The Progressive Era is a period of widespread social activism and political reform across the United States that spanned from the 1890s to the 1920s. The main objectives of the Progressive movement were eliminating problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption.
The movement primarily targeted political machines and their bosses. By taking down these corrupt representatives in office, a further means of direct democracy would be established. They also sought regulation of monopolies (trust busting) and corporations through antitrust laws, which were seen as a way to promote equal competition for the advantage of legitimate competitors.
Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation. At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote into the arena. A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or "Taylorism".
Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Republicans Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes and Democrats William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith. Leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics: Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential non-governmental Progressive Era reformers.
Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913 and the arrival of cooperative banking in the US with the founding of the first credit union in 1908. Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system".
Many progressives supported prohibition of alcoholic beverages, ostensibly to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons, but others out of a religious motivation. At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote into the arena. A third theme was building an Efficiency Movement in every sector that could identify old ways that needed modernizing, and bring to bear scientific, medical and engineering solutions; a key part of the efficiency movement was scientific management, or "Taylorism".
Many activists joined efforts to reform local government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Republicans Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Charles Evans Hughes and Democrats William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith. Leaders of the movement also existed far from presidential politics: Jane Addams, Grace Abbott, Edith Abbott and Sophonisba Breckinridge were among the most influential non-governmental Progressive Era reformers.
Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later, it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and business people. Some Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted numerous policies, such as a major transformation of the banking system by creating the Federal Reserve System in 1913 and the arrival of cooperative banking in the US with the founding of the first credit union in 1908. Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system".
Government reform
Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, stubbornness, corruption, and injustices of the Gilded Age,
the Progressives were committed to changing and reforming every aspect
of the state, society and economy. Significant changes enacted at the
national levels included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, election reforms to stop corruption and fraud, and women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
The middle class philosophy
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (pictured) wrote these articles about feminism for the Atlanta Constitution, published on December 10, 1916.
A hallmark group of the Progressive Era, the middle class became the
driving force behind much of the thought and reform that took place in
this time. With an increasing disdain for the upper class and
aristocracy of the time, the middle class is characterized by their
rejection of the individualistic philosophy of the upper ten.
They had a rapidly growing interest in the communication and role
between classes, those of which are generally referred to as the upper
class, working class, farmers, and themselves, and sought to define
these terms. Along these lines, the founder off Hull-House, Jane Addams, coined the term "association" as a counter to Individualism, with association referring to the search for a relationship between the classes. Additionally, the middle class (most notably women) began to move away from prior Victorian era
domestic values. Divorce rates increased as women preferred to seek
education and freedom from the home. Victorianism was pushed aside in
favor of the rise of the Progressives.
Muckraking: exposing corruption
Magazines experienced a boost in popularity in 1900, with some
attaining circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. In
the beginning of the age of Mass media
the rapid expansion of national advertising led to the cover price of
popular magazines falling sharply to about 10 cents, lessening the
financial barrier to consuming them.
Another factor contributing to the dramatic upswing in magazine
circulation was the prominent coverage of corruption in politics, local
government and big business, especially by journalists and writers who
were labeled muckrakers. They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. Relying on their own investigative journalism; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. Muckraking magazines, notably McClure's, took on corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues like child labor. Most of the muckrakers wrote nonfiction, but fictional exposés often had a major impact as well, such as those by Upton Sinclair. In his 1906 novel The Jungle
Sinclair exposed the unsanitary and inhumane practices of the meat
packing industry. He quipped, "I aimed at the public's heart and by
accident I hit it in the stomach," as readers demanded and got the Pure Food and Drug Act.
The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Others such as Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell is famed for her criticisms of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. In 1906, David Graham Phillips
unleashed a blistering indictment of corruption in the U.S. Senate.
Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they
were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.
Modernization
The Progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and
technology as the grand solution to society's flaws. They looked to
education as the key to bridging the gap between their present wasteful
society and technologically enlightened future society. Characteristics
of Progressivism included a favorable attitude toward urban-industrial
society, belief in mankind's ability to improve the environment and
conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and
social affairs, a belief in the ability of experts and in the
efficiency of government intervention. Scientific management, as promulgated by Frederick Winslow Taylor, became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with the stopwatch as its symbol.
Women
Across the nation, middle-class women organized on behalf of social reforms during the Progressive Era. Using the language of municipal housekeeping women were able to push such reforms as prohibition, women's suffrage, child-saving, and public health.
Middle class women formed local clubs, which after 1890 were coordinated by the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC). Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement, arguing that its policies:
built on Progressive-era strategies of municipal housekeeping. During the Progressive era, female activists used traditional constructions of womanhood, which imagined all women as mothers and homemakers, to justify their entrance into community affairs: as "municipal housekeepers," they would clean up politics, cities, and see after the health and well being of their neighbors. Donning the mantle of motherhood, female activists methodically investigated their community's needs and used their "maternal" expertise to lobby, create, and secure a place for themselves in an emerging state welfare bureaucracy, best illustrated perhaps by clubwoman Julia Lathrop's leadership in the Children's Bureau. As part of this tradition of maternal activism, the Progressive-era General Federation supported a range of causes from the pure food and drug administration to public health care for mothers and children, to a ban on child labor, each of which looked to the state to help implement their vision of social justice.
Women's suffrage
"The
Awakening": Suffragists were successful in the West; their torch
awakens the women struggling in the East and South in this cartoon by Hy
Mayer in Puck Feb. 20, 1915.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing woman suffrage
legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and
most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the
primary promoter of women's right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt
was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before
it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing
women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification
of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. A breakaway group, the National Woman's Party, tightly controlled by Alice Paul, used civil disobedience
to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained
themselves to the White House fence in order to get arrested, then went
on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes
stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort,
Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring
the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.
Philanthropy
The
number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so
millionaires in the 1870s, to 4000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many
subscribed to Andrew Carnegie's credo outlined in The Gospel of Wealth
that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic
giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums,
religion and social betterment.
In the early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with
the development of very large, highly visible private foundations
created by Rockefeller, and Carnegie.
The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business-oriented
operations (as opposed to "charity") designed to better society rather
than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with
the local business community, as in the "community chest" movement. The American Red Cross was reorganized and professionalized. Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South, and were typically advised by Booker T. Washington.
By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both
Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with powerful
effect.
Democracy
Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909; top), William Howard Taft (1909–1913; middle) and Woodrow Wilson
(1913–1921; bottom) were the main progressive U.S. Presidents; their
administrations saw intense social and political change in American
society.
Many Progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more
directly and circumvent machines, bosses and professional politicians.
The institution of the initiative and referendums made it possible to
pass laws without the involvement of the legislature, while the recall
allowed for the removal of corrupt or under-performing officials, and
the direct primary let people democratically nominate candidates,
avoiding the professionally dominated conventions. Thanks to the efforts
of Oregon State Representative William S. U'Ren and his Direct Legislation League, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum
processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed laws
or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the first state
to adopt such a system. U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment
in 1908 that gave voters power to recall elected officials, and would go on to establish, at the state level, popular election of U.S. Senators and the first presidential primary in the United States. In 1911, California governor Hiram Johnson
established the Oregon System of "Initiative, Referendum, and Recall"
in his state, viewing them as good influences for citizen participation
against the historic influence of large corporations on state lawmakers. These Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin, and today roughly half of U.S. states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state constitutions.
About 16 states began using primary elections to reduce the power of bosses and machines.
The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all
senators be elected by the people (they were formerly appointed by state
legislatures). The main motivation was to reduce the power of political
bosses, who controlled the Senate seats by virtue of their control of
state legislatures. The result, according to political scientist Henry Jones Ford,
was that the United States Senate had become a "Diet of party lords,
wielding their power without scruple or restraint, on behalf of those
particular interests" that put them in office.
Municipal reform
A coalition of middle-class reform-oriented voters, academic experts,
and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the
1890s and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to
reduce waste, inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific
methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations.
The pace was set in Detroit Michigan, where Republican mayor Hazen S. Pingree first put together the reform coalition. Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets and administrative structures of local governments.
Progressive mayors took the lead in many key cities, such as Cleveland, Ohio (especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio; Jersey City, New Jersey; Los Angeles; Memphis, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky; and many other cities, especially in the western states. In Illinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert La Follette Sr., the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas and expertise.
Rural reform
As late as 1920, half the population lived in rural areas. They
experienced their own progressive reforms, typically with the explicit
goal of upgrading country life. By 1910 most farmers subscribed to a farm newspaper, where editors promoted efficiency as applied to farming. Special efforts were made to reach the rural South and remote areas, such as the mountains of Appalachia and the Ozarks.
The most urgent need was better transportation. The railroad
system was virtually complete; the need was for much better roads. The
traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local
landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in
1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded in every area.
Demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the
coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade
and modernize dirt roads designed for horse-drawn wagon traffic. The
American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910.
Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, as
well as state aid. In 1916, federal-aid was first made available to
improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated
$75 million over a five-year period, with the Secretary of Agriculture
in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads,
in cooperation with the state highway departments. There were 2.4
million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914; 100,000 miles had been
improved with grading and gravel, and 3000 miles were given high quality
surfacing. The rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially
trucks, made maintenance and repair a high priority. Concrete was first
used in 1933, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing
material in the 1930s. The South had fewer cars and trucks and much less money, but it worked through highly visible demonstration projects like the "Dixie Highway."
Rural schools were often poorly funded, one room operations.
Typically, classes were taught by young local women before they married,
with only occasional supervision by county superintendents. The
progressive solution was modernization through consolidation, with the
result of children attending modern schools. There they would be taught
by full-time professional teachers who had graduated from the states'
teachers colleges, were certified, and were monitored by the county
superintendents. Farmers complained at the expense, and also at the loss
of control over local affairs, but in state after state the
consolidation process went forward.
Numerous other programs were aimed at rural youth, including 4-H clubs,
Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. County fairs not only gave prizes for the
most productive agricultural practices, they also demonstrated those
practices to an attentive rural audience. Programs for new mothers
included maternity care and training in baby care.
The movement's attempts at introducing urban reforms to rural
America often met resistance from traditionalists who saw the
country-lifers as aggressive modernizers who were condescending and out
of touch with rural life. The traditionalists said many of their reforms
were unnecessary and not worth the trouble of implementing. Rural
residents also disagreed with the notion that farms needed to improve
their efficiency, as they saw this goal as serving urban interests more
than rural ones. The social conservatism of many rural residents also
led them to resist attempts for change led by outsiders. Most important,
the traditionalists did not want to become modern, and did not want
their children inculcated with alien modern values through comprehensive
schools that were remote from local control.
The most successful reforms came from the farmers who pursued
agricultural extension, as their proposed changes were consistent with
existing modernizing trends toward more efficiency and more profit in
agriculture.
Overseas possessions: the Philippines
The Philippines were acquired by the United States in 1899, after victory over Spanish forces at the Battle of Manila Bay
and a long series of controversial political debates between the senate
and President McKinley and was considered the largest colonial
acquisition by the United States at this time.
While anti-imperialist sentiments had been prevalent in the
United States during this time, the acquisition of the Philippines
sparked the relatively minor population into action. Voicing their
opinions in public, they sought to deter American leaders from keeping
the Asian-Pacific nation and to avoid the temptations of expansionist
tendencies that were widely viewed as "un-American" at that time.
Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A
1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the
American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to
the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching,
and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:
steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of Manila; dredging the River Pasig; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.
In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major
land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms.
By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed
landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The
social structure in rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly
unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to
local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients.
The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for
the law's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping
was the Philippines' best path to development.
Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement,
especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as
infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk
and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent
organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National
Federation of Women's Clubs.
Race relations
Across the South black communities developed their own Progressive reform projects.
Typical projects involved upgrading schools, modernizing church
operations, expanding business opportunities, fighting for a larger
share of state budgets, and engaging in legal action to secure equal
rights. Reform projects were especially notable in rural areas, where the great majority of Southern blacks lived.
George Washington Carver
(1860-1943) was well known for his research projects, especially
involving agriculture. He was also a leader in promoting
environmentalism.
Rural blacks were specially involved in environmental issues, in which they developed their own traditions and priorities.
Although there were some achievements that improved conditions for African Americans and other non-white
minorities, the Progressive Era was the nadir of American race
relations. While white Progressives in principle believed in improving
conditions for minority groups, there were wide differences in how this
was to be achieved. Some, such as Lillian Wald,
fought to alleviate the plight of poor African Americans. Many, though,
were concerned with enforcing, not eradicating, racial segregation. In
particular, the mixing of black and white pleasure-seekers in
"black-and-tan" clubs troubled Progressive reformers.
The Progressive ideology espoused by many of the era attempted to
correct societal problems created by racial integration following the
Civil War by segregating the races and allowing each group to achieve
its own potential. That is to say that most Progressives saw racial
integration as a problem to be solved, rather than a goal to be
achieved.
As white progressives sought to help the white working-class, clean-up
politics, and improve the cities, the country instated the system of
racial segregation known as Jim Crow.
Legal historian Herbert Hovenkamp argues that while many early
progressives inherited the racism of Jim Crow, as they begin to innovate
their own ideas, they would embrace behaviorism, cultural relativism and marginalism
which stress environmental influences on humans rather than biological
inheritance. He states that ultimately progressives "were responsible
for bringing scientific racism to an end".
Family and food
Colorado judge Ben Lindsey, a pioneer in the establishment of juvenile court systems
Progressives believed that the family was the foundation stone of
American society, and the government, especially municipal government,
must work to enhance the family. Local public assistance programs were reformed to try to keep families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult prisons.
During the progressive era more women took work outside the home.
For the working class this work was often as a domestic servant. Yet
working or not women were expected to perform all the cooking and
cleaning. This "affected female domestics' experiences of their homes,
workplaces, and possessions, While the male household members, comforted
by the smells of home cooking, fresh laundry, and soaped floors, would
have seen home as a refuge from work, women would have associated these
same smells with the labor that they expended to maintain order."
With increased in technology some of this work became easier. The
"introduction of gas, indoor plumbing, electricity and garbage pickup
had a significant impact on the homes and the women who were responsible
form maintaining them."
With the introduction of new methods of heating and lighting the home
allowed for use of space once used for storage to become living spaces. Women were targeted by advertisements for many different products once
produced at home. These products were anything from mayonnaise, soda,
or canned vegetables.
The purity of food, milk and drinking water became a high
priority in the cities. At the state and national levels new food and
drug laws strengthened urban efforts to guarantee the safety of the food
system. The 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act,
which was pushed by drug companies and providers of medical services,
removed from the market patent medicines that had never been
scientifically tested.
With the decrease in standard working hours, urban families had
more leisure time. Many spent this leisure time at movie theaters.
Progressives advocated for censorship of motion pictures as it was
believed that patrons (especially children) viewing movies in dark,
unclean, potentially unsafe theaters, might be negatively influenced in
witnessing actors portraying crimes, violence, and sexually suggestive
situations. Progressives across the country influenced municipal
governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks where it was
believed that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a
healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and
citizenship.
Eugenics
Some Progressives sponsored eugenics
as a solution to excessively large or underperforming families, hoping
that birth control would enable parents to focus their resources on
fewer, better children. Progressive leaders like Herbert Croly and Walter Lippmann indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to the individual by the practice of eugenics. The Catholics strongly opposed birth control proposals such as eugenics.
Constitutional change
The Progressives fixed some of their reforms into law by adding amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 to the US Constitution. The 16th amendment
made an income tax legal (this required an amendment due to Article
One, Section 9 of the Constitution, which required that direct taxes be
laid on the States in proportion to their population as determined by
the decennial census). The Progressives also made strides in attempts to
reduce political corruption through the 17th amendment (direct election of U.S. Senators). The most radical and controversial amendment came during the anti-German craze of World War I that helped the Progressives and others push through their plan for prohibition through the 18th amendment (once the Progressives fell out of power the 21st amendment repealed the 18th in 1933). The ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920, which recognized women's suffrage was the last amendment during the progressive era. Another significant constitutional change that began during the progressive era was the incorporation of the Bill of Rights so that those rights would apply to the states. In 1920, Benjamin Gitlow was convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the case
went all the way to the Supreme Court, where the justices decided that
the First Amendment applied to the states as well as the federal
government. Prior to that time, the Bill of Rights was considered to apply only to the federal government, not the states.
Prohibition
Prohibition
was the outlawing of the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol.
Drinking itself was never prohibited. Throughout the Progressive Era, it
remained one of the prominent causes associated with Progressivism at
the local, state and national level, though support across the full
breadth of Progressives was mixed. It pitted the minority urban Catholic
population against the larger rural Protestant element, and
Progressivism's rise in the rural communities was aided in part by the
general increase in public consciousness of social issues of the temperance movement,
which achieved national success with the passage of the 18th Amendment
by Congress in late 1917, and the ratification by three-fourths of the
states in 1919. Prohibition was essentially a religious movement backed
by the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans
and other evangelical churches. Activists were mobilized by the highly
effective Anti-Saloon League. Timberlake (1963) argues the dries sought to break the liquor trust,
weaken the saloon base of big-city machines, enhance industrial
efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child abuse, and
poverty caused by alcoholism.
Agitation for prohibition began during the Second Great Awakening in the 1840s when crusades against drinking originated from evangelical Protestants.
Evangelicals precipitated the second wave of prohibition legislation
during the 1880s, which had as its aim local and state prohibition.
During the 1880s, referendums were held at the state level to enact
prohibition amendments. Two important groups were formed during this
period. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was formed in 1874. The Anti-Saloon League which began in Ohio was formed in 1893, uniting activists from different religious groups.
The league, rooted in Protestant churches, envisioned nationwide
prohibition. Rather than condemn all drinking, the group focused
attention on the saloon which was considered the ultimate symbol of
public vice. The league also concentrated on campaigns for the right of individual communities to choose whether to close their saloons.
In 1907, Georgia and Alabama were the first states to go dry followed
by Oklahoma, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Tennessee in the following
years. In 1913, Congress passed the Webb-Kenyon Act, which forbade the transport of liquor into dry states.
By 1917, two thirds of the states had some form of prohibition
laws and roughly three quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In
1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition
amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal
statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder
to change. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription
Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases. In August 1917, the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act
banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The
War Prohibition Act, November, 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale
of intoxicating beverages (more than 2.75% alcohol content) until the
end of demobilization.
The drys worked energetically to secure two-third majority of
both houses of Congress and the support of three quarters of the states
needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty-six states
were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek
ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment; it
was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the
manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the
United States, as well as import and export. The Volstead Act,
1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5%
and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The
states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not
try.
Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for
alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and
other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance,
and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly
ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it
certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The
Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the
Twenty-First Amendment, thanks to a well-organized repeal campaign led
by Catholics (who stressed personal liberty) and businessmen (who
stressed the lost tax revenue).
Education
The
Progressives sought to reform and modernize schools at the local level.
The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of schools
and students attending them, especially in the fast-growing metropolitan
cities. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school diploma.
The result was the rapid growth of the educated middle class, who
typically were the grass roots supporters of Progressive measures. During the Progressive Era, many states began passing compulsory schooling laws. An emphasis on hygiene and health was made in education, with physical and health education becoming more important and widespread.
Women's education in home economics
A
new field of study, the art and science of homemaking, emerged in the
Progressive Era in an effort to feminize women's education in the United
States. Alternatively called home arts, or home economics, the major
curriculum reform in women's education was influenced by the publication
of Treatise on Domestic Economy, written by Catherine Beecher in
1843. Advocates of home economics argued that homemaking, as a
profession, required education and training for the development of an
efficient and systematic domestic practice. The curriculum aimed to
cover a variety of topics, including teaching standardized way of
gardening, child-rearing, cooking, cleaning, performing household
maintenance, and doctoring. Such scientific management applied to the
domestic sphere was presented as a solution to the dilemma middle class
women faced in terms of searching for meaning and fulfillment in their
role of housekeeping. The feminist perspective, by pushing for this type
of education, intended to explain that women had separate but equally
important responsibilities in life with men that required proper
training.
Children and education
There
was a concern towards working-class children being taken out of school
to be put straight to work. Progressives around the country put up
campaigns to push for an improvement in public education and to make
education mandatory. It was further pushed in the South, where education
was very much behind compared to the rest of the country. The Southern
Education Board came together to publicize the importance of reform.
However, many rejected the reform. Farmers and workers relied heavily on
their eldest children, their first born, to work and help the family's
income. Immigrants were not for reform either, fearing that such a thing
would Americanize their children.
Despite those fighting against reform, there was a positive outcome to
the fight for reform. Enrollment for children (age 5 to 19) in school
rose from 50.5 percent to 59.2 between 1900 and 1909. Enrollment in
public secondary school went from 519,000 to 841,000. School funds and
the term of public schools also grew.
Medicine and law
The Flexner Report of 1910, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation,
professionalized American medicine by discarding the scores of local
small medical schools and focusing national funds, resources, and
prestige on larger, professionalized medical schools associated with
universities. Prominent leaders included the Mayo Brothers whose Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, became world-famous for innovative surgery.
In the legal profession, the American Bar Association set up in 1900 the Association of American Law Schools
(AALS). It established national standards for law schools, which led to
the replacement of the old system of young men studying law privately
with established lawyers by the new system of accredited law schools
associated with universities.
Social sciences
Progressive scholars, based at the emerging research universities such as Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin and California,
worked to modernize their disciplines. The heyday of the amateur expert
gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly
journals and presses. Their explicit goal was to professionalize and
make "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science.
Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the
universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting
international models of scholarship.
Economic policy
President Wilson used tariff, currency, and anti-trust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working.
The Progressive Era was one of general prosperity after the Panic of 1893—a severe depression—ended in 1897. The Panic of 1907
was short and mostly affected financiers. However, Campbell (2005)
stresses the weak points of the economy in 1907–1914, linking them to
public demands for more Progressive interventions. The Panic of 1907 was
followed by a small decline in real wages and increased unemployment,
with both trends continuing until World War I. Campbell emphasizes the
resulting stress on public finance and the impact on the Wilson
administration's policies. The weakened economy and persistent federal
deficits led to changes in fiscal policy, including the imposition of
federal income taxes on businesses and individuals and the creation of
the Federal Reserve System. Government agencies were also transformed in an effort to improve administrative efficiency.
In the Gilded Age
(late 19th century) the parties were reluctant to involve the federal
government too heavily in the private sector, except in the area of
railroads and tariffs. In general, they accepted the concept of laissez-faire,
a doctrine opposing government interference in the economy except to
maintain law and order. This attitude started to change during the depression of the 1890s when small business, farm, and labor movements began asking the government to intercede on their behalf.
By the start of the 20th century, a middle class had developed
that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political
movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The
Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business
practices to ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a
law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson
(1913–1921), and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives
came to power. Many of today's U.S. regulatory agencies were created
during these years, including the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Muckrakers were journalists who encouraged readers to demand more regulation of business. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was influential and persuaded America about the supposed horrors of the Chicago Union Stock Yards,
a giant complex of meat processing plants that developed in the 1870s.
The federal government responded to Sinclair's book and The Neill-Reynolds Report with the new regulatory Food and Drug Administration. Ida M. Tarbell wrote a series of articles against Standard Oil,
which was perceived to be a monopoly. This affected both the government
and the public reformers. Attacks by Tarbell and others helped pave the
way for public acceptance of the breakup of the company by the Supreme
Court in 1911.
When Democrat Woodrow Wilson
was elected President with a Democratic Congress in 1912 he implemented
a series of Progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on higher incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood Tariff
in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes in trade
caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson proved especially
effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff changes by
denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in person in highly
dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate ceremony when he signed the
bill into law. Wilson helped end the long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a complex business-government partnership that to this day dominates the financial world.
In 1913, Henry Ford
dramatically increased the efficiency of his factories by large-scale
use of the moving assembly line, with each worker doing one simple task
in the production of automobiles. Emphasizing efficiency, Ford more than
doubled wages (and cut hours from 9 a day to 8), attracting the best
workers and sharply reducing labor turnover and absenteeism. His
employees could and did buy his cars, and by cutting prices over and
over he made the Model T cheap enough for millions of people to buy in
the U.S. and in every major country. Ford's profits soared and his
company dominated the world's automobile industry. Henry Ford became the
world-famous prophet of high wages and high profits.
Labor unions
Labor unions, especially the American Federation of Labor
(AFL), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a Progressive
agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with
cooperation with business in the National Civic Federation,
the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the
Democratic party. The alliance was especially important in the larger
industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who
intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They
finally achieved that goal with the Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932.
By the turn of the century, more and more small businesses were
getting fed up with the way that they were treated compared to the
bigger businesses. It seemed that the "Upper Ten" were turning a
blind-eye to the smaller businesses, cutting corners where ever they
could to make more profit. The big businesses would soon find out that
the smaller businesses were starting to gain ground over them, so they
became unsettled as described; "Constant pressure from the public, labor
organizations, small business interests, and federal and state
governments forced the corporate giants to engage in a balancing act."
Now that all of these new regulations and standards were being enacted,
the big business would now have to stoop to everyones level, including
the small businesses. The big businesses would soon find out that in
order to succeed they would have to band together with the smaller
businesses to be successful, kind of a "Yin and Yang" effect.
Immigration
The
influx of immigration grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals
being unskilled workers from eastern and southern Europe. These
immigrants were able to find work in the steel mills, slaughterhouses,
and construction crews of the emergent mill towns and industrial cities
of the late 19th century. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 halted
most transcontinental immigration, only after 1919 did the flow of
immigrants resume. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively
promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on
Chinese, Japanese and Korean immigrants.
In combination with the racist attitudes of the time, there was a fear
that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would defeat the
union's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining.
In addition, rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholics and Jews
who comprised most of the immigrants after 1890, and on those grounds
opposed immigration.
On the other hand, the rapid growth of the industry called for a
greater and expanding labour pool that could not be met by natural birth
rates. As a result, many large corporations were opposed to immigration
restrictions. By the early 1920s a consensus had been reached that the
total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws
in the 1920s accomplished that purpose. A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction for their own pseudo-scientific reasons. Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II.
During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted Americanization
programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them
into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old
country. These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically.
Foreign policy
Foreign
policy in the progressive era was often marked by a hint of moral
supremacy, with assessments of Woodrow Wilson and William Jennings Bryan
believing themselves to be 'Missionaries of Democracy' being accurate,
with them believing that they were "Inspired by the confidence that they
knew better how to promote the peace and well-being of other countries
than did the leaders of those countries themselves." Similar ideas and
language had already been used previously in the Monroe Doctrine,
wherein Roosevelt claimed that the United States could serve as the
police of the world, using its power to end unrest and wrongdoing on the
western hemisphere. Using this moralistic approach, Roosevelt argued
for intervention with Cuba to help it to become a "just and stable
civilization", by way of the Platt amendment. Wilson used a similar
moralistic tone when dealing with Mexico. In 1913, while revolutionaries
took control of the government, Wilson judged them to be immoral, and
refused to acknowledge the in-place government on that reason alone.
War
Although the Progressive Era was characterized by public support for World War I under Woodrow Wilson, there was also a substantial opposition to World War I.
Decline
In the 1940s typically historians saw the Progressive Era as a prelude to the New Deal and dated it from 1901 (when Roosevelt became president) to the start of World War I in 1914 or 1917. Historians have moved back in time emphasizing the Progressive reformers at the municipal and state levels in the 1890s.
End of the Era
Much
less settled is the question of when the era ended. Some historians who
emphasize civil liberties decry their suppression during World War I
and do not consider the war as rooted in Progressive policy. A strong anti-war movement headed by noted Progressives including Jane Addams, was suppressed after Wilson's 1916 re-election, a victory largely enabled by his campaign slogan, "He kept us out of the war."
The slogan was no longer accurate by April 6 of the following year,
when Wilson surprised much of the Progressive base that twice elected
him and asked a joint session of Congress to declare war on Germany. The
Senate voted 82–6 in favor; the House agreed, 373–50. Some historians
see the so-called "war to end all wars" as a globalized expression of
the American Progressive movement, with Wilson's support for a League of
Nations as its climax.
The politics of the 1920s was unfriendly toward the labor unions
and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not most historians
who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan
scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition, the intolerance of the
nativists and the KKK, and on those grounds denounced the era. Richard Hofstadter,
for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, "was a pseudo-reform, a
pinched, parochial substitute for reform" that "was carried about
America by the rural-evangelical virus". However, as Arthur S. Link emphasized, the Progressives did not simply roll over and play dead.
Link's argument for continuity through the twenties stimulated a
historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer,
pointing to leaders like George Norris,
says, "It is worth noting that progressivism, whilst temporarily losing
the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and
made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and
Coolidge presidencies."
Gerster and Cords argue that, "Since progressivism was a 'spirit' or an
'enthusiasm' rather than an easily definable force with common goals,
it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform
which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond."
Some social historians have posited that the KKK may in fact fit into
the Progressive agenda, if Klansmen are portrayed as "ordinary white
Protestants" primarily interested in purification of the system, which
had long been a core Progressive goal.
This however ignores the violence and racism central to Klan ideology
and activities, that had nothing to do with improving society, so much
as enforcing racial hierarchies.
While some Progressive leaders became reactionaries, that usually happened in the 1930s, not in the 1920s, as exemplified by William Randolph Hearst, Herbert Hoover, Al Smith and Henry Ford.
First Red Scare
Following the period rapid social change saw a worker's uprising turn to a full scale revolution in Russia in 1917 taken over by Bolsheviks along anarchist bombings
of 1919 by foreigners encroached a large fear over many citizens of a
possible Bolshevism revolt to overthrow values which the United States
holds up to mainly capitalism. It saw persecutions of many ideals of the
progressive era seeing raids, arrests, and persecutions taken place.
Such as the period saw supporters such as worker unions, socialist, and
others faced similar prosecutions. Along these convicted were
foreigners, African Americans, Jews, Catholics, etc. The US government
was also affected both legally and internally as of January 1920 saw
6,000 arrests of persecutions along changes in government policies where
the government in acted censorship in the media and suppressing opinion
on the matter going as far to use physical assaults or legal arrests
having certain civil liberties stripped.
Business progressivism in 1920s
What historians have identified as "business progressivism", with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover
reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford's
"views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were
generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times."
Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the Progressive
movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy,
efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and
governmental public service. William Link finds political Progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s. Likewise it was influential in the Midwest.
Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the Progressive impulse in the 1920s. Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace, good government, maternal care (the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921), and local support for education and public health. The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted
and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth,
says "Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to
social problems, was very much alive."
International influences that sparked many reform ideas likewise
continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to
influence Europe.
By 1930 a block of progressive Republicans in the Senate who were
urging Hoover to take more vigorous action to fight the depression.
There were about a dozen members of this group, including William Borah of Idaho, George W. Norris of Nebraska, Robert M. La Follette Jr., of Wisconsin, Gerald Nye of North Dakota, Hiram Johnson of California and Bronson M. Cutting
of New Mexico. While these western Republicans could stir up issues,
they could rarely forge a majority, since they were too individualistic
and did not form a unified caucus. Hoover himself had sharply moved to the right, and paid little attention to their liberal ideas.
By 1932 this group was moving toward support for Roosevelt's New Deal.
They remain staunch isolationists deeply opposed to any involvement in
Europe. Outside the Senate, however, a strong majority of the surviving
Progressives from the 1910s had become conservative opponents of New
Deal economic planning.
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