Conventional
neural-network image-recognition algorithm trained to recognize human
hair (left), compared to the more precise heuristically trained
algorithm (right) (credit: Wenzhangzhi Guo and Parham Aarabi/IEEE Trans
NN & LS)
A new machine learning algorithm designed by University of Toronto researchers Parham Aarabi
and Wenzhi Guo learns directly from human instructions, rather than an
existing set of examples, as in traditional neural networks. In tests,
it outperformed existing neural networks by 160 per cent.
Their “heuristically trained neural networks” (HNN) algorithm also outperformed its own
training by nine per cent — it learned to recognize hair in pictures
with greater reliability than that enabled by the training.
Aarabi and Guo trained their HNN algorithm to identify people’s hair
in photographs, a challenging task for computers. “Our algorithm learned
to correctly classify difficult, borderline cases — distinguishing the
texture of hair versus the texture of the background,” says Aarabi.
“What we saw was like a teacher instructing a child, and the child
learning beyond what the teacher taught her initially.”
Heuristic training
Humans conventionally “teach” neural networks by providing a set of
labeled data and asking the neural network to make decisions based on
the samples it’s seen. For example, you could train a neural network to
identify sky in a photograph by showing it hundreds of pictures with the
sky labeled.
With HNN, humans provide direct instructions that are used to
pre-classify training samples rather than a set of fixed examples.
Trainers program the algorithm with guidelines such as “Sky is likely to
be varying shades of blue,” and “Pixels near the top of the image are
more likely to be sky than pixels at the bottom.”
Their work is published in the journal IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems.
This heuristic-training approach addresses one of the biggest
challenges for neural networks: making correct classifications of
previously unknown or unlabeled data, the researchers say. This is
crucial for applying machine learning to new situations, such as
correctly identifying cancerous tissues for medical diagnostics, or
classifying all the objects surrounding and approaching a self-driving
car.
“Applying heuristic training to hair segmentation is just a start,”
says Guo. “We’re keen to apply our method to other fields and a range of
applications, from medicine to transportation.”
Abstract of Hair Segmentation Using Heuristically-Trained Neural Networks
We present a method for binary classification using neural networks
(NNs) that performs training and classification on the same data using
the help of a pretraining heuristic classifier. The heuristic classifier
is initially used to segment data into three clusters of
high-confidence positives, high-confidence negatives, and low-confidence
sets. The high-confidence sets are used to train an NN, which is then
used to classify the low-confidence set. Applying this method to the
binary classification of hair versus nonhair patches, we obtain a 2.2%
performance increase using the heuristically trained NN over the current
state-of-the-art hair segmentation method.
The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to sight New Zealand was Dutch navigator Abel Tasman on 13 December 1642. The Dutch were also the first non-natives to explore and chart New Zealand's coastline. Captain James Cook, who reached New Zealand in October 1769 on the first of his three voyages,
was the first European explorer to circumnavigate and map New Zealand.
From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by
explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In
1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire
and giving Māori the same rights as British subjects. There was
extensive British settlement throughout the rest of the century and into
the early part of the next century. War and the imposition of a
European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land
passing from Māori to Pākehā (European) ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished.
When World War II
broke out in 1939, New Zealanders contributed to the defence of the
British Empire; the country contributed some 120,000 troops. From the
1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state
was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and
from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This
led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century.
Polynesian expansion (from Taiwan to the Polynesian triangle.)
New Zealand was originally settled by Polynesians from Eastern Polynesia. Genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that humans emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands; after a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[4] The most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around 1280 CE.[4] Previous dating of some Kiore (Polynesian rat)
bones at 50 – 150 CE has now been shown to have been unreliable; new
samples of bone (and now also of unequivocally rat-gnawed woody seed
cases) match the 1280 CE date of the earliest archaeological sites and
the beginning of sustained, anthropogenic deforestation.[5]
The descendants of these settlers became known as the Māori, forming a distinct culture of their own. The separate settlement of the tiny Chatham Islands in the east of New Zealand about 1500 CE produced the Moriori; linguistic evidence indicates that the Moriori were mainland Māori who ventured eastward.[6]
The original settlers quickly exploited the abundant large game in New Zealand, such as moa, which were large flightlessratites pushed to extinction
by about 1500. As moa and other large game became scarce or extinct,
Māori culture underwent major change, with regional differences. In
areas where it was possible to grow taro and kūmara,
horticulture became more important. This was not possible in the south
of the South Island, but wild plants such as fernroot were often
available and cabbage trees were harvested and cultivated for food.
Warfare also increased in importance, reflecting increased competition
for land and other resources. In this period, fortified pā became more common, although there is debate about the actual frequency of warfare. As elsewhere in the Pacific, cannibalism was part of warfare.[7]
Māori whānau from Rotorua
in the 1880s. Many aspects of Western life and culture, including
European clothing and architecture, became incorporated into Māori
society during the 19th century.
Leadership was based on a system of chieftainship, which was often
but not always hereditary, although chiefs (male or female) needed to
demonstrate leadership abilities to avoid being superseded by more
dynamic individuals. The most important units of pre-European Māori
society were the whānau or extended family, and the hapū or group of whānau. After these came the iwi
or tribe, consisting of groups of hapū. Related hapū would often trade
goods and co-operate on major projects, but conflict between hapū was
also relatively common. Traditional Māori society preserved history orally through narratives, songs, and chants; skilled experts could recite the tribal genealogies (whakapapa) back for hundreds of years. Arts included whaikōrero (oratory), song composition in multiple genres, dance forms including haka, as well as weaving, highly developed wood carving, and tā moko (tattoo).
New Zealand has no native land mammals (apart from some rare
bats) so birds, fish and sea mammals were important sources of protein.
Māori cultivated food plants which they had brought with them from
Polynesia, including sweet potatoes (called kūmara), taro, gourds, and yams. They also cultivated the cabbage tree, a plant endemic to New Zealand, and exploited wild foods such as fern root, which provided a starchy paste.
Early contact periods
Early European exploration
An early map of Australasia during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s). Based on a chart by Joan Blaeu, c. 1644.
Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769–70. The track of the Endeavour is also shown.
The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. Tasman anchored at the northern end of the South Island in Golden Bay (he named it Murderers' Bay) in December 1642 and sailed northward to Tonga following an attack by local Māori. Tasman sketched sections of the two main islands' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after the States General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his first maps of the country. In 1645 Dutch cartographers changed the name to Nova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. It was subsequently anglicised as New Zealand by British naval captain James Cook of HM Bark Endeavour who visited the islands more than 100 years after Tasman during 1769–1770. Cook returned to New Zealand on both of his subsequent voyages.
Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by
other non-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widely
accepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn that the Portuguese explorer Cristóvão de Mendonçareached New Zealand in the 1520s, and the Tamil bell[8] discovered by missionaryWilliam Colenso has given rise to a number of theories,[9][10] but historians generally believe the bell 'is not in itself proof of early Tamil contact with New Zealand'.[11][12][13]
From the 1790s, the waters around New Zealand were visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods, including guns and metal tools, for Māori food, water, wood, flax and sex.[14]
Māori were reputed to be enthusiastic and canny traders, even though
the levels of technology, institutions and property rights differed
greatly from the standards in European societies.[15] Although there were some conflicts, such as the killing of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne in 1772 and the destruction of the Boyd in 1809, most contact between Māori and European was peaceful.
Early European settlement
The Mission House at Kerikeri is New Zealand's oldest surviving building, having been completed in 1822
European (Pākehā)
settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century,
with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North
Island. Christianity was introduced to New Zealand in 1814 by Samuel Marsden, who travelled to the Bay of Islands where he founded a mission station on behalf of the Church of England's Church Missionary Society.[16]
By 1840 over 20 stations had been established. From missionaries, the
Māori learnt not just about Christianity but also about European farming
practices and trades, and how to read and write.[17] Beginning in 1820, linguist Samuel Lee worked with Māori chief Hongi Hika to transcribe the Māori language into written form.[16]
The first full-blooded European infant in the territory, Thomas
Holloway King, was born on 21 Feb 1815 at the Oihi Mission Station near
Hohi Bay[18] in the Bay of Islands. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand.[19] Many European settlers bought land from Māori, but misunderstanding and
different concepts of land ownership led to conflict and bitterness.[17] In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand.[20] This alarmed the missionaries, who called for British control of European settlers in New Zealand.
Māori response
The
effect of contact on Māori varied. In some inland areas life went on
more or less unchanged, although a European metal tool such as a
fish-hook or hand axe might be acquired through trade with other tribes.
At the other end of the scale, tribes that frequently encountered
Europeans, such as Ngāpuhi in Northland, underwent major changes.[16]
Pre-European Māori had no distance weapons except for tao (spears)[21] and the introduction of the musket had an enormous impact on Māori warfare. Tribes with muskets would attack tribes without them, killing or enslaving many.[22]
As a result, guns became very valuable and Māori would trade huge
quantities of goods for a single musket. From 1805 to 1843 the Musket Wars raged until a new balance of power was achieved after most tribes had acquired muskets. In 1835, the peaceful Moriori of the Chatham Islands were attacked, enslaved, and nearly exterminated by mainland Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama Māori.[23] In the 1901 census, only 35 Moriori were recorded although the numbers subsequently increased.[24]
Around this time, many Māori converted to Christianity.[16]
The reasons for this have been hotly debated, and may include social
and cultural disruption caused by the Musket Wars and European contact.
Other factors may have been the appeal of a religion that promotes peace
and forgiveness, a desire to emulate the Europeans and to gain a
similar abundance of material goods, and the Māori's polytheistic culture that easily accepted the new God.
British sovereignty
In 1788 the Colony of New South Wales had been founded. According to the future Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip's
amended Commission, dated 25 April 1787 the colony of New South Wales
included "all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean within the
latitudes of 10°37'S and 43°39'S" which included most of New Zealand
except for the southern half of the South Island.[25] In 1825 with Van Diemen's Land becoming a separate colony, the southern boundary of New South Wales was altered[26]
to the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean with a southern boundary
of 39°12'S which included only the northern half of the North Island.
However, these boundaries had no real impact as the New South Wales
administration had little interest in New Zealand.[27]
New Zealand was first mentioned in British statute in the Murders Abroad Act 1817. It made it easier for a court to punish "murders or manslaughters committed in places not within His Majesty's dominions",[28] and the Governor of New South Wales was given increased legal authority over New Zealand.[29] The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of New South Wales over New Zealand was initiated in the New South Wales Act 1823, and lesser offences were included at that time.[30][31] In response to complaints from missionaries, about lawless sailors and adventurers in New Zealand, the British government appointed James Busby as Official Resident in 1832. In 1834 he encouraged Māori chiefs to assert their sovereignty with the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1835. This was acknowledged by King William IV.
Busby was provided with neither legal authority nor military support
and was thus ineffective in controlling the European population.
In 1839, the New Zealand Company
announced its plans to establish colonies in New Zealand. This and the
increased commercial interests of merchants in Sydney and London
spurred the British to take stronger action. Captain William Hobson was sent to New Zealand to persuade Māori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown.
In reaction to the New Zealand Company's moves, on 15 June 1839 new
Letters Patent were issued to expand the territory of New South Wales to
include all of New Zealand. Governor of New South WalesGeorge Gipps was appointed Governor over New Zealand. This was the first clear expression of British intent to annex New Zealand.
On 6 February 1840, Hobson and about forty Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands.
Copies of the Treaty were subsequently taken around the country to be
signed by other chiefs. A significant number refused to sign or were not
asked but, in total, more than five hundred Māori eventually signed.
The Treaty gave Māori sovereignty over their lands and
possessions and all of the rights of British citizens. What it gave the
British in return depends on the language-version of the Treaty that is
referred to. The English version can be said to give the British Crown
sovereignty over New Zealand but in the Māori version the Crown receives
kawanatanga, which, arguably, is a lesser power (see interpretations of the Treaty). Dispute over the true meaning and the intent of either party remains an issue.
Britain was motivated by the desire to forestall other European powers (France established a very small settlement at Akaroa in the South Island
later in 1840), to facilitate settlement by British subjects and,
possibly, to end the lawlessness of European (predominantly British and
American) whalers, sealers and traders. Officials and missionaries had
their own positions and reputations to protect.
Māori chiefs were motivated by a desire for protection from
foreign powers, the establishment of governorship over European settlers
and traders in New Zealand, and to allow for wider settlement that
would increase trade and prosperity for Māori.[32]
Hobson died on 10 September 1842. Robert FitzRoy, the new governor, took some legal steps to recognise Māori custom.[33] However, his successor, George Grey, promoted rapid cultural assimilation
and reduction of the land ownership, influence and rights of the Māori.
The practical effect of the Treaty was, in the beginning, only
gradually felt, especially in predominantly Māori regions.
The colonisation project
At first New Zealand was administered from Australia as part of the colony of New South Wales. On 1 July 1841 New Zealand became a colony in its own right.[33]
A bust of Edward Wakefield from the 1897 book New Zealand rulers and statesmen from 1840 to 1897
British writer Edward Gibbon Wakefield
(1796–1862) exerted a far-reaching influence. His plans for systematic
British colonisation focused on a free labour system, in contrast to the
slavery in the United States and the convict labour in Australia.
Inspired by evangelical Christianity and abolitionism,
Wakefield's essays (1829 to 1849), condemned both slavery and
indentured and convict labour as immoral, unjust, and inefficient.
Instead, he proposed a government sponsored system in which the price of
farm land was set at a high enough level to prevent urban workers from
easily purchasing it and thus leaving the labour market. His
colonisation programmes were over-elaborate and operated on a much
smaller scale than he hoped for, but his ideas influenced law and
culture, especially his vision for the colony as the embodiment of
post-Enlightenment ideals, the notion of New Zealand as a model society,
and the sense of fairness in employer-employee relations.[34][35]
Scottish Highland family migrating to New Zealand, 1844
Settlement continued under British plans, inspired by a vision of New Zealand as a new land of opportunity. The Church of England sponsored the Canterbury Association
colony with assisted passages from Great Britain in the early 1850s. As
a result of the influx of settlers, the Pākehā population grew
explosively from fewer than 1000 in 1831 to 500,000 by 1881. Some
400,000 settlers came from Britain, of whom 300,000 stayed permanently.
Most were young people and 250,000 babies were born. The passage of
120,000 was paid by the colonial government. After 1880 immigration
reduced, and growth was due chiefly to the excess of births over deaths.[36]
In 1846, the British Parliament drafted eleborate plans for a
form of self-government for the 13,000 settlers in New Zealand. The new
Governor, George Grey,
suspended the plans. He argued that the Pākehā could not be trusted to
pass laws that would protect the interests of the Māori majority —
already there had been Treaty violations – and persuaded his political
superiors to postpone its introduction for five years.[37]
When the British settlers petititoned for self-government, the British Parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, setting up a central government with an elected General Assembly (Parliament) and six provincial governments.[38] The General Assembly did not meet until 24 May 1854, 16 months after the Constitution Act had come into force. Provinces were reorganised in 1846 and in 1853, when they acquired their own legislatures, and then abolished with effect in 1877.[39] The settlers soon won the right to responsible government
(with an executive supported by a majority in the elected assembly).
But the governor, and through him the Colonial Office in London,
retained control of native policy until the mid-1860s.[40]
Farming and mining
The Māori tribes at first sold the land to the settlers, but the
government voided the sales in 1840. Now only the government was allowed
to purchase land from Māori, who received cash. The government bought
practically all the useful land, then resold it to the New Zealand Company,
which promoted immigration, or leased it for sheep runs. The Company
resold the best tracts to British settlers; its profits were used to pay
the travel of the immigrants from Britain.[41][42]
Because of the vast distances involved, the first settlers were
self-sufficient farmers. By the 1840s, however, large scale sheep
stations were exporting large quantities of wool to the textile mills of
England. Most of the early settlers were brought over by a programme
operated by the New Zealand Company and were located in the central
region on either side of Cook Strait, and at Wellington, Wanganui, New
Plymouth and Nelson. These settlements had access to some of the richest
plains in the country and after refrigerated ships appeared in 1882,
they developed into closely settled regions of small-scale farming.
Outside these compact settlements were the sheep runs. Pioneer
pastoralists, often men with experience as squatters in Australia,
leased lands from the government at the annual rate of £5 plus £1 for
each 1,000 sheep above the first 5,000. The leases were renewed
automatically, which gave the wealthy pastoralists a strong landed
interest and made them a powerful political force. In all between 1856
and 1876, 8.1 million acres were sold for £7.6 million, and 2.2 million
acres were given free to soldiers, sailors and settlers.[43] With an economy based on agriculture, the landscape was transformed from forest to farmland.
Gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865), caused a
worldwide gold rush that more than doubled the population in a short
period, from 71,000 in 1859 to 164,000 in 1863. The value of trade
increased fivefold from £2 million to £10 million. As the gold boom
ended Premier Julius Vogel
borrowed money from British investors and launched in 1870 an ambitious
programme of public works and infrastructure investment, together with a
policy of assisted immigration.[44]
Successive governments expanded the program with offices across Britain
that enticed settlers and gave them and their families one-way tickets.[45]
From about 1865, the economy lapsed into a long depression as a
result of the withdrawal of British troops, peaking of gold production
in 1866[46]
and Vogel's borrowing and the associated debt burden (especially on
land). Despite a brief boom in wheat, prices for farm products sagged.
The market for land seized up. Hard times led to urban unemployment and sweated labour (exploitative labour conditions) in industry.[47] The country lost people through emigration, mostly to Australia.
In 1870 Julius Vogel introduced his grand go-ahead policy
to dispel the slump with increased immigration and overseas borrowning
to fund new railways, roads and telegraph lines. Local banks, notably
the Bank of New Zealand and the Colonial Bank, were "reckless" and permitted "a frenzy of private borrowing".[48]
Although norms of masculinity were dominant, strong minded women originated a feminist movement starting in the 1860s, well before women gained the right to vote in 1893.[49]
Middle class women employed the media (especially newspapers) to
communicate with each other and define their priorities. Prominent
feminist writers included Mary Taylor,[50]Mary Colclough (pseud. Polly Plum),[51] and Ellen Ellis.[52] The first signs of a politicised collective female identity came in crusades to pass the Contagious Diseases Prevention Act.[53][54]
Feminists by the 1880s were using the rhetoric of "white slavery"
to reveal men's sexual and social oppression of women. By demanding
that men take responsibility for the right of women to walk the streets
in safety, New Zealand feminists deployed the rhetoric of white slavery
to argue for women's sexual and social freedom.[55] Middle class women successfully mobilised to stop prostitution, especially during the First World War.[56]
Māori women developed their own form of feminism, derived from Māori nationalism rather than European sources.[57][58]
In 1893 Elizabeth Yates
was elected mayor of Onehunga, making her the first woman in the
British Empire to hold the office. She was an able administrator: she
cut the debt, reorganised the fire brigade, and improved the roads and
sanitation. Many men were hostile however, and she was defeated for
re-election.[59]
Hutching argues that after 1890 women were increasingly well organised
through the National Council of Women, the Women's Christian Temperance
Union (WCTU), the Women's International League, and the Housewives
Union, and others. By 1910 they were campaigning for peace, and against
compulsory military training, and conscription. They demanded
arbitration and the peaceful resolution of international disputes. The
women argued that womenhood (thanks to motherhood) was the repository of
superior moral values and concerns and from their domestic experience
they knew best how to resolve conflicts.[60]
Schools
Prior to 1877 schools were operated by the provincial government,
churches, or by private subscription. Education was not a requirement
and many children did not attend any school, especially farm children
whose labour was important to the family economy. The quality of
education provided varied substantially depending on the school. The Education Act of 1877
created New Zealand's first free national system of primary education,
establishing standards that educators should meet, and making education
compulsory for children aged 5 to 15.[61]
Immigration
"First Scottish Colony for New Zealand" – 1839 poster advertising emigration from Scotland to New Zealand. Collection of Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow, Scotland.
From 1840 there was considerable European settlement, primarily from
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland; and to a lesser extent the
United States, India, China, and various parts of continental Europe, including the province of Dalmatia[62] in what is now Croatia, and Bohemia[63]
in what is now the Czech Republic. Already a majority of the population
by 1859, the number of Pākehā settlers increased rapidly to reach over
one million by 1916.[64]
In the 1870s and 1880s, several thousand Chinese men, mostly from Guangdong, migrated to New Zealand to work on the South Island goldfields. Although the first Chinese migrants had been invited by the Otago
Provincial government they quickly became the target of hostility from
white settlers and laws were enacted specifically to discourage them
from coming to New Zealand.[65]
Māori adaptation and resistance
HMS North Star destroying Pomare's Pā during the Northern/Flagstaff War, 1845, Painting by John Williams.[66]
Māori had welcomed Pākehā for the trading opportunities and guns they
brought. However it soon became clear that they had underestimated the
number of settlers that would arrive in their lands. Iwi
(tribes) whose land was the base of the main settlements quickly lost
much of their land and autonomy through government acts. Others
prospered – until about 1860 the city of Auckland bought most of its food from Māori who grew and sold it themselves. Many iwi
owned flour mills, ships and other items of European technology, some
exported food to Australia for a brief period during the 1850s gold
rush. Although race relations were generally peaceful in this period,
there were conflicts over who had ultimate power in particular areas –
the Governor or the Māori chiefs. One such conflict was the Northern or Flagstaff War of the 1840s, during which Kororareka was sacked.
As the Pākehā population grew, pressure grew on Māori to sell
more land. Land is not only an economic resource, but also one basis of
Māori identity and a connection with their ancestor's bones. Land was used communally, but under the mana of chiefs. In Māori
culture there was no such idea as selling land until the arrival of
Europeans. The means of acquiring land was to defeat another hapu or iwi
in battle and seize their land. Te Rauparaha seized the land of many
lower North Island and upper South Island iwi during the musket wars.
Land was usually not given up without discussion and consultation. When
an iwi was divided over the question of selling this could lead to great
difficulties as at Waitara.[citation needed]
Pākehā had little understanding of all that and accused Māori of
holding onto land they did not use efficiently. Competition for land was
one important cause of the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, in which the Taranaki and Waikato
regions were invaded by colonial troops and Māori of these regions had
some of their land taken from them. The wars and confiscation left
bitterness that remains to this day. After the conclusion of the Land
Wars some iwi, especially in the Waikato, such as Ngati Haua sold land
freely. However, only the chiefs and their whanau benefited from this
income. The 2013 Ngati Haua treaty settlement recognised that many Ngati
Haua had not received any benefit from the large payments in the 1870s
hence the government was paying compensation.
Some iwi sided with the government and, later, fought with the
government. They were motivated partly by the thought that an alliance
with the government would benefit them, and partly by old feuds with the
iwi they fought against. One result of their co-operation strategy was
the establishment of the four Māori electorates in the House of Representatives, in 1867.
After the wars, some Māori began a strategy of passive resistance, most famously at Parihaka
in Taranaki. Most, such as NgaPuhi and Arawa continued co-operating
with Pākehā. For example, tourism ventures were established by Te Arawa around Rotorua.
Resisting and co-operating iwi both found that Pākehā desire for land
remained. In the last decades of the century, most iwi lost substantial
amounts of land through the activities of the Native Land Court. This was set up to give Māori land European-style titles and to establish exactly who owned it.[citation needed]
Due to its Eurocentric rules, the high fees, its location remote from
the lands in question, and unfair practices by some Pākehā land agents,
its main effect was to allow Māori to sell their land without restraint
from other tribal members.
The combination of war, confiscations, disease,[67] assimilation and intermarriage,[68]
land loss leading to poor housing and alcohol abuse, and general
disillusionment, caused a fall in the Māori population from around
86,000 in 1769 to around 70,000 in 1840 and around 48,000 by 1874,
hitting a low point of 42,000 in 1896.[69] Subsequently, their numbers began to recover.
South Island predominance
The
settlement of English in the North Island and northern South Island and
Scottish in the Deep South is reflected in the dominance of Anglicanism and Presbyterianism in the respective regions.
While the North Island was convulsed by the Land Wars, the South
Island, with its lower Māori population, was generally peaceful. In 1861
gold was discovered at Gabriel's Gully in Central Otago, sparking a gold rush. Dunedin
became the wealthiest city in the country and many in the South Island
resented financing the North Island's wars. In 1865 Parliament defeated a
proposal to make the South Island independent by 17 to 31.[70]
The South Island contained most of the Pākehā population until
around 1911 when the North Island again took the lead and has supported
an ever-greater majority of the country's total population through the
20th century and into the 21st.[71]
Scottish immigrants dominated the South Island and evolved ways
to bridge the old homeland and the new. Many local Caledonian societies
were formed. They organised sports teams to entice the young and
preserved an idealised Scottish national myth (based on Robert Burns) for the elderly. They gave Scots a path to assimilation and cultural integration as Scottish New Zealanders.[72]
Liberal to Labour
Liberal asendancy, 1890s
Richard Seddon, Liberal Prime Minister from 1893 to his death in 1906
The pre-war era saw the advent of party politics, with the establishment of the Liberal Government.
The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New
Zealand never had an aristocracy but it did have wealthy landowners who
largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to
change that by a policy it called "populism." Richard Seddon
had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: "It is the rich and the poor;
it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring
classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand."[73] The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small land-owning farmers who supported Liberal ideals.
To obtain land for farmers the Liberal government from 1891 to
1911 purchased 3.1 million acres of Māori land. The government also
purchased 1.3 million acres from large estate holders for subdivision
and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act of
1894 provided low-interest mortgages, while the Agriculture Department
disseminated information on the best farming methods.[74][75]
The 1909 Native Land Act allowed the Māori to sell land to
private buyers. Māori still owned five million acres by 1920; they
leased three million acres and used one million acres for themselves.
The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, antimonopoly
land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal party in rural
North Island electorates. By 1903 the Liberals were so dominant that
there was no longer an organised opposition in Parliament.[76][77]
New Zealand gained international attention for its reforms, especially how the state regulated labour relations.[81] The impact was especially strong on the reform movement in the United States.[82]
Coleman argues that the Liberals in 1891 lacked a clear-cut
ideology to guide them. Instead they approached the nation's problems
pragmatically, keeping in mind the constraints imposed by democratic
public opinion. To deal with the issue of land distribution, they worked
out innovative solutions to access, tenure, and a graduated tax on
unimproved values.[83]
Economic developments
In the 1870s Julius Vogel's grand go-ahead policy
of borrowing overseas had increased the public debt from £7.8 million
in 1870 to £18.6 million in 1876, but had constructed many miles of
railways, roads and telegraph lines and attracted many new migrants.[84][85]
In the 1880s, New Zealand's economy grew from one based on wool
and local trade to the export of wool, cheese, butter and frozen beef
and mutton to Britain. The change was enabled by the invention of
refrigerated steamships in 1882 and a result of the large market demands
overseas. In order to increase production, alongside a more intensive
use of factor inputs a transformation of production techniques was
necessary. The required capital came mainly from outside of New Zealand.[86] Refrigerated shipping remained the basis of New Zealand's economy
until the 1970s. New Zealand's highly productive agriculture gave it
probably the world's highest standard of living, with fewer at the rich
and poor ends of the scale.[87]
During this era (c. 1880 – c. 1914)
the banking system was weak and there was little foreign investment, so
businessmen had to build up their own capital. Historians have debated
whether the "long depression" of the late 19th century stifled
investment, but the New Zealanders found a way around adverse
conditions. Hunter has studied the experiences of 133 entrepreneurs who
started commercial enterprises between 1880 and 1910. The successful
strategy was to deploy capital economising techniques, and reinvesting
profits rather than borrowing. The result was slow but stable growth
that avoided bubbles and led to long-lived family owned firms.[88][89]
New Zealand initially expressed interest in joining the proposed Federation
of the Australian colonies, attending the 1891 National Australia
Convention in Sydney. Interest in the proposed Australian Federation
faded and New Zealand decided against joining the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.[90]
New Zealand instead changed from being a colony to a separate
"Dominion" in 1907, equal in status to Australia and Canada. Dominion
status was a public mark of the self-governance that had evolved over
half a century through responsible government.[91] Just under one million people lived in New Zealand in 1907 and cities such as Auckland and Wellington were growing rapidly.[92]
Temperance and prohibition
In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League.[93]
It never achieved its goal of national prohibition. It was a
middle-class movement which accepted the existing economic and social
order; the effort to legislate morality assumed that individual
redemption was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a
pioneering society to a more mature one. However, both the Church of
England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an
intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing
labour movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy. Reformers hoped that the women's vote, in which New Zealand was a
pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well
organised as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a
national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60% majority to pass.[94]
The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by
close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6 pm closing hour for pubs
and Sunday closing (leading to the so-called six o'clock swill[95]). The Depression and war years effectively ended the movement.[93]
First World War
New Zealand Division in 1916
The country remained an enthusiastic member of the British Empire. 4 August is the date the outbreak of World War I is marked in New Zealand.[96] During the war, more than 120,000 New Zealanders enlisted to the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and around 100,000 served overseas; 18,000 died and about 41,000 men were listed as wounded.[96]Conscription
had been in force since 1909, and while it was opposed in peacetime
there was less opposition during the war. The labour movement was
pacifistic, opposed the war, and alleged that the rich were benefitting
at the expense of the workers. It formed the New Zealand Labour Party
in 1916. Māori tribes that had been close to the government sent their
young men to volunteer. Unlike in Britain, relatively few women became
involved. Women did serve as nurses; 640 joined the services and 500
went overseas.[97][98]
New Zealand forces captured Western Samoa from Germany in the early stages of the war,[96] and New Zealand administered the country until Samoan Independence in 1962.[99]
However Samoans greatly resented the imperialism, and blamed inflation
and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on New Zealand rule.[100]
More than 2700 men died in the Gallipoli Campaign.[96]
The heroism of the soldiers in the failed campaign made their
sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with
securing the psychological independence of the nation.[101][102]
After the war New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations
and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still
controlled by Britain. New Zealand depended on Britain's Royal Navy for
its military security during the 1920s and 1930s. Officials in
Wellington trusted Conservative Party governments in London, but not
Labour. When the British Labour Party took power in 1924 and 1929, the
New Zealand government felt threatened by Labour's foreign policy
because of its reliance upon the League of Nations. The League was
distrusted and Wellington did not expect to see the coming of a peaceful
world order under League auspices. What had been the Empire's most
loyal dominion became a dissenter as it opposed efforts the first and
second British Labour governments to trust the League's framework of
arbitration and collective security agreements.[103]
The governments of the Reform and United parties between 1912 and
1935 followed a "realistic" foreign policy. They made national security
a high priority, were sceptical of international institutions, and
showed no interest on the questions of self-determination, democracy,
and human rights. However the opposition Labour Party was more
idealistic and proposed a liberal internationalist outlook on
international affairs.[104]
The Labour Party emerged as a force in 1919 with a socialist
platform. It won about 25% of the vote. However its appeals to working
class solidarity were not effective because a large fraction of the
working class voted for conservative candidates of the Liberal and
Reform parties. (They merged in 1936 to form the New Zealand National Party.)
As a consequence the Labour party was able to jettison its support for
socialism in 1927 (a policy made official in 1951), as it expanded its
reach into middle class constituencies. The result was a jump in
strength to 35% in 1931, 47% in 1935, and peaking at 56% in 1938.[105] From 1935 the First Labour Government showed a limited degree of idealism in foreign policy, for example opposing the appeasement of Germany and Japan.[104]
Great Depression
Like most other countries, New Zealand was hard hit by the Great Depression
of the 1930s, which affected the country via its international trade,
with farming export drops then going on to affect the money supply and
in turn consumption, investment and imports. The country was most
affected around 1930–1932, when average farm incomes for a short time
dipped below zero, and the unemployment rates peaked. Though actual
unemployment numbers were not officially counted, the country was
affected especially strongly in the North Island.[106]
Unlike later years, there were no public benefit ('dole')
payments – the unemployed were given 'relief work', much of which was
however not very productive, partly because the size of the problem was
unprecedented. Women also increasingly registered as unemployed, while
Māori received government help through other channels such as the land
development schemes organised by Āpirana Ngata.
In 1933, 8.5% of the unemployed were organised in work camps, while the
rest received work close to their homes. Typical occupations in relief
work were road work (undertaken by 45% of all part-time and 19% of all
full-time relief workers in 1934, with park improvement works (17%) and
farm work (31%) being the other two most common types of work for
part-time and full-time relief workers respectively).[106]
Building the welfare state
The 1935 Labour Cabinet. Michael Joseph Savage is seated in the front row, centre.
Attempts by the United-Reform Coalition to deal with the situation with spending cuts and relief work were ineffective and unpopular. In 1935, the First Labour Government
was elected, and the post-depression decade showed that average Labour
support in New Zealand had roughly doubled comparable to pre-depression
times. By 1935 economic conditions had improved somewhat, and the new
government had more positive financial conditions.[106] Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaimed that: "Social Justice must be the guiding principle and economic organization must adapt itself to social needs."[107]
The new government quickly set about implementing a number of
significant reforms, including a reorganisation of the social welfare
system and the creation of the state housing scheme. Labour also gained Māori votes by working closely with the Rātana
movement. Savage was idolised by the working classes, and his portrait
hung on the walls of many houses around the country. The newly created welfare state
promised government support to individuals "from the cradle to the
grave", according to the Labour slogan. It included free health care and
education, and state assistance for the elderly, infirm, and
unemployed. The opposition attacked the Labour Party's more left-wing
policies, and accused it of undermining free enterprise and hard work.
The Reform Party and the United Party merged to become the National Party,
and would be Labour's main rival in future years. However the welfare
state system was retained and expanded by successive National and Labour
governments until the 1980s.[108]
Second World War
Men of the Māori Battalion, New Zealand Expeditionary Force, after disembarking at Gourock in Scotland in June 1940
When World War II
broke out in 1939, New Zealanders saw their proper role as defending
their proud place in the British Empire. It contributed some 120,000
troops. They mostly fought in North Africa, Greece/Crete, and Italy,
relying on the Royal Navy
and later the United States to protect New Zealand from the Japanese
forces. Japan had no interest in New Zealand in the first place; it had
already over-reached when it invaded New Guinea in 1942. (There were a
few highly publicised but ineffective Japanese scouting incursions.) The
3rd New Zealand Division
fought in the Solomons in 1943–44, but New Zealand's limited manpower
meant 2 Divisions could not be maintained, and it was disbanded and its
men returned to civilian life or used to reinforce the 2nd Division in
Italy. The armed forces peaked at 157,000 in September 1942; 135,000
served abroad, and 10,100 died.
A
1943 poster produced during the war. The poster reads: "When war broke
out ... industries were unprepared for munitions production. To-day New
Zealand is not only manufacturing many kinds of munitions for her own
defence but is making a valuable contribution to the defence of the
other areas in the Pacific..."
New Zealand, with a population of 1.7 million, including 99,000 Māori, was highly mobilised during the war.[109]
The Labour party was in power and promoted unionisation and the welfare
state. Agriculture expanded, sending record supplies of meat, butter
and wool to Britain. When American forces arrived, they were fed as
well.
The nation spent £574 million on the war, of which 43% came from taxes, 41% from loans and 16% from American Lend Lease.
It was an era of prosperity as the national income soared from
£158 million in 1937 to £292 million in 1944. Rationing and price
controls kept inflation to only 14% during 1939–45.[110]
Over £50 million was spent on defence works and military accommodation and hospitals, including 292 mi (470 km) of roads.[111]
Montgomerie shows that the war dramatically increased the roles
of women, especially married women, in the labour force. Most of them
took traditional female jobs. Some replaced men but the changes here
were temporary and reversed in 1945. After the war, women left
traditional male occupations and many women gave up paid employment to
return home. There was no radical change in gender roles but the war
intensified occupational trends under way since the 1920s.
The later 20th century
National in power
Labour remained in power after the Second World War and in 1945, Labour Prime Minister Peter Fraser played an important role in the establishment of the United Nations, of which New Zealand was a founding member.[114]
However, domestically Labour had lost the reforming zeal of the 1930s
and its electoral support ebbed after the war. After Labour lost power
in 1949, the conservative National Party began an almost continuous
thirty-year stint in government, interrupted by single-term Labour
governments in 1957 to 60 and 1972 to 75. National Prime Minister Sidney Holland called a snap election as a result of the 1951 waterfront dispute, an incident that reinforced National's dominance and severely weakened the union movement.[115]
Cooperation with the United States set a direction of policy which resulted in the ANZUS Treaty between New Zealand, America and Australia in 1951, as well as participation in the Korean War.[116]
The British connection
Fedorowich
and Bridge argue that the demands of the Second World War produced
long-term consequences for New Zealand's relationship with the
government in London. The key component was the office of the high commissioner. By 1950 it was the main line of communications between the British and New Zealand governments.[117]
1950s New Zealand culture was deeply British and conservative, with the concept of "fairness" holding a central role.[118]
New immigrants, still mainly British, flooded in while New Zealand
remained prosperous by exporting farm products to Britain. In 1953 New
Zealanders took pride that a countryman, Edmund Hillary, gave Queen Elizabeth II a coronation gift by reaching the summit of Mount Everest.[119]
From the 1890s, the economy had been based almost entirely on the
export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain, and in 1961, the
share of New Zealand exports going to the United Kingdom was still at
slightly over 51%, with approximately 15% going to other European
countries.[120]
The 1960s was a decade of rising prosperity for most New Zealanders,
but from 1965 there were also protests – in support of women's rights
and the nascent ecological movement, and against the Vietnam War.[121] Irrespective of political developments, many New Zealanders still
perceived themselves as a distinctive outlying branch of the United
Kingdom until at least the 1970s. In 1973 Britain joined the European
Community and abrogated its preferential trade agreements with New
Zealand (see below), forcing New Zealand to not only find new markets,
but also re-examine its national identity and place in the world.[122]
Māori urbanisation
Māori
always had a high birth rate; that was neutralised by a high death rate
until modern public health measures became effective in the 20th
century when tuberculosis deaths and infant mortality declined sharply.
Life expectancy grew from 49 years in 1926 to 60 years in 1961 and the
total numbers grew rapidly.[123]
Many Māori served in the Second World War and learned how to cope in
the modern urban world; others moved from their rural homes to the
cities to take up jobs vacated by Pākehā servicemen.[124]
The shift to the cities was also caused by their strong birth rates in
the early 20th century, with the existing rural farms in Māori ownership
having increasing difficulty in providing enough jobs.[124] Māori culture had meanwhile undergone a renaissance thanks in part to politician Āpirana Ngata.[125]
By the 1980s 80% of the Māori population was urban, in contrast to only
20% before the Second World War. The migration led to better pay,
higher standards of living and longer schooling, but also exposed
problems of racism and discrimination. By the late 1960s a protest movement had emerged to combat racism, promote Māori culture and seek fulfilment of the Treaty of Waitangi.[126]
Urbanisation proceeded rapidly across the land. In the late
1940s, town planners noted that the country was "possibly the third most
urbanised country in the world",[127]
with two-thirds of the population living in cities or towns. There was
also increasing concern that this trend was badly managed, with it being
noted that there was an "ill-defined urban pattern that appears to have
few of the truly desirable urban qualities and yet manifests no
compensating rural characteristics."[127]
The Muldoon years, 1975–1984
Elizabeth II and Muldoon's Cabinet, taken during the Queen's 1981 tour of New Zealand
The country's economy suffered in the aftermath of the 1973 global
energy crisis, the loss of New Zealand's biggest export market upon
Britain's entry to the European Economic Community, and rampant inflation.[122]Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister from 1975 to 1984, and his Third National Government
responded to the crises of the 1970s by attempting to preserve the New
Zealand of the 1950s. He attempted to maintain New Zealand's "cradle to
the grave" welfare state, which dated to 1935. His government sought to
give retirees 80% of the current wage, which would require large-scale
borrowing; critics said it would bankrupt the treasury. Muldoon's
response to the crisis also involved imposing a total freeze on wages,
prices, interest rates and dividends across the national economy.[128]
Muldoon's conservatism and antagonistic style exacerbated an
atmosphere of conflict in New Zealand, most violently expressed during
the 1981 Springbok Tour.[129]
In the 1984 elections Labour promised to calm down the increasing
tensions, while making no specific promises; it scored a landslide
victory.[128]
However, Muldoon's government was not entirely backward looking. Some innovations did take place, for example the Closer Economic Relations
(CER) free-trade programme with Australia to liberalise trade, starting
in 1982. The aim of total free trade between the two countries was
achieved in 1990, five years ahead of schedule.[130]
The radical 1980s reforms
In 1984, the Fourth Labour Government, led by David Lange, was elected amid a constitutional and economic crisis. The crisis led the incoming government to review New Zealand's constitutional structures, which resulted in the Constitution Act 1986.[131]
In power from 1984 to 1990, the Labour government launched a major
policy of restructuring the economy, radically reducing the role of
government.[132] A political scientist reports:
"Between 1984 and 1993, New Zealand underwent
radical economic reform, moving from what had probably been the
most protected, regulated and state-dominated system of any capitalist
democracy to an extreme position at the open, competitive, free-market
end of the spectrum."[133]
The economic reforms were led by finance minister Roger Douglas (1984–1988). Dubbed Rogernomics,
it was a rapid programme of deregulation and public-asset sales.
Subsidies were phased out to farmers and consumers. High finance was
partly deregulated. Restrictions on foreign exchange were relaxed and
the dollar was allowed to float and seek its natural level on the world
market. The tax on high incomes was cut in half from 65% to 33%. The
shares exchange entered a bubble, which then burst. Shares had a total value of $50 billion in 1987 and only $15 billion in 1991; at one point the crash was "the worst in world."[134] Overall the economic growth fell from 2% a year to 1%.[135] Douglas's reforms resembled the contemporaneous policies of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Ronald Reagan in the United States.[136]
Strong criticism of Rogernomics came from the left,
especially from Labour's traditional trade union support-base; Lange
broke with Douglas's policies in 1987; both men were forced out and
Labour was in confusion.[137]
In keeping with the mood of the 1980s[138] the government sponsored liberal policies and initiatives in a number of social areas; this included Homosexual Law Reform,[139] the introduction of 'no-fault divorce', reduction in the gender pay gap[138] and the drafting of a Bill of Rights.[140]
Immigration policy was liberalised, allowing an influx of immigrants
from Asia; previously most immigrants to New Zealand had been European
and especially British.[138]
The Fourth Labour Government also revolutionised New Zealand's foreign policy, making the country a nuclear-free zone and effectively leaving the ANZUS alliance.[141] The French intelligence service's sinking of the Rainbow Warror,
and the diplomatic ramifications following the incident, did much to
promote the anti-nuclear stance as an important symbol of New Zealand's national identity.
With the end of the Cold War in 1991, the nation's foreign policy
turned increasingly to issues of its nuclear-free status and other
military issues; its adjustment to neoliberalism in international trade
relations; and its involvement in humanitarian, environmental, and other
matters of international diplomacy.[147][148]
The Fifth Labour Government led by Helen Clark was elected in 1999.[149]
In power for nine years, it maintained most of the previous
governments' economic reforms – restricting government intervention in
the economy much more so than previous governments – while putting more
of an emphasis on social policy and outcomes. For example, employment
law was modified to give more protection to workers,[150] and the student loan system was changed to eliminate interest payments for New Zealand resident students and graduates.[151]
New Zealand retains strong but informal links to Britain, with many young New Zealanders travelling to Britain for their "OE" (overseas experience)[152]
due to favourable working visa arrangements with Britain. Despite New
Zealand's immigration liberalisation in the 1980s, Britons are still the
largest group of migrants to New Zealand, due in part to recent
immigration law changes which privilege fluent speakers of English. One
constitutional link to Britain remains – New Zealand's head of State,
the Queen in Right of New Zealand,
is a British resident. However, British imperial honours were
discontinued in 1996, the Governor-General has taken a more active role
in representing New Zealand overseas, and appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by a local Supreme Court of New Zealand in 2003. There is public debate about whether New Zealand should became a republic, and public sentiment is divided on the issue.[153]
Foreign policy has been essentially independent since the
mid-1980s. Under Prime Minister Clark, foreign policy reflected the
priorities of liberal internationalism. She stressed the promotion of
democracy and human rights; the strengthening of the role of the United
Nations; the advancement of anti-militarism and disarmament; and the
encouragement of free trade.[154] She sent troops to the War in Afghanistan, but did not contribute combat troops to the Iraq War although some medical and engineering units were sent.[155]
International tourism has become a major contributor to the New Zealand economy in recent decades. Meanwhile the traditional agricultural
exports of meat, dairy and wool have been supplemented by other
products such as fruit, wine and timber as the economy has diversified.
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