry initially approached FDA with concerns about benzene
formation in soft drinks. Following testing, FDA asked manufacturers to
voluntarily reformulate. By 1993, FDA determined that most drinks had
little benzene contamination.
In 1993, research showed how benzene can form from benzoic acid in the presence of vitamin C.
In the summer of 1998, a number of well known soft drinks
manufacturers had to withdraw large quantities of their products from
sale after benzene contamination in some production plants was
discovered.
2005
In November 2005, the FDA received test results conducted by private citizens that benzene was forming at low levels in several types of beverages.
In December 2005, Germany's Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung) published a review of benzene's possible formation in foods and drinks.
2006
In February 2006, an unnamed former chemist at the FDA publicly revealed that benzene may be created as part of a chemical reaction during production of soft drinks, particularly those having an orange flavor. Full-scale investigations immediately started at the Food Standards Agency (UK) and in Germany to reveal exactly which amounts of benzene, if any, were present, with several other organizations awaiting their findings.
The United Kingdom's Food Standards Agency released results on March 31, 2006 for 150 beverages. Its results showed 43 beverages contained benzene, four of which contained levels above the World Health Organization drinking water standards (10 ppb). These four were withdrawn from sale.
In April 2006, the Korea Food & Drug Administration (KFDA) announced that it had detected benzene in 27 out of 30 (90%) vitamin-enriched drinks on sale in South Korea.
It said the detected amount of benzene – ranging from 5.7 to 87.8 ppb –
was not harmful to humans but advised manufacturers of beverages
containing more than 10 ppb of benzene to voluntarily recall their
products.
The FDA released preliminary results in May 2006 for 100 beverages showing that many soft drinks contained low levels of benzene (less than 5 ppb,
the federal drinking water limit) while four drinks contained amounts
above the standard. Two of these drinks contained amounts 15-18 times
above the drinking water standard. Many of the products showed large
variations in the amount of benzene they contained. The FDA stated that
it is working with manufacturers to reformulate products that contain
benzene above the federal drinking water standard.
These test results are both lower and more accurate than a previous long-term study by the FDA. In the Total Diet Study that FDA conducted from 1996 - 2001 to determine the amounts of volatile organic compounds in various foods, FDA used an analytical procedure that caused more benzene to form in the drinks during the test.
The FDA emphasized that most beverages contain levels below 5 ppb and pose no risk to consumers. Furthermore, there are no standards for beverages beyond drinking and bottled water.
On 9 June 2006, Health Canada
released its study results of benzene levels in beverages. Four
products out of 118 had levels above the Canadian guideline of five
micrograms per liter for benzene in drinking water (average range 6.0 to
23.0 μg/L). The follow up study the next year found only three samples
with marginally higher levels and concluded the average levels were
quite low.
On 24 August 2006, two soft drink manufacturers agreed to settle a class-action lawsuit that had been filed by a group of parents in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia.
The two companies, Zone Brands Inc., maker of "BellyWashers" products,
and TalkingRain Beverage Co., denied that their products were harmful,
but agreed to change the ingredients in their drinks.
2008
Coca-Cola announced that it would be phasing out sodium benzoate from many of its drinks, but not Fanta and Sprite. As of August 2012, Coca-Cola Zero and Barq's root beer still contains benzoate (added as potassium salt and sodium salt respectively).
A Belgian study found that plastic packaging may play an important role in the formation of benzene in soft drinks.
Soft drinks are called "soft" in contrast with "hard" alcoholic drinks. Small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0.5% of the total volume of the drink in many countries and localities if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea (even kombucha),
and other such non-alcoholic drinks are technically soft drinks by this
definition, but are not generally referred to as such.
Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts.
In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served
(e.g. airplanes, restaurants and nightclubs), many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor and serving the drink over ice. One well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of various fruit juices and a soft drink (e.g. ginger ale). At ice cream parlors and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats consisting of a soft drink poured over ice cream, such as root beer floats, are often sold. Some types of soft drinks are lemon-lime drinks, orange soda, cola, grape soda, and root beer.
Within a decade of the invention of carbonated water by Joseph Priestley
in 1767 inventors in Britain and in Europe had used his concept to
produce the drink in greater quantities, with one such inventor, J. J. Schweppe, forming Schweppes in 1783 and selling the world's first bottled soft drink. Soft drink brands introduced in the 19th century include R. White's Lemonade in 1845, Dr Pepper in 1885, and Coca-Cola in 1886. Subsequent brands include Pepsi, Irn-Bru, Sprite, Fanta, and 7 UP.
While the term "soft drink" is commonly used in product labeling and
on restaurant menus, in many countries these drinks are more commonly
referred to by regional names, including carbonated drink, cool drink, cold drink, fizzy drink, fizzy juice, lolly water, pop, seltzer, soda, coke, soda pop, tonic, and mineral. Due to the high sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks.
In the United States, the 2003 Harvard
Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names. Over
half of the survey respondents preferred the term "soda", which was
dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas
surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term "pop", which was preferred
by 25% of the respondents, was most popular in the Midwest and Pacific
Northwest, while the genericized trademark "coke", used by 12% of the respondents, was most popular in the Southern United States. The term "tonic" is distinctive to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining.
In the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term "pop" is
prevalent, but "soft drink" is the most common English term used in
Montreal.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the term "fizzy drink" is
common. "Pop" and "fizzy pop" are used in Northern England, South Wales,
and the Midlands, while "mineral"
or "lemonade" (as a general term) are used in Ireland. In Scotland,
"fizzy juice" or even simply "juice" is colloquially encountered. In
Australia and New Zealand, "soft drink" or "fizzy drink" is typically used. In South African English, "cool drink" is any soft drink.
In other languages, various names are used: descriptive names as
"non-alcoholic beverages", equivalents of "soda water", or generalized
prototypical names. For example, the Bohemian variant of the Czech
language (but not Moravian dialects) uses "limonáda" for all such
beverages, not only for those from lemons. Similarly, the Slovak
language uses "malinovka" (= "raspberry water") for all such beverages,
not only for raspberry ones.
History
The origins of soft drinks lie in the development of fruit-flavored drinks. In the medieval Middle East, a variety of fruit-flavored soft drinks were widely drunk, such as sharbat, and were often sweetened with ingredients such as sugar, syrup and honey. Other common ingredients included lemon, apple, pomegranate, tamarind, jujube, sumac, musk, mint and ice. Middle Eastern drinks later became popular in medieval Europe, where the word "syrup" was derived from Arabic. In Tudor England, 'water imperial' was widely drunk; it was a sweetened drink with lemon flavor and containing cream of tartar. 'Manays Cryste' was a
sweetened cordial flavored with rosewater, violets or cinnamon.
Another early type of soft drink was lemonade, made of water and lemon juice sweetened with honey, but without carbonated water. The Compagnie des Limonadiers
of Paris was granted a monopoly for the sale of lemonade soft drinks in
1676. Vendors carried tanks of lemonade on their backs and dispensed
cups of the soft drink to Parisians.
Carbonated drinks
Bubbles of carbon dioxide float to the surface of a carbonated soft drink.
Carbonated drinks or fizzy drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide. The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid, gives rise to fizz or effervescence.
The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When
the pressure is removed, the carbon dioxide is released from the
solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water. Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released.
Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing the flavored syrup
with carbonated water, both chilled. Carbonation levels range up to 5
volumes of CO2 per liquid volume. Ginger ale, colas, and
related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes. Other drinks, often
fruity ones, are carbonated less.
Equipment used by Joseph Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonation of water
In the late 18th century, scientists made important progress in replicating naturally carbonated mineral waters. In 1767, Englishman Joseph Priestley first discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide to make carbonated water when he suspended a bowl of distilled water above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. His invention of carbonated water (also known as soda water) is the major and defining component of most soft drinks.
Priestley found that water treated in this manner had a pleasant
taste, and he offered it to his friends as a refreshing drink. In 1772,
Priestley published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he describes dripping oil of vitriol (or sulfuric acid as it is now called) onto chalk to produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water.
"Within a decade, inventors in Britain and in Europe had taken
Priestley's basic idea—get some "fixed air," mix it with water,
shake—and created contraptions that could make carbonated water more
quickly, in greater quantities.
One of those inventors was named Johann Jacob Schweppe, who sold bottled
soda water and whose business is still around today."
—The Great Soda-Water Shake Up, The Atlantic, October 2014.
Another Englishman, John Mervin Nooth, improved Priestley's design and sold his apparatus for commercial use in pharmacies. Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman
invented a generating apparatus that made carbonated water from chalk
by the use of sulfuric acid. Bergman's apparatus allowed imitation
mineral water to be produced in large amounts. Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius started to add flavors (spices, juices, and wine) to carbonated water in the late eighteenth century. Thomas Henry, an apothecary
from Manchester, was the first to sell artificial mineral water to the
general public for medicinal purposes, beginning in the 1770s. His
recipe for 'Bewley's Mephitic Julep' consisted of 3 drachms of fossil alkali to a quart of water, and the manufacture had to 'throw in streams of fixed air until all the alkaline taste is destroyed'.
Johann Jacob Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonatedmineral water. He founded the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783 to sell carbonated water, and relocated his business to London in 1792. His drink soon gained in popularity; among his newfound patrons was Erasmus Darwin. In 1843, the Schweppes company commercialized Malvern Water at the Holywell Spring in the Malvern Hills, and received a Royal Warrant from King William IV.
It was not long before flavoring was combined with carbonated water. The earliest reference to carbonated ginger beer is in a Practical Treatise on Brewing. published in 1809. The drinking of either natural or artificial mineral water was considered at the time to be a healthy practice, and was promoted by advocates of temperance. Pharmacists selling mineral waters began to add herbs and chemicals to unflavored mineral water. They used birch bark (see birch beer), dandelion, sarsaparilla, fruit extracts, and other substances.
Mass market and industrialization
An 1883 advertisement for Schweppes Mineral-Waters
Soft drinks soon outgrew their origins in the medical world and
became a widely consumed product, available cheaply for the masses. By
the 1840s, there were more than fifty soft drink manufacturers in
London, an increase from just ten in the 1820s. Carbonated lemonade was widely available in British refreshment stalls in 1833, and in 1845, R. White's Lemonade went on sale in the UK. For the Great Exhibition of 1851 held at Hyde Park in London, Schweppes was designated the official drink supplier and sold over a million bottles of lemonade, ginger beer, Seltzer water and soda-water. There was a Schweppes soda water fountain, situated directly at the entrance to the exhibition.
Mixer drinks became popular in the second half of the century. Tonic water was originally quinine added to water as a prophylactic against malaria and was consumed by British officials stationed in the tropical areas of South Asia
and Africa. As the quinine powder was so bitter people began mixing the
powder with soda and sugar, and a basic tonic water was created. The
first commercial tonic water was produced in 1858. The mixed drinkgin and tonic also originated in British colonial India, when the British population would mix their medicinal quinine tonic with gin.
The Codd-neck bottle invented in 1872 provided an effective seal, preventing the soft drinks from going 'flat'
A persistent problem in the soft drinks industry was the lack of an effective sealing of the bottles. Carbonated drink bottles
are under great pressure from the gas, so inventors tried to find the
best way to prevent the carbon dioxide or bubbles from escaping. The
bottles could also explode if the pressure was too great. Hiram Codd devised a patented bottling machine while working at a small mineral water works in the Caledonian Road, Islington, in London in 1870. His Codd-neck bottle was designed to enclose a marble and a rubberwasher
in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the
gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the
carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a
chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This
prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.
R. White's, by now the biggest soft drinks company in London and
south-east England, featured a wide range of drinks on their price list
in 1887, all of which were sold in Codd's glass bottles, with choices
including strawberry soda, raspberry soda, cherryade and cream soda.
New York in 1890. A street sign "SODA" is visible at the bottom left part of the image
In 1892, the "Crown Cork Bottle Seal" was patented by William Painter,
a Baltimore, Maryland machine shop operator. It was the first bottle
top to successfully keep the bubbles in the bottle. In 1899, the first
patent was issued for a glass-blowing
machine for the automatic production of glass bottles. Earlier glass
bottles had all been hand-blown. Four years later, the new
bottle-blowing machine was in operation. It was first operated by Michael Owens,
an employee of Libby Glass Company. Within a few years, glass bottle
production increased from 1,400 bottles a day to about 58,000 bottles a
day.
In America, soda fountains were initially more popular, and many Americans would frequent the soda fountain daily. Beginning in 1806, Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman sold soda waters in New Haven, Connecticut.
He used a Nooth apparatus to produce his waters. Businessmen in
Philadelphia and New York City also began selling soda water in the
early 19th century. In the 1830s, John Matthews
of New York City and John Lippincott of Philadelphia began
manufacturing soda fountains. Both men were successful and built large
factories for fabricating fountains. Due to problems in the U.S. glass
industry, bottled drinks remained a small portion of the market
throughout much of the 19th century. (However, they were known in
England. In The Tenant of Wildfell Hall,
published in 1848, the caddish Huntingdon, recovering from months of
debauchery, wakes at noon and gulps a bottle of soda-water.)
In the early 20th century, sales of bottled soda increased
exponentially around the world, and in the second half of the 20th
century, canned soft drinks became an important share of the market.
During the 1920s, "Home-Paks" was invented. "Home-Paks" is the familiar six-pack cartons made from cardboard. Vending machines
also began to appear in the 1920s. Since then, soft drink vending
machines have become increasingly popular. Both hot and cold drinks are
sold in these self-service machines throughout the world.
Consumption
Per
capita consumption of soda varies considerably around the world. As of
2014, the top consuming countries per capita were Argentina, the United
States, Chile, and Mexico. Developed countries in Europe and elsewhere
in the Americas had considerably lower consumption. Annual average
consumption in the United States, at 153.5 liters, was about twice that
in the United Kingdom (77.7) or Canada (85.3).
In recent years, soda consumption has generally declined in the
West. According to one estimate, per capita consumption in the United
States reached its peak in 1998 and has continually fallen since. A study in the journal Obesity
found that from 2003 to 2014 the proportion of Americans who drank a
sugary beverage on a given day fell from approximately 62% to 50% for
adults, and from 80% to 61% for children.
The decrease has been attributed to, among other factors, an increased
awareness of the dangers of obesity, and government efforts to improve
diets.
At the same time, soda consumption has increased in some low or middle income countries such as Cameroon, Georgia, India, and Vietnam as soda manufacturers increasingly target these markets and consumers have increasing discretionary income.
Production
A jug of bottler's flavor for 7-Up. The syrup-like concentrate lacks sugar and is sold to franchisees to refill.
Soft drinks are made by mixing dry or fresh ingredients with water.
Production of soft drinks can be done at factories or at home. Soft
drinks can be made at home by mixing a syrup or dry ingredients with carbonated water, or by Lacto-fermentation. Syrups are commercially sold by companies such as Soda-Club; dry ingredients are often sold in pouches, in a style of the popular U.S. drink mix Kool-Aid. Carbonated water is made using a soda siphon or a home carbonation system or by dropping dry ice into water. Food-grade carbon dioxide, used for carbonating drinks, often comes from ammonia plants.
Of most importance is that the ingredient meets the agreed
specification on all major parameters. This is not only the functional
parameter (in other words, the level of the major constituent), but the
level of impurities, the microbiological status, and physical parameters
such as color, particle size, etc.
Some soft drinks contain measurable amounts of alcohol. In some
older preparations, this resulted from natural fermentation used to
build the carbonation. In the United States, soft drinks (as well as
other products such as non-alcoholic beer) are allowed by law to contain up to 0.5% alcohol by volume.
Modern drinks introduce carbon dioxide for carbonation, but there is
some speculation that alcohol might result from fermentation of sugars
in a non-sterile environment. A small amount of alcohol is introduced in
some soft drinks where alcohol is used in the preparation of the
flavoring extracts such as vanilla extract.
Market control of the soft drink industry varies on a country-by-country basis. However, PepsiCo and The Coca-Cola Company remain the two largest producers of soft drinks in most regions of the world. In North America, Keurig Dr Pepper and Jones Soda also hold a significant amount of market share.
Health concerns
The over-consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks is associated with obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, dental caries, and low nutrient levels. Experimental studies tend to support a causal role for sugar-sweetened soft drinks in these ailments, though this is challenged by other researchers. According to a 2013 systematic review of systematic reviews, 83.3% of the systematic reviews without reported conflict of interest concluded that sugar-sweetened soft drinks consumption could be a potential risk factor for weight gain.
Obesity and weight-related diseases
From 1977 to 2002, Americans doubled their consumption of sweetened beverages—a trend that was paralleled by doubling the prevalence of obesity.
The consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with weight
and obesity, and changes in consumption can help predict changes in
weight.
The consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks can also be associated with many weight-related diseases, including diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk factors.
Dental decay
Soft drinks displayed on grocery store shelves.
Most soft drinks contain high concentrations of simple carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, sucrose and other simple sugars. If oral bacteria ferment carbohydrates and produce acids that may dissolve tooth enamel and induce dental decay, then sweetened drinks may increase the risk of dental caries. The risk would be greater if the frequency of consumption is high.
A large number of soda pops are acidic as are many fruits, sauces, and other foods. Drinking acidic drinks over a long period and continuous sipping may erode the tooth enamel. A 2007 study determined that some flavored sparkling waters are as erosive or more so than orange juice.
Using a drinking straw is often advised by dentists as the drink does not come into as much contact with the teeth. It has also been suggested that brushing teeth
right after drinking soft drinks should be avoided as this can result
in additional erosion to the teeth due to mechanical action of the
toothbrush on weakened enamel.
Bone density and bone loss
A
2006 study of several thousand men and women, found that women who
regularly drank cola-based sodas (three or more a day) had significantly
lower bone mineral density (BMD) of about 4% in the hip compared to
women who did not consume colas. The study found that the effect of regular consumption of cola sodas was not significant on men's BMD.
In 2006, the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency published the results of its survey of benzene levels in soft drinks, which tested 150 products and found that four contained benzene levels above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.
The United States Food and Drug Administration released its own test results of several soft drinks containing benzoates and ascorbic or erythorbic acid. Five tested drinks contained benzene levels above the Environmental Protection Agency's recommended standard of 5 ppb.
As of 2006, the FDA stated its belief that "the levels of benzene found
in soft drinks and other beverages to date do not pose a safety concern
for consumers".
Kidney stones
A study published in the Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology in 2013 concluded that consumption of soft drinks was associated with a 23% higher risk of developing kidney stones.
Government regulation
Schools
Since at least 2006, debate on whether high-calorie soft drink vending machines
should be allowed in schools has been on the rise. Opponents of the
soft drink vending machines believe that soft drinks are a significant
contributor to childhood obesity and tooth decay,
and that allowing soft drink sales in schools encourages children to
believe they are safe to consume in moderate to large quantities.
Opponents also argue that schools have a responsibility to look after
the health of the children in their care, and that allowing children
easy access to soft drinks violates that responsibility. Vending machine proponents believe that obesity is a complex issue and soft drinks are not the only cause.
A 2011 bill to tax soft drinks in California failed, with some opposing
lawmakers arguing that parents—not the government—should be responsible
for children's drink choices.
On May 19, 2006, the British education secretary, Alan Johnson,
announced new minimum nutrition standards for school food. Among a wide
range of measures, from September 2006, school lunches will be free
from carbonated drinks. Schools will also end the sale of junk food
(including carbonated drinks) in vending machines and tuck shops.
In 2008, Samantha K Graff published an article in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
regarding the "First Amendment Implications of Restricting Food and
Beverages Marketing in Schools". The article examines a school
district's policy regarding limiting the sale and marketing of soda in
public schools, and how certain policies can invoke a violation of the First Amendment.
Due to district budget cuts and loss in state funding, many school
districts allow commercial businesses to market and advertise their
product (including junk food and soda) to public school students for
additional revenue. Junk food and soda companies have acquired exclusive
rights to vending machines throughout many public school campuses.
Opponents of corporate marketing and advertising on school grounds urge
school officials to restrict or limit a corporation's power to promote,
market, and sell their product to school students. In the 1970s, the
Supreme Court ruled that advertising was not a form of free expression, but a form of business practices which should be regulated by the government. In the 1976 case of Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, the Supreme Court ruled that advertising, or "commercial speech",
to some degree is protected under the First Amendment. To avoid a First
Amendment challenge by corporations, public schools could create
contracts that restrict the sale of certain product and advertising.
Public schools can also ban the selling of all food and drink products
on campus, while not infringing on a corporation's right to free speech.
On December 13, 2010, President Obama signed the Healthy Hunger Free Kids Act of 2010
(effective in 2014) that mandates schools that receive federal funding
must offer healthy snacks and drinks to students. The act bans the
selling of soft drinks to students and requires schools to provide
healthier options such as water, unflavored low-fat milk, 100% fruit and
vegetable drinks or sugar-free carbonated drinks. The portion sizes
available to students will be based on age: eight ounces for elementary
schools, twelve ounces for middle and high schools. Proponents of the
act predict the new mandate it will make it easier for students to make
healthy drink choices while at school.
In 2015, Terry-McElarth and colleagues published a study in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine
on regular soda policies and their effect on school drink availability
and student consumption. The purpose of the study was to determine the
effectiveness of a program beginning in the 2014–2015 school year that
requires schools participating in federally reimbursable meal programs
to remove all competitive venues (a la carte cafeteria sales, vending
machines, and stores/snack bars/carts), on the availability of unhealthy
drinks at schools and student consumption. The study analyzed state-
and school district-level policies mandating soda bans and found that
state bans were associated with significantly lower school soda
availability but district bans showed no significant associations. In
addition, no significant correlation was observed between state policies
and student consumption. Among student populations, state policy was
directly associated with significantly lower school soda availability
and indirectly associated with lower student consumption. The same was
not observed for other student populations.
In the United States, legislators, health experts and consumer advocates are considering levying higher taxes on the sale of soft drinks and other sweetened products to help curb the epidemic of obesity among Americans, and its harmful impact on overall health. Some speculate that higher taxes could help reduce soda consumption.
Others say that taxes should help fund education to increase consumer
awareness of the unhealthy effects of excessive soft drink consumption,
and also help cover costs of caring for conditions resulting from
overconsumption. The food and drink industry holds considerable clout in Washington, DC, as it has contributed more than $50 million to legislators since 2000.
In January 2013, a British lobby group
called for the price of sugary fizzy drinks to be increased, with the
money raised (an estimated £1 billion at 20p per litre) to be put
towards a "Children's Future Fund", overseen by an independent body,
which would encourage children to eat healthily in school.
In 2017, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates
and the Kingdom of Bahrain imposed a 50% tax on soft drinks and a 100%
tax on energy drinks to curb excess consumption of the commodity and for
additional revenue.
Bans
In March 2013, New York City's mayor Michael Bloomberg
proposed to ban the sale of non-diet soft drinks larger than 16 ounces,
except in convenience stores and supermarkets. A lawsuit against the
ban was upheld by a state judge, who voiced concerns that the ban was
"fraught with arbitrary and capricious consequences". Bloomberg
announced that he would be appealing the verdict. The state appellate courts upheld the trial court decision, and the ban remains unenforceable as of 2021.
When the human body becomes dehydrated, a person experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete deprivation of drinks (that is, water) will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance besides oxygen. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.
As society developed, techniques were discovered to create alcoholic drinks from the plants that were available in different areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia (c. 6000 BCE) and Iran (c. 5000 BCE). Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer (and bread) has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization. Tea likely originated in Yunnan, China, during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BCE–1046 BCE) as a medicinal drink.
Drinking has been a large part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a social gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium,
where watered down wine would be drunk. The purpose of these gatherings
could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence. In Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly.
Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of gods such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons. In some regions
with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of
alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion.
Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink. Another tradition is that of the loving cup,
at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will
share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty.
In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in native religious
ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the
Christian church, the Ethiopian Church banned the secular consumption of coffee until the reign of Emperor Menelik II. The drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.
Production
A
drink is a form of liquid which has been prepared for human
consumption. The preparation can include a number of different steps,
some prior to transport, others immediately prior to consumption.
Water is the chief constituent in all drinks, and the primary ingredient in most. Water is purified prior to drinking. Methods for purification include filtration and the addition of chemicals, such as chlorination. The importance of purified water is highlighted by the World Health Organization, who point out 94% of deaths from diarrhea
– the third biggest cause of infectious death worldwide at 1.8 million
annually – could be prevented by improving the quality of the victim's
environment, particularly safe water.
Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation
is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified
temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of
microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurisation is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.
The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables
can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide
a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be
applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing
and pressing are processes used in the production of wine.
Infusion
Infusion
is the process of extracting flavours from plant material by allowing
the material to remain suspended within water. This process is used in
the production of teas, herbal teas and can be used to prepare coffee (when using a coffee press).
The name is derived from the word "percolate" which means to cause (a solvent) to pass through a permeable substance especially for extracting a soluble constituent.
In the case of coffee-brewing the solvent is water, the permeable
substance is the coffee grounds, and the soluble constituents are the
chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, aroma, and
stimulating properties.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol. Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age. In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation. The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine.
When brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients – water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.
Distillation is a method of separatingmixtures based on differences in volatility
of components in a boiling liquid mixture. It is one of the methods
used in the purification of water. It is also a method of producing
spirits from milder alcoholic drinks.
An alcoholicmixed drink
that contains two or more ingredients is referred to as a cocktail.
Cocktails were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc. A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs.
A non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain a sufficiently low concentration of alcohol by volume (ABV). The exact definition of what is "non-alcoholic" and what is not depends on local laws: in the United Kingdom,
"alcohol-free beer" is under 0.05% ABV, "de-alcoholised beer" is under
0.5%, while "low-alcohol beer" can contain no more than 1.2% ABV.
The term "soft drink" specifies the absence of alcohol in contrast to
"hard drink" and "drink". The term "drink" is theoretically neutral, but
often is used in a way that suggests alcoholic content. Drinks such as
soda pop, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, root beer, fruit punch, milk, hot chocolate, tea, coffee, milkshakes, and tap water and energy drinks are all soft drinks.
Water is the world's most consumed drink, however, 97% of water on Earth is non-drinkable salt water. Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and frozen glaciers.
Less than 1% of the Earth's fresh water supplies are accessible through
surface water and underground sources which are cost effective to
retrieve.
In western cultures, water is often drunk cold. In the Chinese culture, it is typically drunk hot.
Milk
Milk is regarded as one of the "original" drinks,
milk is the primary source of nutrition for babies. In many cultures of
the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume
dairy milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a drink.
Carbonated drinks refer to drinks which have carbon dioxide dissolved
into them. This can happen naturally through fermenting and in natural
water spas or artificially by the dissolution of carbon dioxide under
pressure. The first commercially available artificially carbonated drink
is believed to have been produced by Thomas Henry in the late 1770s.
Cola, orange, various roots, ginger, and lemon/lime are commonly used to
create non-alcoholic carbonated drinks; sugars and preservatives may be
added later.
Fruit juice is a natural product that contains few or no additives. Citrus products such as orange juice and tangerine juice are familiar breakfast drinks, while grapefruit juice, pineapple, apple, grape, lime, and lemon juice are also common. Coconut water
is a highly nutritious and refreshing juice. Many kinds of berries are
crushed; their juices are mixed with water and sometimes sweetened.
Raspberry, blackberry and currants
are popular juices drinks but the percentage of water also determines
their nutritive value. Grape juice allowed to ferment produces wine.
Fruits are highly perishable so the ability to extract juices and
store them was of significant value. Some fruits are highly acidic and
mixing them with water and sugars or honey was often necessary to make
them palatable. Fruits can also be blended with ice and other
ingredients to make a smoothie.
Early storage of fruit juices was labor-intensive, requiring the
crushing of the fruits and the mixing of the resulting pure juices with
sugars before bottling.
Vegetable juices are usually served warm or cold. Different types of vegetables can be used to make vegetable juice such as carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, celery
and many more. Some vegetable juices are mixed with some fruit juice to
make the vegetable juice taste better. Many popular vegetable juices,
particularly ones with high tomato content, are high in sodium, and
therefore consumption of them for health must be carefully considered.
Some vegetable juices provide the same health benefits as whole
vegetables in terms of reducing risks of cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Largely regulated throughout the world; 'juice' is often protected to be used for only 100% fruit.
Fruit drink
10%
Fruit is liquefied and water added.
Fruit squash
25%
Produced using strained fruit juice, 45% sugar and preservatives.
Fruit cordial
0%
All 'suspended matter' is eliminated by filtration or clarification. and therefore appears clear This type of drink, if described as 'flavoured,' may not have any amount of fruit.
Fruit punch
25%
A mixture of fruit juices. Contains around 65% sugar.
Fruit syrups
-
1 fruit crushed into puree and left to ferment. Is then heated with sugar to create syrup.
Fruit juice concentrates
100%
Water removed from fruit juice by heating or freezing.
Carbonated fruit drinks
-
Carbon dioxide added to fruit drink.
Fruit nectars
30%
Mixture of fruit pulp, sugar and water which is consumed as 'one shot'.
Fruit Sherbets
-
Cooled drink of sweetened diluted fruit juice.
Sleep drinks
A nightcap is a drink taken shortly before bedtime to induce sleep. For example, a small alcoholic drink or a cup of warm milk can supposedly promote a good night's sleep. Today, most nightcaps and relaxation drinks
are generally non-alcoholic beverages containing calming ingredients.
They are considered beverages which serve to relax a person. Unlike
other calming beverages, such as tea, warm milk or milk with honey;
relaxation drinks almost universally contain more than one active
ingredient. Relaxation drinks have been known to contain other natural
ingredients and are usually free of caffeine and alcohol but some have claimed to contain marijuana.
A drink is considered "alcoholic" if it contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of "alcohol" includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human culture for 8,000 years.
In many countries, imbibing alcoholic drinks in a local bar or pub is a cultural tradition.
Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat. Most beer is also flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included. The preparation of beer is called brewing. Beer is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic drink, and is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is said to have been discovered by goddess Ninkasi
around 5300 BCE, when she accidentally discovered yeast after leaving
grain in jars that were later rained upon and left for several days.
Women have been the chief creators of beer throughout history due to its
association with domesticity and it, throughout much of history, being
brewed in the home for family consumption. Only in recent history have
men begun to dabble in the field. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented drink.
Some of humanity's earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer: the Code of Hammurabi included laws regulating beer and beer parlours, and "The Hymn to Ninkasi",
a prayer to the Mesopotamian goddess of beer, served as both a prayer
and as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few
literate people. Today, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries.
Cider
Cider is a fermentedalcoholic drink made from fruit juice, most commonly and traditionally apple juice, but also the juice of peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider may be made from any variety of apple, but certain cultivars grown solely for use in cider are known as cider apples. The United Kingdom has the highest per capita consumption of cider, as well as the largest cider-producing companies in the world, As of 2006, the U.K. produces 600 million litres of cider each year (130 million imperial gallons).
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermentedgrapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different
styles of wine. The well-known variations result from the very complex
interactions between the biochemical development of the fruit, reactions
involved in fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation,
along with human intervention in the overall process. The final product
may contain tens of thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying
from a few percent to a few parts per billion.
Wines made from produce besides grapes are usually named after the product from which they are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term "wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified drinks having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine, huangjiu, or sake.
Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest production so far discovered having occurred c. 6000 BC in Georgia. It had reached the Balkans by c. 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece and Rome.
From its earliest appearance in written records, wine has also played an important role in religion. Red wine was closely associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians, who, according to Plutarch, avoided its free consumption as late as the 7th-century BC Saite dynasty, "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods". The Greekcult and mysteries of Dionysus, carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were the origins of western theater. Judaism incorporates it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist, while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam.
Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from the roasted seeds of several species of an evergreenshrub of the genusCoffea. The two most common sources of coffee beans are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the "robusta" form of the hardier Coffea canephora. Coffee plants are cultivated in more than 70 countries. Once ripe, coffee "berries"
are picked, processed, and dried to yield the seeds inside. The seeds
are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor,
before being ground and brewed to create coffee.
Coffee is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–5.1) and can have a stimulating effect on humans because of its caffeine content. It is one of the most popular drinks in the world.
It can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. The effect of
coffee on human health has been a subject of many studies; however,
results have varied in terms of coffee's relative benefit.
Coffee cultivation first took place in southern Arabia; the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen.
Hot chocolate
Hot chocolate, also known as drinking chocolate or cocoa, is a heated drink consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder,
heated milk or water, and usually a sweetener. Hot chocolate may be
topped with whipped cream. Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is
sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and
a thicker consistency.
The first chocolate drink is believed to have been created by the Mayans around 2,500-3,000 years ago, and a cocoa drink was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD, by which they referred to as xocōlātl. The drink became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World
and has undergone multiple changes since then. Until the 19th century,
hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver
and stomach diseases.
Hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations, including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America, the very thick cioccolata calda served in Italy and chocolate a la taza
served in Spain, and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United
States. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of
establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, coffeehouses and teahouses. Powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores and online.
Tea, the second most consumed drink in the world, is produced from infusing dried leaves of the camellia sinensis shrub, in boiling water.
There are many ways in which tea is prepared for consumption: lemon or
milk and sugar are among the most common additives worldwide. Other
additions include butter and salt in Bhutan, Nepal, and Tibet; bubble tea in Taiwan; fresh ginger in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; mint in North Africa and Senegal; cardamom in Central Asia; rum to make Jagertee in Central Europe; and coffee to make yuanyang in Hong Kong. Tea is also served differently from country to country: in China and Japan
tiny cups are used to serve tea; in Thailand and the United States tea
is often served cold (as "iced tea") or with a lot of sweetener; Indians
boil tea with milk and a blend of spices as masala chai; tea is brewed with a samovar in Iran, Kashmir, Russia and Turkey; and in the Australian Outback it is traditionally brewed in a billycan.
Tea leaves can be processed in different ways resulting in a drink which
appears and tastes different. Chinese yellow and green tea are steamed,
roasted and dried; Oolong tea is semi-oxidised and appears green-black
and black teas are fully oxidised.
Around the world, people refer to other herbal infusions as "teas"; it is also argued that these were popular long before the Camellia sinensis shrub was used for tea making. Leaves, flowers, roots or bark can be used to make a herbal infusion and can be bought fresh, dried or powdered.
Throughout history, people have come together in establishments to socialise whilst drinking. This includes cafés and coffeehouses, focus on providing hot drinks as well as light snacks. Many coffee houses in the Middle East, and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world, offer shisha (nargile in Turkish and Greek), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah. Espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specialize in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks.
In China and Japan, the establishment would be a tea house, where people would socialise while drinking tea. Chinese scholars have used the teahouse as a place to share ideas.
In contrast, types of bars range from seedy bars or nightclubs, sometimes termed "dive bars", to elegant places of entertainment for the elite. Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. The term "bar" is derived from the specialized counter on which drinks are served. Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go dancers, or strippers. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, or they may sit at tables and be served by cocktail servers.
Food
and drink are often paired together to enhance the taste experience.
This primarily happens with wine and a culture has grown up around the
process. Weight, flavors and textures can either be contrasted or
complemented.
In recent years, food magazines began to suggest particular wines with
recipes and restaurants would offer multi-course dinners matched with a
specific wine for each course.
Presentation
Different
drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption. This is sometimes
purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails. In other
situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups
which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass.
Many glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the
glass without affecting the temperature of the drink. In champagne
glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl. Historically, champagne has been served in a champagne coupe, the shape of which allowed carbonation to dissipate even more rapidly than from a standard wine glass.
Commercial trade
International exports and imports
An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004,
and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world.
Investment
Some drinks, such as wine, can be used as an alternative investment.
This can be achieved by either purchasing and reselling individual
bottles or cases of particular wines, or purchasing shares in an
investment wine fund that pools investors' capital.
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