The Milky Way is a zombie. No, not really, it doesn't go around
eating other galaxies' brains. But it did "die" once, before flaring
back to life. That's what a Japanese scientist has ascertained after
peering into the chemical compositions of our galaxy's stars.
In a large section of the Milky Way, the stars can be divided into two distinct populations
based on their chemical compositions. The first group is more abundant
in what is known as α elements - oxygen, magnesium, silicon, sulphur,
calcium and titanium. The second is less abundant in α elements, and
markedly more abundant in iron.
The existence of these two
distinct populations implies that something different is happening
during the formation stages. But the precise mechanism behind it was
unclear.
Astronomer Masafumi Noguchi of Tohoku University believes
his modelling shows the answer. The two different populations represent
two different periods of star formation, with a quiescent, or "dormant"
period in between, with no star formation.
Based on the theory of cold flow galactic accretion proposed back in 2006, Noguchi has modelled the evolution of the Milky Way over a 10 billion-year period.
Originally,
the cold flow model was suggested for much larger galaxies, proposing
that massive galaxies form stars in two stages. Because of the chemical
composition dichotomy of its stars, Noguchi believes this also applies
to the Milky Way.
That's because the chemical composition of stars is dependent
on the gases from which they are formed. And, in the early Universe,
certain elements - such as the heavier metals - hadn't yet arrived on
the scene, since they were created in stars, and only propagated once
those stars had gone supernova.
In the first stage, according to
Noguchi's model, the galaxy is accreting cold gas from outside. This gas
coalesces to form the first generation of stars.
After about 10
million years, which is a relatively short timescale in cosmic terms,
some of these stars died in Type II supernovae. This propagated the α
elements throughout the galaxy, which were incorporated into new stars.
But, according to the model, it all went a bit belly-up after about 3 billion years.
"When
shock waves appeared and heated the gas to high temperatures 7 billion
years ago, the gas stopped flowing into the galaxy and stars ceased to
form," a release from Tohoku University says.
During
a hiatus of about 2 billion years, a second round of supernovae took
place - the much longer scale Type Ia supernova, which typically occur
after a stellar lifespan of about 1 billion years.
It's in these supernovae that iron is forged, and spewed out
into the interstellar medium. When the gas cooled enough to start
forming stars again - about 5 billion years ago - those stars had a much
higher percentage of iron than the earlier generation. That second
generation includes our Sun, which is about 4.6 billion years old.
Noguchi's
model is consistent with recent research on our closest galactic
neighbour, Andromeda, which is thought to be in the same size class as
the Milky Way. In 2017, a team of researchers published a paper that found Andromeda's star formation also occurred in two stages, with a relatively quiescent period in between.
If
the model holds up, it may mean that the evolution models of galaxies
need to be revised - that, while smaller dwarf galaxies experience
continuous star formation, perhaps a "dead" period is the norm for
massive ones.
If future observations confirm, who's up for renaming our galaxy Frankenstein?
Noguchi's paper has been published in the journal Nature.
The Iroquois (/ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/) or Haudenosaunee (/ˈhoʊdənoʊˈʃoʊni/) (People of the Longhouse) are a historically powerful northeast Native Americanconfederacy. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the Iroquois League, and later as the Iroquois Confederacy, and to the English as the Five Nations, comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. After 1722, they accepted the Tuscarora people from the Southeast into their confederacy, and became known as the Six Nations.
The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their tribes
as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, and by offering shelter to
displaced peoples. Culturally all are considered members of the clans
and tribes into which they are adopted by families.
The historic St. Lawrence Iroquoians, Wyandot (Huron), Erie, and Susquehannock, all independent peoples, also spoke Iroquoian languages.
In the larger sense of linguistic families, they are often considered
Iroquoian peoples because of their similar languages and cultures, all
culturally and linguistically descended from the Proto-Iroquoian people and language; however, they were traditionally enemies of the nations in the Iroquois League. In addition, Cherokee is an Iroquoian language. The Cherokee people
are believed to have migrated south from the Great Lakes area in
ancient times, settling in the backcountry of the Southeast United
States, including what is now Tennessee.
In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and about 80,000 in the United States.
Names
The most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, where it occurs as "Irocois".
Other spellings appearing in the earliest sources include "Erocoise",
"Hiroquois", "Hyroquoise", "Irecoies", "Iriquois", "Iroquaes",
"Irroquois", and "Yroquois", as the French transliterated the term into
their own phonetic system. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as [irokwe] or [irokwɛ].
Over the years, several competing theories have been proposed for this
name's ultimate origin—the earliest such proposal is by the Jesuit
priest Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, who wrote in 1744:
The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the [Iroquoian-language] term Hiro or Hero, which means I have said—with which these Indians close all their addresses, as the Latins did of old with their dixi—and of Koué, which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter.
In 1883, Horatio Hale
wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, and that "no other
nation or tribe of which we have any knowledge has ever borne a name
composed in this whimsical fashion". Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa "they who smoke" or Cayuga iakwai "a bear". J.N.B. Hewitt
responded to Hale's etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either
of those words exist in the respective languages. His preferred
etymology at the time was from Montagnaisirin "true, real" and ako "snake", plus the French -ois suffix, though he later revised his theory to state that the source was AlgonquinIriⁿakhoiw. However, none of these etymologies gained widespread acceptance. By 1978 Ives Goddard
could write: "No such form is attested in any Indian language as a name
for any Iroquoian group, and the ultimate origin and meaning of the
name are unknown."
A more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in
1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud
in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning "terrible man", via the reduced form irokue. Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning "a man, an Iroquois", as the origin of this term. For the first element irno, Day cites cognates from other attested Montagnais dialects: irinou, iriniȣ, and ilnu; and for the second element kwédač he suggests a relation to kouetakiou, kȣetat-chiȣin, and goéṭètjg – names used by neighboring Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois, Hurons, and Laurentians.
More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque
origin for "Iroquois". Basque fishermen and whalers are known to have
frequented the waters of the Northeast in the 1500s, so much so that a Basque-based pidgin
developed for communication with the Algonquian tribes of the region.
Bakker claims that it is unlikely that "-quois" derives from a root
specifically used to refer to the Iroquois, citing as evidence that
several other Indian tribes of the region were known to the French by
names terminating in the same element, e.g. "Armouchiquois",
"Charioquois", "Excomminquois", and "Souriquois". He proposes instead
that the word derives from hilokoa (via the intermediate form irokoa), from the Basque roots hil "to kill", ko (the locative genitive suffix), and a
(the definite article suffix). In favor of an original form beginning
with /h/, Bakker cites alternate spellings such as "hyroquois" sometimes
found in documents from the period, and the fact that in the Southern
dialect of Basque, the word hil is pronounced il. He also
argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested
in the phonemic inventory of any language in the region (including Maliseet,
which developed an /l/ later). Thus the word according to Bakker is
translatable as "the killer people". It is similar to other terms used
by Eastern Algonquian tribes to refer to their enemy the Iroquois, which
translate as "murderers".
The Five Nations historically referred to themselves by a different autonym, Haudenosaunee, meaning "People of the Longhouse".
It is also occasionally preferred by scholars of Native American
history, who consider the name "Iroquois" to be derogatory in origin as
arising from colonists. This name derives from two phonetically similar but etymologically distinct words in the Seneca language: Hodínöhšö:ni:h, meaning "those of the extended house," and Hodínöhsö:ni:h, meaning "house builders". The name "Haudenosaunee" first appears in English in Lewis Henry Morgan (1851), where it is written as Ho-dé-no-sau-nee. The spelling "Hotinnonsionni" is also attested from later in the nineteenth century. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is occasionally encountered as well. This term derives from the Mohawk kanǫhsyǫ́·ni
("the extended house"), or from a cognate expression in a related
Iroquoian language, and is frequently encountered in earlier sources
variously spelled "Kanosoni", "akwanoschioni", "Aquanuschioni",
"Cannassoone", "Canossoone", "Ke-nunctioni", or "Konossioni". More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also often referred to simply as the Six Nations (or, for the period before the entry of the Tuscarora in 1722, the Five Nations). The word is Rotinonsionni in the Mohawk language.
The Iroquois Confederacy is believed to have been founded by the Peacemaker in 1142, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace".Each nation within this Iroquoian confederacy had a distinct language,
territory, and function in the League. Iroquois influence at the peak of
its power extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great
Lakes and down both sides of the Allegheny mountains into present-day
Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley.
The League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations.
The original Iroquois League (as the French knew them) or Five
Nations (as the British knew them), occupied large areas of present-day
New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River,
and south into northwestern Pennsylvania. From east to west, the League
was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. In or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement. Also an Iroquoian-speaking people, the Tuscarora were accepted into what became the Six Nations.
Other independent Iroquoian-speaking peoples, such as the Erie, Susquehannock, Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot, lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River, and around the Great Lakes. In the American Southeast, the Cherokee
were an Iroquoian-language people who had migrated to that area
centuries before European contact. None of these was part of the
Haudenosaunee. Those on the borders of Haudenosaunee territory in the
Great Lakes region competed and warred with the member nations.
French, Dutch and British colonists in both New France (Canada)
and the what became the Thirteen Colonies recognized a need to gain
favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of
lands west of colonial settlements. Their first relations with them were
for fur trading,
which was favorable and became lucrative to both sides. The colonists
also sought to establish positive relations to secure their settlement
borders.
For nearly 200 years the Iroquois were a powerful factor in North
American colonial policy-making decisions. Alignment with Iroquois
offered political and strategic advantages to the European colonies, but
the Iroquois preserved considerable independence. Some of their people
settled in mission villages along the St. Lawrence River, becoming more
closely tied to the French. While they participated in French raids on
Dutch and later English settlements, where some Mohawk and other
Iroquois settled, in general the Iroquois resisted attacking their own
peoples.
The Iroquois remained a politically unique, undivided, large
Native American polity up until the American Revolution. The League kept
its treaty promises to the British Crown. But when the British were
defeated, they ceded the Iroquois territory without consultation; many
Iroquois had to abandon their lands in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere
and relocate in the northern lands retained by the British. The Crown
gave them land in compensation for the 5 million acres they had lost in
the south, but it was not equivalent to earlier territory.
The Iroquois League has also been known as the "Iroquois
Confederacy". Modern scholars distinguish between the League and the
Confederacy.
According to this interpretation, the Iroquois League refers to the
ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in the Grand Council, while
the Iroquois Confederacy is the decentralized political and diplomatic
entity that emerged in response to European colonization. According to
that theory, "The League" still exists. The Confederacy dissolved after
the defeat of the British and allied Iroquois nations in the American Revolutionary War.
Today's Iroquois/Six Nations people do not make any distinction between
"The League" and "the Confederacy" and use the terms interchangeably,
preferring the name Haudenosaunee Confederacy.
After the defeat of the British, they ceded most of the Iroquois
territory to the United States, without bringing their allies to the
negotiating table. Many of the Iroquois migrated to Canada, forced out
of New York because of hostility to the British allies in the aftermath
of a fierce war. Those remaining in New York were required to live
mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois had to
confront 240,000 New Yorkers, with land-hungry New Englanders poised to
migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six
million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush
waiting to happen."
In addition to the major cessions of Iroquois land, the Oneida
and others who gained reservations in New York faced increasing
pressures for their lands. By the War of 1812, they had lost control of considerable property.
Knowledge of Iroquois history stems from Haudenosaunee oral tradition, archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit
missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott
Stevens credits the early modern European value for the written word
over oral tradition and cultures as contributing to a prejudiced,
racialized element within writings about the Iroquois that continued
into the 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois peoples is a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period.
Jesuit accounts of the Iroquois portrayed them as savages because
of comparisons to French culture; the Jesuits perceived them to lack
government, law, letters, and religion.
But the Jesuits made considerable effort to study their languages and
cultures, and some came to respect them. A major problem with
contemporary European sources from the 17th and 18th centuries, both
French and British, was that Europeans, coming from a patriarchal society, did not understand the matrilineal kinship system of Iroquois society and the related power of women.
The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod, writing about the relationship
between the Canadian Iroquois and the French in the time of the Seven
Years' War, said:
Most critically, the importance of clan
mothers, who possessed considerable economic and political power within
Canadian Iroquois communities, was blithely overlooked by patriarchal
European scribes. Those references that do exist, show clan mothers
meeting in council with their male counterparts to take decisions
regarding war and peace and joining in delegations to confront the Onontio
[the Iroquois term for the French governor-general] and the French
leadership in Montreal, but only hint at the real influence wielded by
these women".
Eighteenth-century English historiography focuses on the diplomatic relations with the Iroquois, supplemented by such images as John Verelst'sFour Mohawk Kings, and publications such as the Anglo-Iroquoian treaty proceedings printed by Benjamin Franklin.
One historical narrative persistent in the 19th and 20th centuries
casts the Iroquois as "an expansive military and political power ...
[who] subjugated their enemies by violent force and for almost two
centuries acted as the fulcrum in the balance of power in colonial North
America".
Historian Scott Stevens noted that the Iroquois themselves began to
influence the writing of their history in the 19th century, including Joseph Brant (Mohawk), and David Cusick (Tuscarora). John Arthur Gibson (Seneca, 1850–1912) was an important figure of his generation in recounting versions of Iroquois history in epics on the Peacemaker.[37] Notable women historians among the Iroquois emerged in the following decades, including Laura "Minnie" Kellog (Oneida, 1880–1949) and Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca, 1901–1964).
Formation of the League
Iroquois painting of Tadodaho receiving two Mohawk chiefs
The Iroquois League was established prior to European contact, with the banding together of five of the many Iroquoian peoples who had emerged south of the Great Lakes.
Reliable sources link the origins of the Iroquois confederacy to 1142 and an agricultural shift when corn was adopted as a staple crop. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed about 1450. Arguments have been made for an earlier date.
One theory argues that the League formed shortly after a solar eclipse on August 31, 1142, an event thought to be expressed in oral tradition about the League's origins.
They subsequently created a highly egalitarian society. One British
colonial administrator declared in 1749 that the Iroquois had "such
absolute Notions of Liberty that they allow no Kind of Superiority of
one over another, and banish all Servitude from their Territories."
Anthropologist
Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a
date earlier than 1450. He has said that recent claims for a much
earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes".
In contrast, other scholars note that at the time when anthropological
studies were made, researchers consulted only male informants, although
the Iroquois people had distinct oral traditions held by males and
females. Thus half of the historical story, that told by women, was
lost. For this reason, origin tales tend to emphasize Deganawidah and Hiawatha, while the role of Jigonsaseh largely remains unknown because this part of the oral history was held by women.
According to oral traditions, the League was formed through the
efforts of two men and one woman. They were Dekanawida, sometimes known
as the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonhsasee, known as the Mother of Nations, whose home acted as a sort of United Nations. They brought the Peacemaker's message, known as the Great Law of Peace, to the squabbling Iroquoian nations, who were fighting, raiding and feuding with one another and other tribes, both Algonkian and Iroquoian. Five nations originally joined as the League, giving rise to the many historic references to Five Nations of the Iroquois or as often, just The Five Nations. With the addition of the southern Tuscarora
in the 18th century, these original five tribes are the ones that still
compose the Haudenosaunee in the early 21st century: the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca.
Other Iroquoian-language peoples, including the populous Wyandot (Huron), with related social organization and cultures, became extinct as tribes as a result of disease and war. They did not join the League when invited and were much reduced after the Beaver Wars
and high mortality from Eurasian infectious diseases. While the First
Nations and Native Americans sometimes tried to remain neutral in the
various colonial frontier wars, some also allied with one nation or
another, through the French and Indian War.
The Six Nations were split in their alliances between the French and
British in that war, the North American front of the Seven Years War. In
warfare the tribes were decentralized, and often bands acted
independently.
According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho
was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and
Hiawatha. He was offered the position as the titular chair of the
League's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present-day Syracuse, New York. The title Tadodaho is still used for the League's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council.
With the formation of the League, internal conflicts were
minimized. The council of fifty thereafter ruled on disputes, seeking
consensus in their decisions.
Raids within the member tribes ended, and they directed warfare against
competitors. This allowed the Iroquois to increase in numbers while
their rivals declined.
The political cohesion of the Iroquois rapidly became one of the
strongest forces in 17th- and 18th-century northeastern North America.
The confederacy did not speak for all five tribes, which continued to
act independently. But about 1678, the council exerted more power in negotiations with the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and New York.
Thereafter, the editors of American Heritage write the Iroquois became
very adroit at playing the French off against the British, as individual tribes had played the Swedes, Dutch, and English. The editors of American Heritage magazine suggest the Iroquois spokesmen were as politically sophisticated as many a modern politician
As has been noted above, other Iroquoian-language peoples were
encountered by early European colonists. While the tribes raided each
other, they also traded with the members of the Iroquois who were
nearby. The explorer Robert La Salle in the 17th century identified the Mosopelea as among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s. The Erie and peoples of the upper Allegheny valley declined earlier during the Beaver Wars. By 1676 the Susquehannock were known to be broken as a power from the effects of three years of epidemic disease, war with the Iroquois, and frontier battles, as settlers took advantage of the weakened tribe.
According to one theory of early Iroquois history, after becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the Ohio River Valley in the territories that would become the eastern Ohio Country down as far as present-day Kentucky to seek additional hunting grounds. They displaced about 1200 Siouan-speaking tribepeople of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea), Ofo (Mosopelea), and Tutelo and other closely related tribes out of the region. These tribes migrated to regions around the Mississippi River and the piedmont regions of the east coast.
Expansion
In Reflections in Bullough's Pond, historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples.
Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto
Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture.
This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have
sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.
The People of the Confederacy dispute whether any of this historical
interpretation relates to the League of the Great Peace which they
contend is the foundation of their heritage.
Engraving based on a drawing by Champlain of his 1609 voyage. It depicts a battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near Lake Champlain
The Iroquois may be the Kwedech described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq
nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the
late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies – the Kwedech – westward across New Brunswick, and finally out of the Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last-conquered land Gespedeg or "last land," from which the French derived Gaspé. The "Kwedech" are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring c. 1535–1600.
Around 1535, Jacques Cartier
reported Iroquoian-speaking groups on the Gaspé peninsula and along the
St. Lawrence River. Archeologists and anthropologists have defined the St. Lawrence Iroquoians
as a distinct and separate group (and possibly several discrete
groups), living in the villages of Hochelaga and others nearby (near
present-day Montreal), which had been visited by Cartier. By 1608, when Samuel de Champlain
visited the area, that part of the St. Lawrence River valley had no
settlements, but was controlled by the Mohawk as a hunting ground. The
fate of the Iroquoian people that Cartier encountered remains a mystery,
and all that can be stated for certain is when Champlain arrived, they
were gone.
On the Gaspé peninsula, Champlain encountered Algonquian-speaking
groups. The precise identity of any of these groups is still debated. On
29 July 1609, Champlain assisted his allies in defeating a Mohawk war
party by the shores of what is now called Lake Champlain, and again in
June 1610, Champlain fought against the Mohawks.
The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th-century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the Massawomeck, and to the French as the Antouhonoron. They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the Massawomeck / Antouhonoron as the Haudenosaunee.
In 1649, an Iroquois war party, consisting mostly of Senecas and Mohawks, destroyed the Huron village of Wendake.
In turn, this ultimately resulted in the breakup of the Huron nation.
With no northern enemy remaining, the Iroquois turned their forces on
the Neutral Nations
on the north shore of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the Susquehannocks, their
southern neighbor. Then they destroyed other Iroquoian-language tribes,
including the Erie, to the west, in 1654, over competition for the fur trade.[56][page needed] Then they destroyed the Mohicans.
After their victories, they reigned supreme in an area from the
Mississippi River to the Atlantic Ocean; from the St. Lawrence River to
the Chesapeake Bay.
At that time the Iroquois numbered about 10,000, insufficient to
offset the European immigration of up to 100,000 people a year. They had
become victims of their own success.
The Five Nations of the League established a trading relationship
with the Dutch at Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York), trading furs
for European goods, an economic relationship that profoundly changed
their way of life and led to much over-hunting of beavers.
Between 1665 and 1670, the Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present-day Ontario, collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord" villages. The villages were all abandoned by 1701.
Over the years 1670–1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present-day West Virginia and Kentucky. As a result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan-speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest. They finally sold the British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Map of the New York tribes before European arrival:
Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in a decades-long series of wars, the so-called Beaver Wars, against the French, their Huron allies, and other neighboring tribes, including the Petun, Erie, and Susquehannock. Trying to control access to game for the lucrative fur trade, they put great pressure on the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast (the Lenape or Delaware), the Anishinaabe peoples of the boreal Canadian Shield
region, and not infrequently fought the English colonies as well.
During the Beaver Wars, they were said to have defeated and assimilated
the Huron (1649), Petun (1650), the Neutral Nation (1651), Erie Tribe (1657), and Susquehannock (1680). The traditional view is that these wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade in order to access European goods on which they had become dependent.
Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the
Beaver Wars were an escalation of the "Mourning Wars", which were an
integral part of early Iroquoian culture.
This view suggests that the Iroquois launched large-scale attacks
against neighboring tribes in order to avenge or replace the massive
number of deaths resulting from battles or smallpox epidemics.
In 1628, the Mohawk defeated the Mahican to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange (present-day Albany), New Netherland. The Mohawk would not allow northern native peoples to trade with the Dutch.
By 1640, there were almost no beavers left on their lands, forcing the
Iroquois to play the role of the middlemen in the fur trade, as Indian
peoples to the west and north possessed the beavers with the thick pelts
that the Europeans would pay the best price for. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Huron, Algonquin, and French.
In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons
went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the fragile peace of the
time. Mohawk attitudes toward the peace soured while the Jesuits were
traveling, and their warriors attacked the party en route. The
missionaries were taken to the village of Ossernenon (near present-day Auriesville, New York), where the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans recommended setting the priests free. Angered, members of the Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande, and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The Catholic Church has commemorated the two French priests and Jesuit lay Brother René Goupil (killed 29 September 1642) as among the eight North American Martyrs.
In 1649 during the Beaver Wars,
the Iroquois used recently purchased Dutch guns to attack the Huron,
who were allied with the French. These attacks, primarily against the
Huron towns of Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace) and St. Louis in what is now Simcoe County, Ontario were the final battles that effectively destroyed the Huron Confederacy.
The Jesuit missions in Huronia on the shores of Georgian Bay were
abandoned in the face of the Iroquois attacks with the Jesuits leading
the surviving Hurons east towards the French settlements on the St.
Lawrence. The Jesuit Relations
expressed some amazement that the Five Nations had been able to
dominate the area "for five hundred leagues around, although their
numbers are very small". From 1651 to 1652, the Iroquois attacked the Susquehannock, located to their south in present-day Pennsylvania, without sustained success.
In the early 17th century, the Iroquois Confederacy was at the
height of its power, with a total population of about 12,000 people. In 1653 the Onondaga Nation extended a peace invitation to New France. An expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie de Ganentaa
in 1656 in their territory. The Jesuits were forced to abandon the
mission by 1658 as hostilities resumed, possibly because of the sudden
death of 500 native people from an epidemic of smallpox, a European infectious disease to which they had no immunity.
From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Lenape and Province of Maryland
allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the
Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River.
Smallpox struck again, and through the effects of disease, famine, and
war, the Iroquois were under threat of extinction. In 1664, an Oneida
party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.
In 1665, three of the Five Nations made peace with the French.
The following year, the Governor-General of New France, the Marquis de
Tracy, sent the Carignan regiment under to confront the Mohawk and the
Oneida. The Mohawk avoided battle, but the French burned their villages, referred to as "castles" by the French, and crops.
In 1667, the remaining two Iroquois Nations signed a peace treaty with
the French and agreed to allow their missionaries to visit their
villages. The French Jesuit missionaries were known as the "black-robes"
to the Iroquois, who began to urge that Catholic converts should
relocate to the village of Caughnawga outside of Montreal. This treaty lasted for 17 years.
1670–1701
Iroquois conquests 1638–1711
Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan-speaking Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont
region. They began to claim ownership of the territory by right of
conquest. In 1672, the Iroquois were defeated by a war party of
Susquehannock. The Iroquois appealed to the French for support and asked
Governor Frontenac to assist them against the Susquehannock.
It would be a shame for him to
allow his children to be crushed, as they saw themselves to be ... they
not having the means of going to attack their fort, which was very
strong, nor even of defending themselves if the others came to attack
them in their villages.
Some
old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock during
this time period. As no record of a defeat has been found, historians
have concluded that no defeat occurred. In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock into their nation.
In January 1676, the Governor of New York colony, Edmund Andros, sent a
letter to the chiefs of the Iroquois asking for their help in King Philip's War as the English colonists in New England were having much difficulty fighting the Wampanoag under the leadership of Metacom.
In exchange for guns from the English, which the Iroquois greatly
valued, an Iroquois war party launched a devastating raid on the
Wampanoag in February 1676, destroying villages and with them, supplies
of food while taking many prisoners.
By 1677, the Iroquois formed an alliance with the English through an agreement known as the Covenant Chain.
By 1680, the Iroquois Confederacy was in a strong position, having
eliminated the Susquehannock and the Wampanoag, taken vast number of
captives to increase the size of their population, and had secured an
alliance with the English that guaranteed supplies of guns and
ammunition. Together the allies battled to a standstill the French, who were allied with the Huron. These Iroquoian
people had been a traditional and historic foe of the Confederacy. The
Iroquois colonized the northern shore of Lake Ontario and sent raiding
parties westward all the way to Illinois Country. The tribes of Illinois were eventually defeated, not by the Iroquois, but by the Potawatomi.
In 1679, the Susquehannock, with Iroquois help, attacked Maryland's Piscataway and Mattawoman
allies. Peace was not reached until 1685. During the same period,
French Jesuit missionaries were active in Iroquoia, which led to a
voluntary mass relocation of many Haudenosaunee to the St. Lawrence
valley at Kahnawake and Kanesatake near Montreal.
It was the intention of the French to use the Catholic Haudenosaunee in
the St. Lawrence valley as a buffer to keep the Haudenosaunee allied
with the English living in what is now upstate New York away from
Montreal, the center of the French fur trade.
The attempts of both the English and the French to use their
Haudenosaunee allies for their own purposes were foiled as the two
groups of Haudenosaunee showed a "profound reluctance to kill one
another".
Following the move of the Catholic Iroquois to the St. Lawrence valley,
historians commonly describe the Iroquois living outside of Montreal as
the Canadian Iroquois while the Iroquois who remained in the historical
heartland of Iroquoia in modern upstate New York are described as the
League Iroquois.
In 1684, the governor of New France, Joseph-Antoine Le Febvre de
La Barre, decided to launch a punitive expedition against the Seneca,
who were attacking French and Algonquian fur traders in the Mississippi
river valley, and asked for the Catholic Haudenosaunee to contribute men
for his expedition. La Barre's expedition ended in fiasco in September 1684 when influenza broke out among the troupes de la Marine
while the Canadian Iroquois warriors refused to fight, instead only
engaging in verbal battles as they exchanged insults with the Seneca
warriors.
King Louis XIV of France was not amused when he heard of La Barre's
failure, which led him to sack La Barre as governor of New France, and
sent as his replacement Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, Governor of New France from 1685 to 1689, who arrived in August with orders from the king to crush the Haudenosaunee confederacy.
The Sun King had instructed Denonville to ensure that the "grandeur" of
France be respected even in the remote woods of North America.
Map showing dates Iroquois claims relinquished, 1701–1796. Note: In the 1701 Nanfan Treaty,
the Five Nations abandoned their nominal claims to "beaver hunting"
lands north of the Ohio in favor of England; however, these areas were
still de facto controlled by other tribes allied with France.
In 1684, the Iroquois invaded Virginia and Illinois territory again and
unsuccessfully attacked French outposts in the latter. Trying to reduce
warfare in the Shenandoah Valley
of Virginia, later that year, the Virginia Colony agreed in a
conference at Albany to recognize the Iroquois' right to use the
North-South path, known as the Great Warpath, running east of the Blue Ridge, provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the Fall Line.
In 1687, the Marquis de Denonville set out for Fort Frontenac (modern Kingston, Ontario) with a well-organized force. In July 1687 Denonville took with him on his expedition a mixed force of troupes de la Marine, French-Canadian militiamen, and 353 Indian warriors from the Jesuit mission settlements, of which 220 were Haudenosaunee. They met with 50 hereditary sachems from the Onondaga council fire, who came under a flag of truce in what on the north shore of Lake Ontario in what is now southern Ontario. Denonville recaptured the fort for New France and seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois chiefs to Marseilles, France, to be used as galley slaves.
Several of the Catholic Haudenosaunee were outraged at the way in which
French enslaved a diplomatic party that had come under the flag of
truce and had enslaved all of the Cayuga people living in several
villages on the north shore of Lake Ontario, which led to least 100 of
them to desert to the Seneca. Denonville justified enslaving the people he encountered, saying that
as an "civilized European" he did not respect the customs of "savages"
and would do as he liked with them. On 13 August 1687, an advance party
of French soldiers walked into a Seneca ambush and were nearly killed to
a man; however the Seneca had mistaken the advance party for the main
French force and fled when the main French force came up. The remaining Catholic Haudenosaunee warriors refused orders from Denonville to pursue the retreating Seneca.
Denonville ravaged the land of the Seneca, landing a French armada at Irondequoit Bay,
striking straight into the seat of Seneca power, and destroying many of
its villages. Fleeing before the attack, the Seneca moved farther west,
east and south down the Susquehanna River.
Although great damage was done to the Seneca homeland, the Senecas'
military might was not appreciably weakened. The Confederacy and the
Seneca developed an alliance with the English who were settling in the
east. The destruction of the Seneca land infuriated the members of the Iroquois Confederacy. On August 4, 1689, they retaliated by burning to the ground Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defenses for many months prior to that.
They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac,
who succeeded Denonville as Governor for the next nine years
(1689–1698). Frontenac had been arranging a new plan of attack to lessen
the effects of the Iroquois in North America. Realizing the danger of
continuing to hold the sachems, he located the 13 surviving leaders of
the 50 originally taken and returned with them to New France in October
1689. In 1690, Frontenac destroyed the village of Schenectady and in
1693 Frontenac burned down three Mohawk villages and took 300 prisoners.
In 1696, Frontenac decided to take the field against the
Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of age.
Frontenac decided to target the Oneida and Onondaga this time, instead
of the Mohawk whom were the favorite enemies of the French.
On July 6, he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force and
traveled to the village of the Onondaga, where he arrived a month later.
With support from the French, the Algonquian nations drove the Iroquois out of the territories north of Lake Erie and west of present-day Cleveland, Ohio, regions which they had conquered during the Beaver Wars.
In the meantime, the Iroquois had abandoned their villages. As pursuit
was impracticable, the French army commenced its return march on August
10. Under Frontenac's leadership, the Canadian militia became
increasingly adept at guerrilla
warfare, taking the war into Iroquois territory and attacking a number
of English settlements. The Iroquois never threatened the French colony
again.
During King William's War (North American part of the War of the Grand Alliance), the Iroquois were allied with the English. In July 1701, they concluded the "Nanfan Treaty",
deeding the English a large tract north of the Ohio River. The Iroquois
claimed to have conquered this territory 80 years earlier. France did
not recognize the validity of the treaty, as it had settlements in the
territory at that time and the English had virtually none. Meanwhile,
the Iroquois were negotiating peace with the French; together they
signed the Great Peace of Montreal that same year.
French and Indian Wars
After the 1701 peace treaty with the French, the Iroquois remained
mostly neutral. During the course of the 17th century, the Iroquois had
acquired a fearsome reputation among the Europeans, and it was the
policy of the Six Nations to use this reputation to play off the French
against the British in order to extract the maximum amount of material
rewards.
In 1689, the English Crown provided the Six Nations goods worth £100 in
exchange for help against the French, in the year 1693 the Iroquois had
received goods worth £600, and in the year 1701 the Six Nations had
received goods worth £800.
During Queen Anne's War (North American part of the War of the Spanish Succession), they were involved in planned attacks against the French. Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, arranged for three Mohawk chiefs and a Mahican chief (known incorrectly as the Four Mohawk Kings) to travel to London in 1710 to meet with Queen Anne
in an effort to seal an alliance with the British. Queen Anne was so
impressed by her visitors that she commissioned their portraits by court
painter John Verelst. The portraits are believed to be the earliest surviving oil portraits of Aboriginal peoples taken from life.
The four "Mohawk Kings" who travelled to London in 1710.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, the Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora fled north from the pressure of British colonization of North Carolina and intertribal warfare; they had been subject to having captives sold into Indian slavery.
They petitioned to become the sixth nation of the Iroquois Confederacy.
This was a non-voting position, but they gained the protection of the
Haudenosaunee.
The Iroquois program toward the defeated tribes favored
assimilation within the 'Covenant Chain' and Great Law of Peace, over
wholesale slaughter. Both the Lenni Lenape, and the Shawnee were briefly
tributary to the Six Nations, while subjected Iroquoian populations
emerged in the next period as the Mingo,
speaking a dialect like that of the Seneca, in the Ohio region. During
the War of Spanish Succession, known to Americans as "Queen Anne's War",
the Iroquois remained neutral, through leaning towards the British. Anglican missionaries were active with the Iroquois and devised a system of writing for them.
Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
In 1721 and 1722, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia concluded a new Treaty at Albany
with the Iroquois, renewing the Covenant Chain and agreeing to
recognize the Blue Ridge as the demarcation between Virginia Colony and
the Iroquois. But, as European settlers began to move beyond the Blue
Ridge and into the Shenandoah Valley
in the 1730s, the Iroquois objected. Virginia officials told them that
the demarcation was to prevent the Iroquois from trespassing east of the Blue Ridge, but it did not prevent English from expanding west.
Tensions increased over the next decades, and the Iroquois were on the
verge of going to war with the Virginia Colony. In 1743, Governor Gooch
paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the
Valley that was claimed by the Iroquois. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold Virginia all their remaining claims in the Shenandoah Valley for 200 pounds in gold.
During the French and Indian War (the North American frontier of the Seven Years' War),
the League Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their
Algonquian allies, who were traditional enemies. The Iroquois hoped
that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Few
Iroquois warriors joined the campaign. By contrast, the Canadian
Iroquois supported the French.
In 1711, refugees from is now southern-western Germany known as
the Palatines appealed to the Iroquois clan mothers for permission to
settle on their land. By spring of 1713, about 150 Palatine families had leased land from the Iroquois.
The Iroquois taught the Palatines how to grow "the Three Sisters" as
they called their staple crops of beans, corn and squash and where to
find edible nuts, roots and berries. In return, the Palatines taught the Iroquois how to grow wheat and oats, and how to use iron ploughs and hoes to farm.
As a result of the money earned from land rented to the Palatines, the
Iroquois elite gave up living in longhouses and started living in
European style houses, having an income equal to a middle-class English
family.
By the middle of the 18th century, a multi-cultural world had emerged
with the Iroquois living alongside German and Scots-Irish settlers. The settlements of the Palatines were intermixed with the Iroquois villages. In 1738, an Irishman, William Johnson, who was successful as a fur trader, settled with the Iroquois.
Johnson who become very rich from the fur trade and land speculation,
learned the languages of the Iroquois while bedding as many of their
women as possible, and become the main intermediary between the British
and the League. In 1745, Johnson was appointed the Northern superintendent of Indian Affairs, formalizing his position.
On 9 July 1755, a force of British Army regulars and the Virginia
militia under General Edward Braddock advancing into the Ohio river
valley was almost completely destroyed by the French and their Indian
allies at the Battle of the Monongahela.
Johnson, who had the task of enlisting the League Iroquois on the
British side, led a mixed Anglo-Iroquois force to victory at Lac du St
Sacrement, known to the British as Lake George. In the Battle of Lake George, a group of Catholic Mohawk (from Kahnawake)
and French forces ambushed a Mohawk-led British column; the Mohawk were
deeply disturbed as they had created their confederacy for peace among
the peoples and had not had warfare against each other. Johnson
attempted to ambush a force of 1,000 French troops and 700 Canadian
Iroquios under the command of Baron Dieskau, who beat off the attack and
killed the old Mohawk war chief, Peter Hendricks. On 8 September 1755, Diskau attacked Johnson's camp, but was repulsed with heavy losses.
Though the Battle of Lake George was a British victory, the heavy
losses taken by the Mohawk and Oneida at the battle caused the League to
declare neutrality in the war.
Despite Johnson's best efforts, the League Iroquois remained neutral
for next several years, and a series of French victories at Oswego,
Louisbourg, Fort William Henry and Fort Carillon ensured the League
Iroquois would not fight on what appeared to be the losing side.
In February 1756, the French learned from a spy, Oratory, an Oneida chief, that a British were stockpiling supplies at the Oneida Carrying Place, a crucial portage between Albany and Oswego to support an offensive in the spring into what is now Ontario.
As the frozen waters melted south of Lake Ontario on average two weeks
before the waters did north of Lake Ontario, the British would be able
to move against the French bases at Fort Frontenac and Fort Niagara
before the French forces in Montreal could come to their relief, which
from the French perspective necessitated a preemptive strike at the
Oneida Carrying Place in the winter. To carry out this strike, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the Governor-General of New France, assigned the task to Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, an officer of the troupes de le Marine, who required and received the assistance of the Canadian Iroquois to guide him to the Oneida Carrying Place.
The Canadian Iroquois joined the expedition, which left Montreal on 29
February 1756 on the understanding that they would only fight against
the British, not the League Iroquois, and they would not be assaulting a
fort.
On 13 March 1756, an Oswegatchie Indian traveler informed the
expedition that the British had built two forts at the Oneida Carrying
Place, which caused the majority of the Canadian Iroquois to want to
turn back, as they argued the risks of assaulting a fort would mean too
many casualties, and many did in fact abandon the expedition. On 26 March 1756, Léry's force of troupes de le Marine
and French-Canadian militiamen, who had not eaten for two days,
received much needed food when the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a British
wagon train bringing supplies to Fort William and Fort Bull. As far as the Canadian Iroquois were concerned, the raid was a success
as they captured 9 wagons full of supplies and took 10 prisoners without
losing a man, and for them, engaging in a frontal attack against the
two wooden forts as Léry wanted to do was irrational.
The Canadian Iroquois informed Léry "if I absolutely wanted to die, I
was the master of the French, but they were not going to follow me".
In the end, about 30 Canadian Iroquois reluctantly joined Léry's attack
on Fort Bull on the morning of 27 March 1756, when the French and their
Indian allies stormed the fort, finally smashing their way in through
the main gate with a battering ram at noon. Of the 63 people in Fort Bull, half of whom were civilians, only 3 soldiers, one carpenter and one woman survived the Battle of Fort Bull as Léry reported "I could not restrain the ardor of the soldiers and the Canadians. They killed everyone they encountered".
Afterwards, the French destroyed all of the British supplies and Fort
Bull itself, which secured the western flank of New France.
On the same day, the main force of the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a
relief force from Fort William coming to the aid of Fort Bull, and did
not slaughter their prisoners as the French did at Fort Bull; for the
Iroquois, prisoners were very valuable as they increased the size of the
tribe.
The crucial difference between the European and First Nations way
of war was that Europe had millions of people, which meant that British
and French generals were willing to see thousands of their own men die
in battle in order to secure victory as their losses could always be
made good; by contrast, the Iroquois had a considerably smaller
population, and could not afford heavy losses, which could cripple a
community. The Iroquois custom of "Mourning wars" to take captives who
would become Iroquois reflected the continual need for more people in
the Iroquois communities. Iroquois warriors were brave, but would only
fight to the death if necessary, usually to protect their women and
children; otherwise, the crucial concern for Iroquois chiefs was always
to save manpower. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote that the Iroquois way of
war was based on their hunting philosophy, where a successful hunter
would bring down an animal efficiently without taking any losses to his
hunting party, and in the same way, a successful war leader would
inflict losses on the enemy without taking any losses in return.
The Iroquois only entered the war on the British side again in late 1758 after the British took Louisbourg and Fort Frontenac.
At the Treaty of Fort Easton in October 1758, the Iroquois forced the
Lenape and Shawnee who had been fighting for the French to declare
neutrality. In July 1759, the Iroquois helped Johnson take Fort Niagara.
In the ensuing campaign, the League Iroquois assisted General Jeffrey
Amherst as he took various French forts by the Great Lakes and the St.
Lawrence valley as he advanced towards Montreal, which he took in
September 1760.
The British historian Michael Johnson wrote the Iroquois had "played a
major supporting role" in the final British victory in the Seven Years'
War.
In 1763, Johnson left his old home of Fort Johnson for the lavish
estate, which he called Johnson Hall, which become a center of social
life in the region.
Johnson was close to two white families, the Butlers and the Croghans,
and three Mohawk families, the Brants, the Hills, and the Peters.
After the war, to protect their alliance, the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, forbidding Anglo-European (white) settlements beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists largely ignored the order, and the British had insufficient soldiers to enforce it.
Faced with confrontations, the Iroquois agreed to adjust the line again in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768). Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet,
British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern District, had
called the Iroquois nations together in a grand conference in western
New York, which a total of 3,102 Indians attended. They had long had good relations with Johnson, who had traded with them and learned their languages and customs. As Alan Taylor noted in his history, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution
(2006), the Iroquois were creative and strategic thinkers. They chose
to sell to the British Crown all their remaining claim to the lands
between the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, which they did not occupy, hoping
by doing so to draw off English pressure on their territories in the
Province of New York.
During the American Revolution,
the Iroquois first tried to stay neutral. The Reverend Samuel Kirkland,
a Congregational minister working as a missionary, pressured the Oneida
and the Tuscarora for a pro-American neutrality while Guy Johnson and
his cousin John Johnson pressured the Mohawk, the Cayuga and the Seneca
to fight for the British.
Pressed to join one side or the other, the Tuscarora and the Oneida
sided with the colonists, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga
remained loyal to Great Britain, with whom they had stronger
relationships. Joseph Louis Cook
offered his services to the United States and received a Congressional
commission as a lieutenant colonel—the highest rank held by any Native
American during the war.
The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant together with John Butler and John
Johnson raised racially mixed forces of irregulars to fight for the
Crown. Molly Brant
had been the common-law wife of Sir William Johnson, and it was through
her patronage that her brother Joseph came to be a war chief.
The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant,
other war chiefs, and British allies conducted numerous operations
against frontier settlements in the Mohawk Valley, including the Cherry Valley massacre,
destroying many villages and crops, and killing and capturing
inhabitants. The destructive raids by Brant and other Loyalists led to
appeals to Congress for help. The Continentals retaliated and in 1779, George Washington ordered the Sullivan Campaign, led by Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan,
against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overrun, but destroy", the
British-Indian alliance. They burned many Iroquois villages and stores
throughout western New York; refugees moved north to Canada. By the end
of the war, few houses and barns in the valley had survived the warfare.
In the aftermath of the Sullivan expedition, Brant visited Quebec City
to ask General Sir Frederick Haildmand for assurances that the Mohawk
and the other Loyalist Iroquois would receive a new homeland in Canada
as compensation for their loyalty to the Crown if the British should
lose.
The American Revolution was a war that caused a great divide
amongst the colonists between Patriots and Loyalists; it caused a divide
between the colonies and Great Britain, and it also caused a rift that
would break the Iroquois Confederacy. At the onset of the Revolution,
the Iroquois Confederacy's Six Nations attempted to take a stance of
neutrality. However, almost inevitably, the Iroquois nations eventually
had to take sides in the conflict. It is easy to see how the American
Revolution would have caused conflict and confusion among the Six
Nations. For years they had been used to thinking about the English and
their colonists as one and the same people. In the American Revolution,
the Iroquois Confederacy now had to deal with relationships between two
governments.
The Iroquois Confederation's population had changed significantly
since the arrival of Europeans. Disease had reduced their population to
a fraction of what it had been in the past.
Therefore, it was in their best interest to be on the good side of
whoever would prove to be the winning side in the war, for the winning
side would dictate how future relationships would be with the Iroquois
in North America. Dealing with two governments made it hard to maintain a
neutral stance, because the governments could get jealous easily if the
Confederacy was interacting or trading more with one side over the
other, or even if there was simply a perception of favoritism. Because
of this challenging situation, the Six Nations had to choose sides. The
Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the American colonists, while
the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and
Seneca) sided with the British and their Loyalists among the colonists.
There were many reasons that the Six Nations could not remain
neutral and uninvolved in the Revolutionary War. One of these is simple
proximity; the Iroquois Confederacy was too close to the action of the
war to not be involved. The Six Nations were very discontented with the
encroachment of the English and their colonists upon their land. They
were particularly concerned with the border established in the
Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768.
During the American Revolution, the authority of the British
government over the frontier was highly contested. The colonists tried
to take advantage of this as much as possible by seeking their own
profit and claiming new land. In 1775, the Six Nations were still
neutral when "a Mohawk person was killed by a Continental soldier".
Such a case shows how the Six Nations' proximity to the war drew them
into it. They were concerned about being killed, and about their lands
being taken from them. They could not show weakness and simply let the
colonists and British do whatever they wanted. Many of the English and
colonists did not respect the treaties made in the past. "A number of
His Majesty's subjects in the American colonies viewed the proclamation
as a temporary prohibition which would soon give way to the opening of
the area for settlement... and that it was simply an agreement to quiet
the minds of the Indians".
The Six Nations had to take a stand to show that they would not accept
such treatment, and they looked to build a relationship with a
government that would respect their territory.
In addition to being in close proximity to the war, the new
lifestyle and economics of the Iroquois Confederacy since the arrival of
the Europeans in North America made it nearly impossible for the
Iroquois to isolate themselves from the conflict. By this time, the
Iroquois had become dependent upon the trade of goods from the English
and colonists, and had adopted many European customs, tools, and
weapons. For example, they were increasingly dependent on firearms for
hunting.
After becoming so reliant, it would have been hard to even consider
cutting off trade that brought goods that were a central part of
everyday life.
As Barbara Graymont stated, "Their task was an impossible one to
maintain neutrality. Their economies and lives had become so dependent
on each other for trading goods and benefits it was impossible to ignore
the conflict. Meanwhile they had to try and balance their interactions
with both groups. They did not want to seem as they were favoring one
group over the other, because of sparking jealousy and suspicion from
either side". Furthermore, the English had made many agreements with the
Six Nations over the years, yet most of the Iroquois' day-to-day
interaction had been with the colonists. This made it a confusing
situation for the Iroquois because they could not tell who the true
heirs of the agreement were, and couldn't know if agreements with
England would continue to be honored by the colonists if they were to
win independence.
Supporting either side in the Revolutionary War was a complicated
decision. Each nation individually weighed their options to come up
with a final stance that ultimately broke neutrality and ended the
collective agreement of the Confederation. The British were clearly the
most organized, and seemingly most powerful. In many cases, the British
presented the situation to the Iroquois as the colonists just being
"naughty children". On the other, the Iroquois considered that "the
British government was three thousand miles away. This placed them at a
disadvantage in attempting to enforce both the Proclamation of 1763 and
the Treaty at Fort Stanwix 1768 against land hungry frontiersmen."
In other words, even though the British were the strongest and best
organized faction, the Six Nations had concerns about whether they would
truly be able to enforce their agreements from so far away.
The Iroquois also had concerns about the colonists. The British
asked for Iroquois support in the war. "In 1775, the Continental
Congress sent a delegation to the Iroquois in Albany to ask for their
neutrality in the war coming against the British".
It had been clear in prior years that the colonists had not been
respectful of the land agreements made in 1763 and 1768. The Iroquois
Confederacy was particularly concerned over the possibility of the
colonists winning the war, for if a revolutionary victory were to occur,
the Iroquois very much saw it as the precursor to their lands being
taken away by the victorious colonists, who would no longer have the
British Crown to restrain them. Continental army officers such as George Washington had attempted to destroy the Iroquois.
On a contrasting note, it was the colonists who had formed the
most direct relationships with the Iroquois due to their proximity and
trade ties. For the most part, the colonists and Iroquois had lived in
relative peace since the English arrival on the continent a century and a
half before. The Iroquois had to determine whether their relationships
with the colonists were reliable, or whether the English would prove to
better serve their interests. They also had to determine whether there
were really any differences between how the English and the colonists
would treat them.
The war ensued, and the Iroquois broke their confederation.
Hundreds of years of precedent and collective government was trumped by
the immensity of the American Revolutionary War. The Oneida and
Tuscarora decided to support the colonists, while the rest of the
Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with
the British and Loyalists. At the conclusion of the war the fear that
the colonists would not respect the Iroquois' pleas came true,
especially after the majority of the Six Nations decided to side with
the British and were no longer considered trustworthy by the newly
independent Americans. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed. While the
treaty included peace agreements between all of the European nations
involved in the war as well as the newborn United States, it made no
provisions for the Iroquois, who were left to be treated with by the new
United States government as it saw fit.
Post-war
After the Revolutionary War, the ancient central fireplace of the League was re-established at Buffalo Creek.
The United States and the Iroquois signed the treaty of Fort Stanwix in
1784 under which the Iroquois ceded much of their historical homeland
to the Americans, which was followed by another treaty in 1794 at
Canandaigua which they ceded even more land to the Americans. The governor of New York state, George Clinton,
was constantly pressuring the Iroquois to sell their land to white
settlers, and as alcoholism became a major problem in the Iroquois
communities, many did sell their land in order to buy more alcohol,
usually to unscrupulous agents of land companies.
At the same time, American settlers continued to push into the lands
beyond the Ohio river, leading to a war between the Western Confederacy
and the United States.
One of the Iroquois chiefs, Cornplanter, persuaded the remaining
Iroquois in New York state to remain neutral and not to join the Western
Confederacy.
At the same time, American policies to make the Iroquois more settled
started to have some effect. Traditionally, for the Iroquois farming was
woman's work and hunting was men's work; by the early 19th century,
American policies to have the men farm the land and cease hunting were
having effect.
During this time, the Iroquois living in New York state become
demoralized as more of their land was sold to land speculators while
alcoholism, violence, and broken families became major problems on their
reservations. The Oneida and the Cayuga sold almost all of their land and moved out of their traditional homelands.
By 1811, Methodist and Episcopalian missionaries established
missions to assist the Oneida and Onondaga in western New York. However,
white settlers continued to move into the area. By 1821, a group of
Oneida led by Eleazar Williams, son of a Mohawk woman, went to Wisconsin to buy land from the Menominee and Ho-Chunk and thus move their people further westward.
In 1838, the Holland Land Company used forged documents to cheat the
Seneca of almost all of their land in western New York, but a Quaker
missionary, Asher Wright, launched lawsuits that led to one of the
Seneca reservations being returned in 1842 and another in 1857.
However, as late as the 1950s both the United States and New York
governments confiscated land belonging to the Six Nations for roads,
dams and reservoirs with the land being given to Cornplanter for keeping
the Iroquois from joining the Western Confederacy in the 1790s being
confiscated and flooded by the Kinzua Dam.
Captain Joseph Brant and a group of Iroquois left New York to settle in the Province of Quebec (present-day Ontario).
To partially replace the lands they had lost in the Mohawk Valley and
elsewhere because of their fateful alliance with the British Crown, they
were given a large land grant on the Grand River, at Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation.
Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area:
Brant's Ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle nearby and
named the village Brantford.
The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day
Canadian city at a location still favorable for launching and landing
canoes. In the 1830s many additional Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga,
and Tuscarora relocated into the Indian Territory, the Province of Upper Canada, and Wisconsin.
During the 18th century, the Catholic Canadian Iroquois living outside of Montreal reestablished ties with the League Iroquois.
During the American Revolution, the Canadian Iroquois declared their
neutrality and refused to fight for the Crown despite the offers of Sir Guy Carlton, the governor of Quebec. Many Canadian Iroquois worked for the both Hudson's Bay Company and the Northwest Company as a voyageurs in the fur trade in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In the War of 1812, the Canadian Iroquois again declared their neutrality.
The Canadian Iroquois communities at Oka and Kahnaweke were prosperous
settlements in the 19th century, supporting themselves via farming and
the sale of sleds, snowshoes, boats, and baskets.
In 1884, about 100 Canadian Iroquois were hired by the British
government to serve as river pilots and boatmen for the relief
expedition for the besieged General Charles Gordon in Khartoum in the
Sudan, taking the force commanded by Field Marshal Wolsely down the Nile
from Cairo to Khartoum.
On their way back to Canada, the Canadian Iroquois river pilots and
boatmen stopped in London, where they were personally thanked by Queen
Victoria for their services to Queen and Country.
In 1886, when a bridge was being built at the St. Lawrence, a number of
Iroquois men from Kahnawke were hired to help built and the Iroquois
workers proved so skilled as steelwork erectors that since that time, a
number of bridges and skycrapers in Canada and the United States have
been built by the Iroquois steelmen.
20th century
World War I
During World War I, it was Canadian policy to encourage men from the First Nations to enlist in the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), where their skills at hunting made them excellent as snipers and scouts.[128]
As the Iroquois Six Nations were considered to the most warlike of all
Canada's First Nations, and in turn, the Mohawk were considered to the
most warlike of all the Six Nations, the government especially
encouraged the Iroquois and above all the Mohawks to join the CEF. About the half of the 4, 000 or so First Nations men who served in the CEF were Iroquois.
Men from the Six Nations reservation at Brantford were encouraged to
join the 114th Haldimand Battalion (also known as "Brock's Rangers) of
the CEF, where two entire companies including the officers were all
Iroquois. The 114th Battalion was formed in December 1915 and broken up in November 1916 to provide reinforcements for other battalions.
Iroquois captured by the Germans were often subjected to cruel
treatment. A Mohawk from Brantford, William Forster Lickers, who
enlisted in the CEF in September 1914 was captured at the Second Battle
of Ypres in April 1915, where he was savagely beaten by his captors as
one German officer wanted to see if "Indians could feel pain".
Lickers was beaten so badly that he was left paralyzed for the rest of
his life, through the officer was well pleased to establish that Indians
did indeed feel pain.
The Six Nations council at Brantford tended to see themselves as a
sovereign nation that was allied to the Crown through the Covenant
Chain going back to the 17th century and thus allied to King George V
personally instead of being under the authority of Canada.
One Iroquois clan mother in a letter sent in August 1916 to a
recruiting sergeant who refused to allow her teenage son to join the CEF
under the grounds that he was underage, declared the Six Nations were
not subject to the laws of Canada and he had no right to refuse her son
because Canadian laws did not apply to them.
As she explained, the Iroquois regarded the Covenant Chain as still
being in effect, meaning the Iroquois were only fighting in the war
because they were allied to the Crown and were responding to an appeal
for help from their ally, King George V, who had asked them to enlist in
the CEF.
League of Nations
The complex political environment which emerged in Canada with the Haudenosaunee grew out of the Anglo-American era of European colonization. At the end of the War of 1812, Britain
shifted Indian affairs from the military to civilian control. With the
creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, civil authority, and thus
Indian affairs, passed to Canadian officials with Britain retaining
control of military and security matters. At the turn of the century,
the Canadian government began passing a series of Acts which were
strenuously objected to by the Iroquois Confederacy. During World War I,
an act attempted to conscript Six Nations men for military service.
Under the Soldiers Resettlement Act, legislation was introduced to
redistribute native land. Finally in 1920, an Act was proposed to force
citizenship on "Indians" with or without their consent, which would then
automatically remove their share of any tribal lands from tribal trust
and make the land and the person subject to the laws of Canada.
The Haudenosaunee hired a lawyer to defend their rights in the
Supreme Court of Canada. The Supreme Court refused to take the case,
declaring that the members of the Six Nations were British citizens. In
effect, as Canada was at the time a division of the British government,
it was not an international state, as defined by international law. In
contrast, the Iroquois Confederacy had been making treaties and
functioning as a state since 1643 and all of their treaties had been
negotiated with Britain, not Canada. As a result, a decision was made in 1921 to send a delegation to petition the King of England,
whereupon Canada's External Affairs division blocked issuing passports.
In response, the Iroquois began issuing their own passports and sent Levi General, the Cayuga Chief "Deskaheh," to England with their attorney. Winston Churchill
dismissed their complaint claiming that it was within the realm of
Canadian jurisdiction and referred them back to Canadian officials.
On 4 December 1922, Charles Stewart, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Superintendent of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs
traveled to Brantford to negotiate a settlement on the issues with the
Six Nations. After the meeting, the Native delegation brought the offer
to the tribal council, as was customary under Haudenosaunee law. The
council agreed to accept the offer, but before they could respond, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police conducted a liquor raid on the Iroquois' Grand River territory. The siege lasted three days and prompted the Haudenosaunee to send Deskaheh to Washington, DC, to meet with the chargé d'affaires of the Netherlands asking the Dutch Queen to sponsor them for membership in the League of Nations. Under pressure from the British, the Netherlands reluctantly refused sponsorship.
Deskaheh and the tribal attorney proceeded to Geneva and attempted to gather support. "On 27 September 1923, delegates representing Estonia, Ireland, Panama and Persia signed a letter asking for communication of the Six Nations' petition to the League's assembly," but the effort was blocked. Six Nations delegates traveled to the Hague and back to Geneva attempting to gain supporters and recognition,
while back in Canada, the government was drafting a mandate to replace
the traditional Haudenosaunee Confederacy Council with one that would be
elected under the auspices of the Canadian Indian Act. In an unpublicized signing on 17 September 1924, Prime Minister Mackenzie King and Governor-General Lord Byng of Vimy signed the Order in Council, which set elections on the Six Nations reserve for 21 October. Only 26 ballots were cast.
The long-term effect of the Order was that the Canadian
government had wrested control over the Haudenosaunee trust funds from
the Iroquois Confederation and decades of litigation would follow. In 1979, over 300 Indian chiefs visited London to oppose Patriation
of the Canadian Constitution, fearing that their rights to be
recognized in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 would be jeopardized. In
1981, hoping again to clarify that judicial responsibilities of treaties
signed with Britain were not transferred to Canada, several Alberta
Indian chiefs filed a petition with the British High Court of Justice.
They lost the case but gained an invitation from the Canadian government
to participate in the constitutional discussions which dealt with
protection of treaty rights.
Oka Crisis
In 1990, a long-running dispute over ownership of land at Oka, Quebec
caused a violent stand-off. The Mohawk reservation at Oka had become
dominated by a group called the Mohawk Warrior Society that emerged in
smuggling across the U.S-Canada border and were well armed with assault
rifles. On 11 July 1990, the Mohawk Warrior Society tried to stop the
building of a golf course on land claimed by the Mohawk people, which
led to a shoot-out between the Warrior Society and the Sûreté du Québec left a policeman dead. In the resulting Oka Crisis,
the Warrior Society occupied the both the land that they claimed
belonged to the Mohawk people and the Mercier bridge linking Montreal to
the mainland. On 17 August 1990, Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa asked for the Canadian Army to intervene to maintain "public safety", leading to the deployment of the Royal 22e Régiment to Oka and Montreal. The stand-off ended on 26 September 1990 with a melee between the soldiers and the warriors. The dispute over ownership of the land at Oka continues.
US Indian termination policies
In the period between World War II and The Sixties the US government followed a policy of Indian Termination
for its Native citizens. In a series of laws, attempting to mainstream
tribal people into the greater society, the government strove to end the
U.S. government's recognition of tribal sovereignty, eliminate
trusteeship over Indian reservations, and implement state law
applicability to native persons. In general the laws were expected to
create taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal taxes as well as
laws, from which Native people had previously been exempt.
On 13 August 1946 the Indian Claims Commission
Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79-726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was
to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes
might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of
land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation.
Claims had to be filed within a five-year period, and most of the 370
complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the 5-year deadline in August, 1951.
On 2 July 1948 Congress enacted [Public Law 881] 62 Stat. 1224,
which transferred criminal jurisdiction over offenses committed by and
against "Indians" to the State of New York. It covered all reservations
lands within the state and prohibited the deprivation of hunting and
fishing rights which may have been guaranteed to "any Indian tribe,
band, or community, or members thereof." It further prohibited the state
from requiring tribal members to obtain fish and game licenses. Within 2 years, Congress passed [Public Law 785] 64 Stat. 845, on 13 September 1950
which extended New York's authority to civil disputes between Indians
or Indians and others within the State. It allowed the tribes to
preserve customs, prohibited taxation on reservations,
and reaffirmed hunting and fishing rights. It also prohibited the state
from enforcing judgments regarding any land disputes or applying any
State Laws to tribal lands or claims prior to the effective date of the
law 13 September 1952.
During congressional hearings on the law, tribes strongly opposed the
passage, fearful that states would deprive them of their reservations.
The State of New York disavowed any intention to break up or deprive
tribes of their reservations and asserted that they did not have the
ability to do so.
On 1 August 1953, United States Congress issued a formal statement, House Concurrent Resolution 108,
which was the formal policy presentation announcing the official
federal policy of Indian termination. The resolution called for the
"immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas."
All federal aid, services, and protection offered to Native people
were to cease, and the federal trust relationship and management of
reservations would end.
Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United
States citizens with all the rights, benefits and responsibilities of
any other United States citizen. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly identify other tribes who would be ready for termination in the near future.
Beginning in 1953, a Federal task force began meeting with the
tribes of the Six Nations. Despite tribal objections, legislation was
introduced into Congress for termination.
The proposed legislation involved more than 11,000 Indians of the
Iroquois Confederation and was divided into two separate bills. One bill
dealt with the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes and the other dealt with the Seneca.
The arguments the Six Nations made in their hearings with committees
were that their treaties showed that the United States recognized that
their lands belonged to the Six Nations, not the United States and that
"termination contradicted any reasonable interpretation that their lands
would not be claimed or their nations disturbed" by the federal
government. The bill for the Iroquois Confederation died in committee without further serious consideration.
On 31 August 1964, H. R. 1794 An Act to authorize payment for certain interests in lands within the Allegheny Indian Reservation in New York
was passed by Congress and sent to the president for signature. The
bill authorized payment for resettling and rehabilitation of the Seneca Indians
who were being dislocated by the construction of the Kinzua Dam on the
Allegheny River. Though only 127 Seneca families (about 500 people) were
being dislocated, the legislation benefited the entire Seneca Nation,
because the taking of the Indian land for the dam abridged a 1794 treaty
agreement. In addition, the bill provided that within three years, a
plan from the Interior Secretary should be submitted to Congress
withdrawing all federal supervision over the Seneca Nation, though
technically civil and criminal jurisdiction had lain with the State of
New York since 1950.
Accordingly, on 5 September 1967 a memo from the Department of
the Interior announced proposed legislation was being submitted to end
federal ties with the Seneca.
In 1968 a new liaison was appointed from the BIA for the tribe to
assist the tribe in preparing for termination and rehabilitation. The Seneca were able to hold off termination until President Nixon issued his Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs in July 1970. Thus, no New York tribes then living in New York were terminated during this period.
In a twist of fate, one former New York Tribe did lose its federal recognition. The Emigrant Indians of New York included the Oneidas, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin.
In an effort to fight termination and force the government into
recognizing their outstanding land claims from New York, the three
tribes filed litigation with the Claims Commission in the 1950s. They won their claim on 11 August 1964. Public Law 90-93 81 Stat. 229 Emigrant New York Indians of Wisconsin Judgment Act
established federal trusteeship to pay the Oneidas and
Stockbridge-Munsee, effectively ending Congressional termination efforts
for them. Though the law did not specifically state the Brothertown
Indians were terminated, it authorized all payments to be made directly
to each enrollee with special provisions for minors to be handled by the
Secretary. The payments were not subject to state or federal taxes. Beginning in 1978, the Brothertown Indians submitted a petition to regain federal recognition. In 2012 the Department of the Interior,
in the final determination on the Brothertown petition found that
Congress had terminated their tribal status when it granted them
citizenship in 1838 and therefore only Congress could restore their
tribal status. They are still seeking Congressional approval.
Culture
Stone pipe (19th-century engraving)
War
For the Haudenosaunee, grief for a loved one who died was a powerful
emotion that if not attended would cause all sorts of problems for the
grieving who if left without consolation would go mad.
Rituals to honor the dead were very important and the most important of
all was the Condolence ceremony to provide consolation for those who
lost a family member or friend.
Since it was believed that the death of a family member also weakened
the spiritual strength of the surviving family members, it was
considered crucially important to replace the lost family member by
providing a substitute who could be adopted or alternatively could be
tortured to provide an outlet for the grief. Hence the "mourning wars".
One of the central features of traditional Iroquois life was the
"mourning wars" when Haudenosaunee warriors would raid neighboring
peoples in search of captives to replace those Haudenosaunee who had
died.
War for the Haudenosaunee was primarily for captives, and the usual
factors that were considered benefits of war for the Europeans like
expansion of territory or glory in battle did not count for the
Haudeenosaunee, who only cared about taking captives.
A successful war party was one that had taken many prisoners without
suffering losses in return; killing enemies was considered acceptable if
necessary, but disapproved of as it reduced the number of potential
captives. Captives were seen as far more important than scalps. Additionally war
served as a way for young men to demonstrate their valor and courage,
which was not a prerequisite for becoming a chief, but also essential if
one wanted to get married and hence have sex.
A man considered a coward was viewed as unattractive by Haudenosaunee
women who saw bravery in war as a very attractive feature in a man. In the precontact era, war was relativity bloodless as First Nations peoples fought one another in suits of wooden armor. In 1609, the French explorer Samuel de Champlain
observed several battles between the Algonquins and the Iroquois which
featured hardly any killing, which seemed to be the norm for First
Nations wars.
At a battle between the Algonquins and the Iroquois by the shores of
Lake Champlain, the only people killed were two Iroquois warriors when
Champlain demonstrated the power of his musket to his Algonquin allies.
The clan mothers would demand a "mourning war" to provide
consolation and renewed spiritual strength for a family that lost a
member to death by accusing the warriors of cowardice; either the
warriors would go on a "mourning war" or would be marked as cowards
forever, which make them unmarriageable. At this point, the warriors would then usually leave to raid a neighboring people in search of captives.
The captives were either adopted into Haudenosaunee families to become
Haudenosaunee, or were to be killed after bouts of ritualized torture as
a way of expressing rage at the death of a family member.
The male captives were usually received with blows as they were marched
into the community, and were then all captives regardless of their sex
or age were stripped naked and tied to poles in the middle of the
community.
After having sensitive parts of their bodies burned and some of their
fingernails pulled out, the prisoners were allowed to rest and given
food and water.
In the following days, the captives had to dance naked before the
community, and then it was decided if they were to be adopted or killed.
If those who were adopted into the Haudenosaunee families made a
sincere effort to become Haudenosaunee, then they would be embraced by
the community, and if they did not, then they were swiftly executed.
Those slated for execution had to wear red and black facial paint
and were "adopted" by a family who addressed the prisoner as "uncle",
"aunt", "nephew" or "niece" depending on their age and sex, and would
bring them food and water.
The captive would be executed after a day-long torture session of
burning and removing body parts, which the prisoner was expected to
behave with stoicism and nobility (an expectation not usually met)
before being scalped alive, had hot sand applied to the exposed skull
and finally killed by cutting out their hearts. Afterwards, the victim's body was cut and eaten by the community.
The practice of ritual torture and execution together with cannibalism
ended some time in the early 18th century, and by late-18th-century
European writers like Philip Mazzei and James Adair
were denying that the Haudenosaunee engaged in ritual torture and
cannibalism, saying they had seen no evidence of such practices during
their visits to Haudenosaunee villages.
For Iroquois, the purpose of war was to take prisoners first and
foremost, with the Onondaga chief Teganissorens telling the governor of
New York, Sir Robert Hunter,
in 1711: "We are not like you Christians, for when you have prisoners
of one another you send them home, by such means you can never rout one
another".
The converse of this strategy was that the Iroquois would not accept
losses in battle as it defeated the whole purpose of the "mourning
wars", which was to add to their numbers, not decrease them.
The French during their wars with the Haudenosaunee were often
astonished when a war party that was on the verge of victory over them
could be made to retreat by merely killing one or two of their number. The European notion of a glorious death in battle had no counterpart with the Haudenosaunee.
Death in battle was accepted only when absolutely necessary, and the
Iroquois believed the souls of those who died in battle were destined to
spend eternity as angry ghosts haunting the world in search of
vengeance.
For this reason, those who died in battle were never buried in
community cemeteries, as it would bring the presence of unhappy ghosts
into the community.
For these reasons, the Haudenosaunee engaged in tactics that the
French, the British and later on the Americans all considered to be
cowardly.
The Haudenosaunee preferred ambushes and surprise attacks, would almost
never attack a fortified place or attack frontally, or would retreat if
outnumbered.
If Kanienkeh was invaded, the Haudenosaunee would attempt to ambush the
enemy, or alternatively they would retreat behind the wooden walls of
their villages to endure a siege.
If the enemy appeared too powerful as when the French invaded Kanienkeh
in 1693, the Haudenosaunee burned their villages and their crops and
the entire population retreated into the woods to wait for the French to
depart. The main weapons for the Iroquois were bows and arrows with flint tips and quivers made from corn husks. Shields and war clubs were made from wood.
After contact was established with Europeans, metal knives and hatchets
were extensively used together with tomahawks with iron or steel
blades.
Before taking to the field, war chiefs would ritual purification
ceremonies where the warriors would dance around a pole painted red.
When European diseases that the Indians had no immunity to like
smallpox devastated the Five Nations in the 17th century, causing
thousands of deaths, the League began a period of "mourning wars"
without precedent, which led to the virtual destruction of the Huron,
Petun and Neutral peoples.
By the 1640s, it is estimated that smallpox had reduced the population
of the Haudenosaunee by least 50%, which required massive "mourning
wars" to make up these losses. The American historian Daniel Richter wrote it was at this point that
war changed from being sporadic, small-scale raids launched in response
to individual deaths and became "the constant and increasing
undifferentiated symptom of societies in demographic crisis".
Furthermore, the introduction of guns, which could pierce the wooden
armor, made First Nations warfare bloodier and more deadly than it had
been in the pre-contact era, ending the age when armed conflicts were
more brawls than battles as Europeans would had understood the term.
At the same time, guns could be only be obtained by trading furs with
the Europeans, and once the Haudenosaunee exhausted their supplies of
beaver by about 1640, they were forced to buy beaver pelts from Indians
living further north, which led them to attempt to eliminate other
middlemen in order to monopolize the fur trade in a series of "beaver
wars".
Richter wrote "the mourning war tradition, deaths from disease,
dependence on firearms, and the trade in furs combined to produce a
dangerous spiral: epidemics led to deadlier mourning wars fought with
firearms; the need for guns increased the need for pelts to trade for
them; the quest for furs provoked wars with other nations; and deaths in
those wars began the mourning war cycle anew".
From 1640 to 1701, the Five Nations was almost continuously at war,
battling at various times the French, the Huron, the Erie, the Neutral,
the Lenape, the Susquenhannock, the Petun, the Abenaki, the Ojibwa, and
the Algonquins, fighting campaigns from Virginia to the Mississippi and
all the way to what is now northern Ontario.
Despite taking thousands of captives, the Five Nations
populations continued to fall, as diseases continued to take their toll
while Jesuits, whom the Haudenosaunee were forced to accept after making
peace with the French in 1667, encouraged Catholic converts to move to
the St. Lawrence river valley.
In the 1640s, the Mohawks could field about 800 warriors, and the
1670s, could field only 300 warriors, which suggested a population
decline.
Melting pot
The Iroquois League traditions allowed for the dead to be
symbolically replaced through captives taken in "mourning wars", the
blood feuds and vendettas that were an essential aspect of Iroquois
culture.
As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to
take vengeance and seize captives. Captives were generally adopted
directly by the grieving family to replace the member(s) who had been
lost.
This process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own
numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. The adoption
of conquered peoples, especially during the period of the Beaver Wars (1609-1701), meant that the Iroquois League was composed largely of naturalized members of other tribes. Cadwallader Colden
wrote, "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save
children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into
their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without
distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation
and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their
nation suffers by the people they lose in war." Those who attempted to
return to their families were harshly punished; for instance, the French
fur trader Pierre-Esprit Radisson was captured by an Iroquois raiding party as a teenager, was adopted by a Mohawk family, ran away to return to his family in Trois-Rivières, and upon being recaptured was punished by having his fingernails pulled out and having one of his fingers cut to the bone.
However, Radisson was not executed as his adopted parents provided
gifts to the families of the men Radisson had killed when he fled as
compensation for their loss; several of the Huron who fled with Radisson
were not so lucky and were executed.
By 1668, two-thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated
Algonquians and Hurons. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven
different nations and among the Seneca eleven.
They also adopted European captives, as did the Catholic Mohawk in
settlements outside Montreal. This tradition of adoption and
assimilation was common to native people of the northeast but was quite
different from European settlers' notions of combat.
At the time of first European contact the Iroquois lived in a small
number of large villages scattered throughout their territory. Each
nation had between one and four villages at any one time, and villages
were moved approximately every five to twenty years as soil and firewood
were depleted. These settlements were surrounded by a palisade and usually located in a defensible area such as a hill, with access to water.
Because of their appearance with the palisade, Europeans termed them
castles. Villages were usually built on level or raised ground,
surrounded by log palisades and sometimes ditches.
Within the villages the inhabitants lived in longhouses. Longhouses varied in size from 15 to 150 feet long and 15 to 25 feet in breadth. Longhouses were usually built of layers of elm bark on a frame of rafters and standing logs raised upright. In 1653, Dutch official and landowner Adriaen van der Donck described a Mohawk longhouse in his Description of New Netherland.
Their
houses are mostly of one and the same shape, without any special
embellishment or remarkable design. When building a house, large or
small,—for sometimes they build them as long as some hundred feet,
though never more than twenty feet wide—they stick long, thin, peeled
hickory poles in the ground, as wide apart and as long as the house is
to be. The poles are then bent over and fastened one to another, so that
it looks like a wagon or arbor as are put in gardens. Next, strips like
split laths are laid across these poles from one end to the other.…
This is then well covered all over with very tough bark.… From one end
of the house to the other along the center they kindle fires, and the
area left open, which is also in the middle, serves as a chimney to
release the smoke. Often there are sixteen or eighteen families in a
house… This means that often a hundred or a hundred and fifty or more
lodge in one house.
Usually, between 2 to 20 families lived in a single
longhouse with sleeping platforms being 2 feet above the ground and
food left to dry on the rafters.
A castle might contain twenty or thirty longhouses. In addition to the
castles the Iroquois also had smaller settlements which might be
occupied seasonally by smaller groups, for example for fishing or
hunting. Living in the smoke-filled longhouses often caused conjunctivitis.
Total population for the five nations has been estimated at
20,000 before 1634. After 1635 the population dropped to around 6,800,
chiefly due to the epidemic of smallpox introduced by contact with European settlers. The Iroquois lived in extended families divided clans headed by clan mothers that grouped into moieities ("halves"). The typical clan consisted of about 50 to 200 people. The division of the Iroquois went as follows:
CayugaMoiety (A) clans: Bear, Beaver, Heron, Turtle, Wolf
Moiety (B) clans: Turtle, Bear, Deer
TuscaroraMoiety (A) clans: Bear, Wolf
Moeity (B) clans: Eel, Snipe, Beaver, Turtle, Deer
SenecaMoeity (A) clans: Heron, Beaver, Bear, Wolf, Turtle
Moeity (B) clans: Deer, Hawk, Eel, Snipe
OnondagaMoeity (A) clans: Tortoise, Wolf, Snipe, Eagle, Beaver
Moeity (B) clan: Bear, Hawk, Eel, Deer
OneidaMoeity (A) clan: wolf
Moeity (B) clans: Bear, Turtle
MohawkMoeity (A) clans: Wolf, Bear
Moeity (B) clan: Turtle. Government was by the 50 sachems representing the various clans who were chosen by the clan mothers. Assisting the sachems
were the "Pinetree Chiefs" who served as diplomats and the "War Chiefs"
who led the war parties; neither the "Pinetree Chiefs" or the "War
Chiefs" were allowed to vote at council meetings.
By the late 1700s The Iroquois were building smaller log cabins
resembling those of the colonists, but retaining some native features,
such as bark roofs with smoke holes and a central fireplace. The main woods used by the Iroquois to make their utensils were oak, birch, hickory and elm. Bones and antlers were used to make hunting and fishing equipment.
Food
The Iroquois are a mix of horticulturalists,
farmers, fishers, gatherers and hunters, though their main diet
traditionally has come from farming. The main crops they cultivated are
corn, beans and squash, which were called the three sisters (De-oh-há-ko) and are considered special gifts from the Creator.
These crops are grown strategically. The cornstalks grow, the bean
plants climb the stalks, and the squash grow beneath, inhibiting weeds
and keeping the soil moist under the shade of their broad leaves. In
this combination, the soil remained fertile for several decades. The
food was stored during the winter, and it lasted for two to three years.
When the soil in one area eventually lost its fertility, the
Haudenosaunee moved their village. For the Iroquois, farming was
traditionally women's work and the entire process of planting,
maintaining, harvesting and cooking the "Three Sisters" were done by
women. At harvest time, Iroquois women would use corn husks to make hats, dolls, rope and moccasins.
Besides for the "Three Sisters", the Iroquois also eat artichokes,
leeks, cucumbers, turnips, pumpkins, a number of different berries such
blackberries, blueberries, gooseberries, etc and wild nuts
The "Three Sisters" were ground up into hominy and soups in clay pots,
which were disregarded for metal pots after the contact was made with
Europeans.
Gathering is the traditional job of the women and children. Wild
roots, greens, berries and nuts were gathered in the summer. During
spring, sap is tapped from the maple trees and boiled into maple syrup,
and herbs are gathered for medicine. After the coming of Europeans, the
Iroquois started to grow apples, pears, cherries, and peaches.
The Iroquois hunted mostly deer but also other game such as wild
turkey and migratory birds. Muskrat and beaver were hunted during the
winter. Archaeologists have the bones of bison, elk, deer, bear,
raccoon, and porcupines at Iroquois villages.
Fishing was also a significant source of food because the Iroquois had
villages mostly in the St.Lawrence and Great Lakes areas. The Iroquois
used nets made from vegetable fiber with weights of pebbles for fishing.
They fished salmon, trout, bass, perch and whitefish until the St.
Lawrence became too polluted by industry. In the spring the Iroquois
netted, and in the winter fishing holes were made in the ice. Allium tricoccum is also a part of traditional Iroquois cuisine. Starting about 1620, the Iroquois started to raise pigs, geese and chickens, which they had acquired from the Dutch.
In
summer they go naked, having only their private parts covered with a
patch. The children and young folks to ten, twelve and fourteen years of
age go stark naked. In winter, they hang about them simply an undressed
deer or bear or panther skin; or they take some beaver and otter skins,
wild cat, racoon, martin, otter, mink, squirrel or such like skins…and
sew some of them to others, until it is a square piece, and that is then
a garment for them; or they buy of us Dutchmen two and a half ells
[about 170 centimetres (5.6 ft)] of duffel, and that they hang simply about them, just as it was torn off, without sewing it.
On their feet the Iroquois wore moccasins, "true to nature in its adjustment to the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and durable as an article of apparel."
The
moccason is made of one piece of deer-skin. It is seamed up at the
heel, and also in front, above the foot, leaving the bottom of the
moccasin without a seam. In front the deer-skin is gathered, in place of
being crimped; over this part porcupine quills or beads are worked, in
various patterns. The plain moccasin rises several inches above the
ankle…and is fastened with deer strings; but usually this part is turned
down, so as to expose a part of the instep, and is ornamented with
bead-work.
Moccasins of a sort were also made of corn husks.
In 1653 Dutch official Adriaen van der Donck wrote:
Around
their waist they all [i.e.both men and women] wear a belt made of
leather, whalefin, whalebone, or wampum. The men pull a length of duffel
cloth—if they have it—under this belt, front and rear, and pass it
between the legs. It is over half an ell [35 centimetres (14 in)] wide
and nine quarter-ells [155 centimetres (61 in)] long, which leaves a
square flap hanging down in front and back… Before duffel cloth was
common in that country, and sometimes even now when it cannot be had,
they took for that purpose some dressed leather or fur—The women also
wear a length of woolen cloth of full width [165 centimetres (65 in)]
and an ell and a quarter [90 centimetres (35 in)] long, which comes
halfway down the leg. It is like a petticoat, but under it, next to the
body, they wear a deerskin which also goes around the waist and ends in
cleverly cut pointed edging and fringes. The wealthier women and those
who have a liking for it wear such skirts wholly embroidered with
wampum… As for covering the upper part of the body both men and women
use a sheet of duffel cloth of full width, i.e. nine and a half
quarter-ells, and about three ells 210 centimetres (83 in) long. It is
usually worn over the right shoulder and tied in a knot around the waist
and from there hangs down to the feet.
During the 17th century, Iroquois clothing changed rapidly as a
result of the introduction of scissors and needles obtained from the
Europeans, and the British scholar Michael Johnson has cautioned that
European accounts of Iroquois clothing from the latter 17th century may
not have entirely reflected traditional pre-contact Iroquois clothing.
In the 17th century women normally went topless in the warm months
while wearing a buckskin skirt overlapping on the left while in the
winter women covered their upper bodies with a cape-like upper garment
with an opening for the head.
By the 18th century, cloth colored red and blue obtained from Europeans
became the standard material for clothing with the men and women
wearing blouses and shirts that usually decorated with beadwork and
ribbons and were often worn alongside sliver broaches.
By the latter 18th century, women were wearing muslin or calico long, loose-fitting overdresses.
The tendency of Iroquois women to abandon their traditional topless
style of dressing in the warm months reflected European influence.
Married women wore their hair in a single braid held in place by a comb
made of bone, antler or silver while unmarried wore their hair in
several braids. Warriors wore moccasins, leggings and short kilts and on occasion wore robes that were highly decorated with painted designs.
Initially, men's clothing was made of buckskin and were decorated with
porcupine quill-work and later on was made of broadcloth obtained from
Europeans.
The bodies and faces of Iroquois men were heavily tattooed with
geometric designs and their noses and ears were pieced with rings made
up of wampun or silver. On the warpath, the faces and bodies of the warriors were painted half red, half black.
The men usually shaved most of their hair with leaving only a tuft of
hair in the center, giving the name Mohawk to their hair style. A cap made of either buckskin or cloth tied to wood splints called the Gus-to-weh that was decorated with feathers was often worn by men. Buckskin ammunition pouches with straps over the shoulder together with
belts or slashes that carried powder horn and tomahawks were usually
worn by warriors. Quilled knife cases were worn around the neck. Chiefs wore headdresses made of deer antler. By the 18th century, Iroquois men normally wore shirts and leggings made of broadcloth and buckskin coats. In the 17th and 18th centuries silver armbands and gorgets were popular accessories.
By the 1900s most Iroquois were wearing the same clothing as
their non-Iroquois neighbors. Today most nations only wear their
traditional clothing to ceremonies or special events.
gusto'weh headdress
Men wore a cap with a single long feather rotating in a socket called a gustoweh.
Later, feathers in the gustoweh denote the wearer's tribe by their
number and positioning. The Mohawk wear three upright feathers, the
Oneida two upright and one down. The Onondaga wear one feather pointing
upward and another pointing down. The Cayuga have a single feather at a
forty-five degree angle. The Seneca wear a single feather pointing up,
and the Tuscarora have no distinguishing feathers.
Seneca woman in traditional dress
Writing in 1851 Morgan wrote that women's outfits consisted of a
skirt (gä-kä'-ah) "usually of blue broadcloth, and elaborately
embroidered with bead-work. It requires two yards of cloth, which is
worn with the selvedge at the top and bottom; the skirt being secured
about the waist and descending nearly to the top of the moccasin." Under
the skirt, between the knees and the moccasins, women wore leggings
(gise'-hǎ), called pantalettes
by Morgan, "of red broadcloth, and ornamented with a border of beadwork
around the lower edge…In ancient times the gise'-hǎ was made of
deer-skin and embroidered with porcupine-quill work." An over-dress
(ah-de-a'-da-we-sa) of muslin or calico
was worn over the skirt, it is "gathered slightly at the waist, and
falls part way down the skirt… In front it is generally buttoned with
silver broaches." The blanket (e'yose) is two or three yards of blue or
green broadcloth "it falls from the head or neck in natural folds the
width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like a shawl."
The women wore their hair very long and tied together at the
back, or "tied at the back of the head and folded into a tress of about a
hand's length, like a beaver tail… they wear around the forehead a
strap of wampum shaped like the headband that some was worn in olden
times." "The men have a long lock hanging down, some on one side of the
head, and some on both sides. On the top of their heads they have a
streak of hair from the forehead to the neck, about the breadth of three
fingers, and this they shorten until it is about two or three fingers
long, and it stands right on end like a cock's comb or hog's bristles;
on both sides of this cock's comb they cut all the hair short, except
for the aforesaid locks, and they also leave on the bare places here and
there small locks, such as aree in sweeping brushes and then they are
in fine array. This is the forerunner to what is today called a "Mohawk hairstyle."
The women did not paint their faces. The men "paint their faces red, blue, etc."
Medicine
Plants traditionally used by the Iroquois include Agrimonia gryposepala, which was to treat diarrhea, and interrupted fern, used for blood and venereal diseases and conditions. Cone flower (Echinacea), an immune system booster and treatment for respiratory disease was also known and used. They also give an infusion of Chelidonium majus, another plant & milk to pigs that drool and have sudden movements. They use Ranunculus acris,
in that apply a poultice of the smashed plant to the chest for pains
and for colds, take an infusion of the roots for diarrhea, and apply a poultice of plant fragments with another plant to the skin for excess water in the blood.Symphyotrichum novae-angliae is used in a decoction for weak skin, use a decoction of the roots and leaves for fevers, use the plant as a "love medicine", and use an infusion of whole plant and rhizomes from another plant to treat mothers with intestinal fevers,. A decoction of the roots of chicory is used as a wash and applied as a poultice to chancres and fever sores. A decoction of the root of Allium tricoccum is used to treat worms in children, and they also use the decoction as a spring tonic to "clean you out".Epigaea repens
is also utilized, as they use a compound for labor pains in
parturition, use a compound decoction for rheumatism, take a decoction
of the leaves for indigestion, and they also take a decoction of the
whole plant or roots, stalks and leaves taken for the kidneys. A pounded infusion of the roots of Potentilla canadensis is given as an antidiarrheal. They also use Senna hebecarpa as a worm remedy and take a compound decoction of it as a laxative. The whole plant of Solidago rugosa is used for biliousness and as liver medicine, and they take decoction of its flowers and leaves dizziness, weakness or sunstroke. The Iroquois take a compound decoction of the Carex oligosperma as an emetic before running or playing lacrosse.
The Iroquois also used quinine, chamomile, ipecac, and a form of penicillin.
Women in society
The Iroquois have historically followed a matriarchal system. No
person is entitled to 'own' land, but it is believed that the Creator
appointed women as stewards of the land. Traditionally, the Clan Mothers
appoint leaders, as they have raised children and are therefore held to
a higher regard. By the same token, if a leader does not prove sound,
becomes corrupt or does not listen to the people, the Clan Mothers have
the power to strip him of his leadership.
The Iroquois have traditionally followed a matrilineal system,
with women holding property and hereditary leadership passing through
their lines. Historically women have held the dwellings, horses and
farmed land, and a woman's property before marriage has stayed in her
possession without being mixed with that of her husband. Men and women
have traditionally had separate roles but both hold real power in the
Nations. The work of a woman's hands is hers to do with as she sees fit. Historically, at marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the
wife's family. A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise
unsatisfactory husband is able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take
his possessions with him.
The children of a traditional marriage belong to their mother's clan
and gain their social status through hers. Her brothers are important
teachers and mentors to the children, especially introducing boys to
men's roles and societies. The clans are matrilineal, that is, clan ties
are traced through the mother's line. If a couple separates, the woman
traditionally keeps the children.
The chief of a clan can be removed at any time by a council of the
women elders of that clan. The chief's sister has historically been
responsible for nominating his successor. The clan mothers,
the elder women of each clan, are highly respected. It is regarded as
incest by the Iroquois to marry within one's matrilineal clan, but
considered acceptable to marry someone from the same patrilineal clan.
Like many cultures, the Iroquois' spiritual beliefs changed over time
and varied across tribes. Generally, the Iroquois believed in numerous
deities, including the Great Spirit,
the Thunderer, and the Three Sisters (the spirits of beans, maize, and
squash). The Great Spirit was thought to have created plants, animals,
and humans to control "the forces of good in nature", and to guide
ordinary people. Orenda was the Iroquoian name for the magical potence found in people and their environment. The Iroquois believed in the orenda, the spiritual force that flowed all things, and believed if people were respectful of nature, then the orenda would harnessed to bring about positive results.
There were three types of spirits for the Iroquois: 1) Those living on
the earth 2) Those living above the earth and 3) the highest level of
spirits controlling the universe from high above with the most highest
being known variously as the Great Spirit, the Great Creator or the
Master of Life.
Sources provide different stories about Iroquois creation
beliefs. Brascoupé and Etmanskie focus on the first person to walk the
earth, called the Skywoman or Aientsik. Aientsik's daughter Tekawerahkwa
gave birth to twins, Tawiskaron, who created vicious animals and river
rapids, while Okwiraseh created "all that is pure and beautiful".
After a battle where Okwiraseh defeated Tawiskaron, Tawiskaron was
confined to "the dark areas of the world", where he governed the night
and destructive creatures. Other scholars present the "twins" as the Creator and his brother, Flint.
The Creator was responsible for game animals, while Flint created
predators and disease. Saraydar (1990) suggests the Iroquois do not see
the twins as polar opposites but understood their relationship to be
more complex, noting "Perfection is not to be found in gods or humans or
the worlds they inhabit."
Descriptions of Iroquois spiritual history consistently refer to
dark times of terror and misery prior to the Iroquois Confederacy, ended
by the arrival of the Great Peacemaker.
Tradition asserts that the Peacemaker demonstrated his authority as the
Creator's messenger by climbing a tall tree above a waterfall, having
the people cut down the tree, and reappearing the next morning unharmed.
The Peacemaker restored mental health to a few of the most "violent and
dangerous men", Ayonhwatha and Thadodaho, who then helped him bear the
message of peace to others.
After the arrival of the Europeans, some Iroquois became Christians, among them the first Native American Saint, Kateri Tekakwitha, a young woman of Mohawk-Algonquin parents. The Seneca sachem Handsome Lake, also known as Ganeodiyo, introduced a new religious system to the Iroquois in the late 18th century, which incorporated Quaker beliefs along with traditional Iroquoian culture. Handsome Lake's teachings include a focus on parenting, appreciation of life, and peace.
A key aspect of Handsome Lake's teachings is the principle of
equilibrium, wherein each person's talents combined into a functional
community. By the 1960s, at least 50% of Iroquois followed this
religion.
Dreams play a significant role in Iroquois spirituality,
providing information about a person's desires and prompting individuals
to fulfill dreams. To communicate upward, humans can send prayers to
spirits by burning tobacco.
Iroquois ceremonies are primarily concerned with farming,
healing, and thanksgiving. Key festivals correspond to the agricultural
calendar, and include Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green Maize, Harvest,
and Mid-Winter (or New Year's), which is held in early February. The ceremonies were given by the Creator to the Iroquois to balance good with evil. In the 17th century, Europeans described the Iroquois as having 17 festivals, but only 8 are observed today.
The most important of the ceremonies were the New Year Festival, the
Maple Festival held in late March to celebrate spring, the Sun Shooting
Festival which also celebrates spring, the Seed Dance in May to
celebrate the planting of the crops, the Strawberry Festival in June to
celebrate the ripening of the strawberries,the Thunder Ceremony to bring
rain in July, the Green Bean Festival in early August, the Green Corn
Festival in late August and the Harvest Festival in October.
Of all the festivals, the most important were the Green Corn Festival
to celebrate the maturing of the corn and the New Year Festival.
During all of the festivals, men and women from the False Face Society,
the Medicine Society and the Husk Face Society would dance wearing
their masks in attempt to humor the spirits that controlled nature.
The most important of the occasions for the masked dancers to appear
were the New Year Festival, which was felt to be an auspicious occasion
to chase the malevolent spirits that were believed to cause disease.
During healing ceremonies, a carved "False Face Mask" is worn to
represent spirits in a tobacco-burning and prayer ritual. False Face
Masks are carved in living trees, then cut free to be painted and
decorated.
False Faces represent grandfathers of the Iroquois, and are thought to
reconnect humans and nature and to frighten illness-causing spirits. The False Face Society
continues today among modern Iroquois. The Iroquois have three
different medical societies. The False Face Company conducts rituals to
cure sick people by driving away spirits; the Husk Face Society is made
up of those had dreams seen as messages from the spirits and the Secret
Medicine Society likewise conducts rituals to cure the sick. There are 12 different types of masks worn by the societies. The types of masks are
A) The Secret Society of Medicine Men and the Company of Mystic Animals
1) Divided mask that painted half black and half red.
2) Masks with exaggerated long noses.
3) Horn masks
4) Blind masks without eye sockets.
B) Husk Face Society
5) Masks made of braided corn
C) False Face Society
6) Whistling masks
7) Masks with smiling faces.
8) Masks with protruding tongues.
9) Masks with exaggerated hanging mouths.
10) Masks with exaggerated straight lops.
11) Masks with spoon-lips.
12) Masks with a disfigured twisted mouth.
The "crooked face" masks with the twisted mouths, the masks with the spoon lips and the whistling masks are the Doctor masks. The other masks are "Common Face" or "Beggar" masks that are worn by those who help the Doctors.
The Husk Face Society performs rituals to communicate with the spirits
in nature to ensure a good crop, the False Face Society performs rituals
to chase away evil spirits and the Secret Medicine Society performs
rituals to cure diseases. The grotesque masks represent the faces of the spirits that the dancers are attempting to please.
Those wearing Doctor masks blow hot ashes into the faces of the sick to
chase away the evil spirits that are believed to be causing the
illness. The masked dancers often carried turtle shell rattles and long staffs.
Condolence ceremonies are conducted by the Iroquois for both
ordinary and important people, but most notably when sachems died. Such
ceremonies were still held on Iroquois reservations as late as the
1970s.
After death, the soul is thought to embark on a journey, undergo a
series of ordeals, and arrive in the sky world. This journey is thought
to take one year, during which the Iroquois mourn for the dead. After
the mourning period, a feast is held to celebrate the soul's arrival in
the skyworld.
"Keepers of the faith" are part-time specialists who conduct
religious ceremonies. Both men and women can be appointed as keepers of
the faith by tribe elders.
Festivals
The Iroquois traditionally celebrate six major festivals throughout the year.
These usually combine a spiritual component and ceremony, a feast, a
chance to celebrate together, sports, entertainment and dancing. These
celebrations have historically been oriented to the seasons and
celebrated based on the cycle of nature rather than fixed calendar
dates.
For instance, the Mid-winter festival, Gi'-ye-wä-no-us-quä-go-wä
("The supreme belief") ushers in the new year. This festival is
traditionally held for one week around the end of January to early
February, depending on when the new moon occurs that year.
Art
Iroquois art from the 16th and 17th centuries as found on bowls,
pottery and clay pipes show a mixture of animal, geometrical and human
imagery. Moose hair was sometimes attached to tumplines or burden straps for decorative effect. Porcupine quillwork was sewn onto bags, clothing and moccasins, usually in geometrical designs. Other designs included the "great turtle" upon North America was said to rest; the circular "skydome" and wavy designs.
Beads and clothes often featured semi-circles and waves which meant to
represent the "skydome" which consisted of the entire universe together
with the supernatural world above it, parallel lines for the earth and
curved lines for the "celestial tree".
Floral designs were first introduced in the 17th century, reflecting
French influence, but did not become truly popular until the 19th
century. Starting about 1850 the Iroquois art began to frequently feature floral
designs on moccasins, caps, pouches and pincushions, which were
purchased by Euro-Americans.
The British historian Michael Johnson described the Iroquois artwork
meant to be sold to whites in the 19th century as having a strong feel
of "Victoriana" to them.
Silver was much valued by the Iroquois from the 17th century onward,
and starting in the 18th century, the Iroquois became "excellent
silversmiths", making silver earrings, gorgets and rings.
Games and sports
The favorite sport of the Iroquois was lacrosse (O-tä-dä-jish′-quä-äge in Seneca).
This version was played between two teams of six or eight players, made
up of members of two sets of clans (Wolf, Bear, Beaver, and Turtle on
one side vs. Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk on the other among the
Senecas). The goals were two sets of poles roughly 450 yards (410 m)
apart. The poles were about 10 feet (3.0 m) high and placed about 15 feet (4.6 m) apart.
A goal was scored by carrying or throwing a deer-skin ball between the
goal posts using netted sticks—touching the ball with hands was
prohibited. The game was played to a score of five or seven. The modern
version of lacrosse remains popular as of 2015.
A popular winter game was the snow-snake game. The "snake" was a hickory
pole about 5–7 feet (1.5–2.1 m) long and about .25 inches (0.64 cm) in
diameter, turned up slightly at the front and weighted with lead. The
game was played between two sides of up to six players each, often boys,
but occasionally between the men of two clans. The snake, or Gawa′sa,
was held by placing the index finger against the back end and balancing
it on the thumb and other fingers. It was not thrown but slid across the
surface of the snow. The side whose snake went the farthest scored one
point. Other snakes from the same side which went farther than any other
snake of the opposing side also scored a point; the other side scored
nothing. This was repeated until one side scored the number of points
which had been agreed to for the game, usually seven or ten.
The Peach-stone game (Guskä′eh) was a gambling game in which the clans bet against each other.
Traditionally it was played on the final day of the Green Corn,
Harvest, and Mid-winter festivals. The game was played using a wooden
bowl about one foot in diameter and six peach-stones (pits) ground to
oval shape and burned black on one side. A "bank" of beans, usually 100,
was used to keep score and the winner was the side who won them all.
Two players sat on a blanket-covered platform raised a few feet off the
floor. To play the peach stones were put into the bowl and shaken.
Winning combinations were five of either color or six of either color
showing.
Players started with five beans each from the bank. The starting
player shook the bowl; if he shook a five the other player paid him one
bean, if a six five beans. If he shook either he got to shake again. If
he shook anything else the turn passed to his opponent. All his winnings
were handed over to a "manager" or "managers" for his side. If a player
lost all of his beans another player from his side took his place and
took five beans from the bank. Once all beans had been taken from the
bank the game continued, but with the draw of beans now coming from the
winnings of the player's side, which were kept out of sight so that no
one but the managers knew how the game was going. The game was finished
when one side had won all the beans.
The game sometimes took quite a while to play, depending on the
starting number of beans, and games lasting more than a day were common.
Each clan has a group of personal names which may be used to name
members. The clan mother is responsible for keeping track of those names
not in use, which may then be reused to name infants. When a child
becomes an adult he takes a new "adult" name in place of his "baby"
name. Some names are reserved for chiefs or faith keepers, and when a
person assumes that office he takes the name in a ceremony in which he
is considered to "resuscitate" the previous holder. If a chief resigns
or is removed he gives up the name and resumes his previous one.
Cannibalism
Although the Iroquois are sometimes mentioned as examples of groups who practiced cannibalism,
the evidence is mixed as to whether such a practice could be said to be
widespread among the Six Nations, and to whether it was a notable
cultural feature. Some anthropologists have found evidence of ritual torture and cannibalism at Iroquois sites, for example, among the Onondaga in the sixteenth century. However, other scholars, most notably anthropologist William Arens in his controversial book, The Man-Eating Myth, have challenged the evidence, suggesting the human bones found at sites point to funerary practices, asserting that if cannibalism was practiced among the Iroquois, it was not widespread. Modern anthropologists seem to accept the probability that cannibalism did exist among the Iroquois,
with Thomas Abler describing the evidence from the Jesuit Relations and
archaeology as making a "case for cannibalism in early historic
times... so strong that it cannot be doubted."
Scholars are also urged to remember the context for a practice that now
shocks the modern Western society. Sanday reminds us that the ferocity
of the Iroquois' rituals "cannot be separated from the severity of
conditions... where death from hunger, disease, and warfare became a way
of life".
The missionaries Johannes Megapolensis, François-Joseph Bressani, and the fur trader Pierre-Esprit Radisson
present first-hand accounts of cannibalism among the Mohawk. A common
theme is ritualistic roasting and eating the heart of a captive who has
been tortured and killed. "To eat your enemy is to perform an extreme form of physical dominance."
People
Nations
The first five nations listed below formed the original Five Nations
(listed from east to west, as they were oriented to the sunrise); the
Tuscarora became the sixth nation in 1722.
1 Not one of the original Five Nations; joined 1722.
2 Settled between the Oneida and Onondaga.
Within each of the six nations, people belonged to a number of matrilinealclans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to eight, with a total of nine different clan names.
Population history
According to the Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life,
The Iroquois Confederacy had 10,000 people at its peak, but by the 18th
century, their population had decreased to 4,000, recovering only to
7,000 by 1910.
According to data compiled in 1995 by Doug George-Kanentiio, a
total of 51,255 Six Nations people lived in Canada. These included
15,631 Mohawk in Quebec; 14,051 Mohawk in Ontario; 3,970 Oneida in
Ontario; and a total of 17,603 of the Six Nations at the Grand River
Reserve in Ontario. More recently according to the Six Nations Elected Council, some 12,436 on the Six Nations of the Grand Riverreserve, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada, as of December 2014 and 26,034 total in Canada.
In 1995, tribal registrations among the Six Nations in the United
States numbered about 30,000 in total, with the majority of 17,566 in
New York. The remainder were more than 10,000 Oneida in Wisconsin, and
about 2200 Seneca-Cayuga in Oklahoma.
As the nations individually determine their rules for membership or
citizenship, they report the official numbers. (Some traditional members
of the nations refuse to be counted.) There is no federally recognized Iroquois nation or tribe, nor are any Native Americans enrolled as Iroquois.
Canasatego, Onondaga leader, diplomat and spokesperson known for his speech at the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, where he recommended that the British colonies emulate the Iroquois by forming a confederacy.
Mohawk leader John Smoke Johnson (right) with John Tutela and Young Warner, two other Six Nations War of 1812 veterans. Photo: July 1882
The Grand Council of the Six Nations is an assembly of 56 Hoyenah (chiefs) or sachems. Today, the seats on the Council are distributed among the Six Nations as follows:
14 Onondaga
10 Cayuga
9 Oneida
9 Mohawk
8 Seneca
6 Tuscarora
When anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan studied the Grand Council in the 19th century, he interpreted it as a central government.
This interpretation became influential, but Richter argues that while
the Grand Council served an important ceremonial role, it was not a
government in the sense that Morgan thought.
According to this view, Iroquois political and diplomatic decisions are
made on the local level, and are based on assessments of community consensus. A central government that develops policy and implements it for the people at large is not the Iroquois model of government.
Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855,
Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was
ratified by 75% of the male voters and 75% of the mothers of the
nation. In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two-thirds of the mothers was required. The need for a double supermajority to make major changes made the Confederacy a de factoconsensus government.
The women traditionally held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war.
The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers
of each clan. If any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the
women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, the mother of his clan
could demote him, a process called "knocking off the horns". The deer antlers, an emblem of leadership, were removed from his headgear, thus returning him to private life.
Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from
the men's councils. The women used men as runners to send word of their
decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men's
council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took
the initiative in suggesting legislation.
Wampum belts
Chiefs of the Six Nations explaining their wampum belts to Horatio Hale, 1871
The term "wampum" refers to beads made from purple and white mollusk shells on threads of elm bark. Species used to make wampum include the highly prized quahog clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) which produces the famous purple colored beads. For white colored beads the shells from the channeled whelk (Busycotypus canaliculatus), knobbed whelk (Busycon carica), lightning whelk (Sinistrofulgur perversum), and snow whelk (Sinistrofulgur laeostomum) are used.
Wampum was primarily used to make wampum belts by the Iroquois,
which Iroquois tradition claims was invented by Hiawatha to console
chiefs and clan mothers who lost family members to war. Wampum belts played a major role in the Condolence Ceremony and in the raising of new chiefs. Wampum belts are used to signify the importance of a specific message
being presented. Treaty making often involved wampum belts to signify
the importance of the treaty. A famous example is "The Two Row Wampum"
or "Guesuenta", meaning "it brightens our minds", which was originally
presented to the Dutch settlers, and then French, representing a canoe
and a sailboat moving side-by-side along the river of life, not
interfering with the other's course. All non-Native settlers are, by
associations, members of this treaty. Both chiefs and clan mothers wear
wampum belts as symbol of their offices.
"The Covenant Belt" was presented to the Iroquois at the signing of the Canandaigua Treaty. The belt has a design of thirteen human figures representing symbolically the Thirteen Colonies
of the United States. The house and the two figures directly next to
the house represent the Iroquois people and the symbolic longhouse. The
figure on the left of the house represent the Seneca Nation who are the
symbolic guardians of the western door (western edge of Iroquois
territory) and the figure to the right of the house represents the
Mohawk who are the keepers of the eastern door (eastern edge of Iroquois
territory).
The Hiawatha belt is the national belt of the Iroquois and is
represented in the Iroquois Confederacy flag. The belt has four squares
and a tree in the middle which represents the original five nations of
the Iroquois. Going from left to right the squares represent the Seneca,
Cayuga, Oneida and Mohawk. The Onondaga are represented by an eastern white pine which represents the Tree of Peace. Traditionally the Onondaga are the peace keepers of the confederacy.
The placement of the nations on the belt represents the actually
geographical distribution of the six nations over their shared
territory, with the Seneca in the far west and the Mohawk in the far
east of Iroquois territory.
Haudenosaunee [flag.
The Haudenosaunee flag created in the 1980s is based on the Hiawatha
Belt ... created from purple and white wampum beads centuries ago to
symbolize the union forged when the former enemies buried their weapons
under the Great Tree of Peace." It represents the original five nations that were united by the Peacemaker and Hiawatha. The tree symbol in the center represents an Eastern White Pine, the needles of which are clustered in groups of five.
Influence on the United States
Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of
government influenced the development of the United States's government.
Contact between the leaders of the English colonists and the Iroquois
started with efforts to form an alliance via the use of treaty councils.
Prominent individuals such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson
were often in attendance.Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government.
The Six Nations' governing committee was elected by the men and women
of the tribe, one member from each of the six nations. Giving each
member the same amount of authority in the council ensured no man
received too much power, providing some of the same effect as the United
States's future system of checks and balances.
Consensus has not been reached on how influential the Iroquois
model was to the development of United States' documents such as the Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution. The influence thesis has been discussed by historians such as Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen. In 1988, the United States Congress passed a resolution to recognize the influence of the Iroquois League upon the Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1987, Cornell University held a conference on the link between the Iroquois' government and the U.S. Constitution.
Scholars such as Jack N. Rakove challenge this thesis. Stanford University
historian Rakove writes, "The voluminous records we have for the
constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant
references to the Iroquois" and notes that there are ample European
precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States. Historian Francis Jennings noted that supporters of the thesis frequently cite the following statement by Benjamin Franklin, made in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to James Parker in 1751:
"It would be a very strange thing, if six Nations of ignorant savages
should be capable of forming a Scheme for such a Union … and yet that a
like union should be impracticable for ten or a Dozen English Colonies,"
but he disagrees that it establishes influence. Rather, he thinks
Franklin was promoting union against the "ignorant savages" and called
the idea "absurd".
The anthropologist Dean Snow has stated that although Franklin's Albany Plan
may have drawn inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little
evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially
from that source. He argues that "...such claims muddle and denigrate
the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms
of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in
conception."
Similarly, the anthropologist Elizabeth Tooker
has concluded that "there is virtually no evidence that the framers
borrowed from the Iroquois." She argues that the idea is a myth
resulting from a claim made by linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt that was exaggerated and misunderstood after his death in 1937.
According to Tooker, the original Iroquois constitution did not involve
representative democracy and elections; deceased chiefs' successors
were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in
consultation with other women in the tribe.
International relations
The Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany in 1917 during World War I and again in 1942 in World War II.
The Haudenosaunee government has issued passports since 1923,
when Haudenosaunee authorities issued a passport to Cayuga statesman
Deskaheh (Levi General) to travel to the League of Nations headquarters.
More recently, passports have been issued since 1997.
Before 2001 these were accepted by various nations for international
travel, but with increased security concerns across the world since the September 11 attacks, this is no longer the case.In 2010, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team was allowed by the U.S. to travel on their own passports to the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in England only after the personal intervention of Secretary of StateHillary Clinton. However, the British government refused to recognize the Iroquois passports and denied the team members entry into the United Kingdom.
The Onondaga Nation spent $1.5 million on a subsequent upgrade to the passports designed to meet 21st-century international security requirements.
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