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A group of new PhD graduates with their professors
A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae) is the most common degree
at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs
are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields.
Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are
required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of
knowledge, normally in the form of a dissertation, and defend their work
before a panel of other experts in the field. The completion of a PhD
is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in many fields. Individuals who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree may, in many jurisdictions, use the title Doctor
(often abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr.") with their name, although the proper
etiquette associated with this usage may also be subject to the
professional ethics of their own scholarly field, culture, or society.
Those who teach at universities or work in academic, educational, or
research fields are usually addressed by this title "professionally and
socially in a salutation or conversation." Alternatively, holders may use post-nominal letters
such as "Ph.D.", "PhD", or "DPhil" (depending on the awarding
institution). It is, however, considered incorrect to use both the title
and post-nominals at the same time.
The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably
according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level
research degrees to higher doctorates. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called a doctoral student or PhD student; a student who has completed all their coursework and comprehensive examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation is sometimes known as a doctoral candidate or PhD candidate (see: all but dissertation). A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions or may be granted a master's degree en route to the doctoral degree. Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "PhD ABD," meaning "All But Dissertation."
A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation
often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in
principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities sometimes award other types of doctorate besides the PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) for music performers, Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.) for legal scholars and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) for studies in education. In 2005 the European Universities Association defined the "Salzburg Principles," 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees (doctorates) within the Bologna Process. These were followed in 2016 by the "Florence Principles," seven basic principles for doctorates in the arts laid out by the European League of Institutes of the Arts, which have been endorsed by the European Association of Conservatoires, the International Association of Film and Television Schools, the International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, Design and Media, and the Society for Artistic Research.
In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly
titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or
academic discipline of philosophy,
but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek
meaning, which is "love of wisdom." In most of Europe, all fields
(history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/sciences) other than theology, law, and medicine
(the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum) were
traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in
Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy."
Terminology
The degree is abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in the USA), from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters (, PEE-aych-DEE). The abbreviation DPhil, from the English 'Doctor of Philosophy', is used by a small number of British and Commonwealth universities, including Oxford, formerly York, and Sussex, as the abbreviation for degrees from those institutions.
History
Medieval and early modern Europe
In the universities of Medieval Europe,
study was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and
the three higher faculties of theology, medicine, and law (canon law and civil law).
All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts,
of theology, of laws, of medicine) and final degrees. Initially, the
titles of master and doctor were used interchangeably for the final
degrees—the title Doctor was merely a formality bestowed on a Teacher/Master of the art—but by the late Middle Ages
the terms Master of Arts and Doctor of Theology/Divinity, Doctor of
Law, and Doctor of Medicine had become standard in most places (though
in the German and Italian universities the term Doctor was used for all faculties).
The doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from
the current PhD degree in that they were awarded for advanced
scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations. Besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. Originally this was a license to teach, awarded shortly before the award of the master's or doctoral degree by the diocese in which the university was located, but later it evolved into an academic degree in its own right, in particular in the continental universities.
According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal teacher's credential in the 17th century (circa
1652). There were no PhDs in Germany before the 1650s (when they
gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree;
arguably, one of the earliest German PhD holders is Erhard Weigel (Dr. phil. hab., Leipzig, 1652).
In theory, the full course of studies might, for example, lead in succession to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Licentiate of Arts, Master of Arts, or Bachelor of Medicine, Licentiate of Medicine, or Doctor of Medicine,
but before the early modern era, many exceptions to this existed. Most
students left the university without becoming masters of arts, whereas
regulars (members of monastic orders) could skip the arts faculty
entirely.
Educational reforms in Germany
This
situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational
reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, founded and controlled by the Prussian government
in 1810. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of
philosophy, started demanding contributions to research,
attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which
was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this
was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in
the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium,
by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in
subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities. Professors across the humanities and sciences focused on their advanced research.
Practically all the funding came from the central government, and it
could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.
These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the
German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from
the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a
PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American
college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the
United States, where in 1861 Yale University
started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having
obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of
graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.
In Germany, the name of the doctorate was adapted after the philosophy
faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in
the faculty of natural sciences − but in most of the English-speaking
world the name "Doctor of Philosophy" was retained for research
doctorates in all disciplines.
The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the
19th and early 20th centuries. The degree was introduced in France in
1808, replacing diplomas as the highest academic degree; into Russia in 1819, when the Doktor Nauk degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the specialist diploma, roughly equivalent to the MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when PhDs gradually started replacing the Laurea as the highest academic degree.
History in the United Kingdom
Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late 19th century in the shape of the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) and other such "higher doctorates." The University of London
introduced the DSc in 1860, but as an advanced study course, following
on directly from the BSc, rather than a research degree. The first
higher doctorate in the modern sense was Durham University's DSc, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year and the University of London
transforming its DSc into a research degree in 1885. These were,
however, very advanced degrees, rather than research-training degrees at
the PhD level—Harold Jeffreys said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society."
Finally, in 1917, the current PhD degree was introduced, along
the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular
with both British and foreign students.
The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of
Literature/Letters still exist at British universities; together with
the much older degrees of Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) and Doctor of Medicine (MD), they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees, they are only infrequently awarded.
In the English (but not the Scottish) universities, the Faculty
of Arts had become dominant by the early 19th century. Indeed, the
higher faculties had largely atrophied, since medical training had
shifted to teaching hospitals, the legal training for the common law system was provided by the Inns of Court (with some minor exceptions, see Doctors' Commons),
and few students undertook formal study in theology. This contrasted
with the situation in the continental European universities at the time,
where the preparatory role of the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts was to a
great extent taken over by secondary education: in modern France, the Baccalauréat is the examination taken at the end of secondary studies. The reforms at the Humboldt University
transformed the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts (and its more recent
successors such as the Faculty of Sciences) from a lower faculty into
one on a par with the Faculties of Law and Medicine.
Similar developments occurred in many other continental European
universities, and at least until reforms in the early 21st century, many
European countries (e.g., Belgium, Spain, and the Scandinavian
countries) had in all faculties triple degree structures of bachelor (or
candidate) − licentiate − doctor as opposed to bachelor − master −
doctor; the meaning of the different degrees varied from country to
country, however. To this day, this is also still the case for the
pontifical degrees in theology and canon law; for instance, in sacred theology, the degrees are Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB), Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL), and Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD), and in canon law: Bachelor of Canon Law (JCB), Licentiate of Canon Law (JCL), and Doctor of Canon Law (JCD).
History in the United States
Until the mid-19th century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for
professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more
ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for 1 to 3 years to
obtain a PhD in the sciences or humanities. Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In 1861, Yale awarded the first three earned PhDs in North America to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur Williams Wright, and James Morris Whiton, although honorary PhDs had been awarded in the US for almost a decade, with Bucknell University awarding the first to Ebenezer Newton Elliott in 1852.
In the next two decades, New York University, the University of
Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began granting the degree.
Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of Clark University in 1887 which offered only graduate programs and the Johns Hopkins University
which focused on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia,
Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose
alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 PhDs were
awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It was no longer
necessary to study in Germany.
However, half of the institutions awarding earned PhDs in 1899 were
undergraduate institutions that granted the degree for work done away
from campus.
Degrees awarded by universities without legitimate PhD programs
accounted for about a third of the 382 doctorates recorded by the US
Department of Education in 1900, of which another 8–10% were honorary.
At the start of the 20th century, US universities were held in
low regard internationally and many American students were still
traveling to Europe for PhDs. The lack of centralised authority meant
anyone could start a university and award PhDs. This led to the
formation of the Association of American Universities
by 14 leading research universities (producing nearly 90% of the
approximately 250 legitimate research doctorates awarded in 1900), with
one of the main goals being to "raise the opinion entertained abroad of
our own Doctor's Degree."
In Germany, the national government funded the universities and
the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for
professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students.
In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state
universities alike were independent of the federal government.
Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from
private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in
science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering
programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation
in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the
learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. "Publish or perish"
became the formula for faculty advancement in the research
universities. After World War II, state universities across the country
expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research
programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate
faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research
grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became
increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities.
Requirements
A South African PhD graduate (on right, wearing ceremonial gown)
Detailed requirements for the award of a PhD degree vary throughout
the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the
student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's Degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a PhD program.
In the US, Canada, India, and Denmark, for example, many universities
require coursework in addition to research for PhD degrees. In other
countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though
this varies by university and field. Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree
or equivalent or higher. In order to submit a successful PhD admission
application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a
research proposal, and a personal statement are often required. Most
universities also invite for a special interview before admission.
A candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed context. Moreover, some PhD programs, especially in science, require one to three published articles in peer-reviewed journals.
In many countries, a candidate must defend
this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the
university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel
of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in
principle passable and any issues that need to be addressed before the
dissertation can be passed.
Some universities in the non-English-speaking
world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone
PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the Bologna process).
A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on
campus under close supervision. With the popularity of distance
education and e-learning technologies, some universities now accept
students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode.
In a "sandwich
PhD" program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at
the same university. Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and
last periods of the program at their home universities and in between
conduct research at another institution or field research. Occasionally a "sandwich PhD" will be awarded by two universities.
PhD confirmation
A PhD confirmation is a preliminary presentation or lecture that a PhD candidate presents to faculty and possibly other interested members.
The lecture follows after a suitable topic has been identified, and can
include such matters as the aim of the research, methodology, first
results, planned (or finished) publications, etc.
The confirmation lecture can be seen as a trial run for the final
public defense, though faculty members at this stage can still largely
influence the direction of the research. At the end of the lecture, the
PhD candidate can be seen as "confirmed" – faculty members give their
approval and trust that the study is well directed and will with high
probability result in the candidate being successful.
In the United States, this is generally called advancing to
Candidacy, the confirmation event being called the Candidacy
Examination.
Value and criticism
A
career in academia generally requires a PhD, though, in some countries,
it is possible to reach relatively high positions without a doctorate.
In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have a
PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a
university ratings measure.
The motivation may also include increased salary,
but in many cases, this is not the result. Research by Bernard H. Casey
of the University of Warwick, U.K, suggests that, over all subjects,
PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26% over non-accredited graduates,
but notes that master's degrees already provide a premium of 23% and a
bachelor's 14%. While this is a small return to the individual (or even
an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are
accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for
the extra research training.
However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs.
These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of
professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment.
PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree.
A PhD is also required in some positions outside academia, such
as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the
Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold
a PhD.
A PhD is sometimes felt to be a necessary qualification in certain
areas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: U.S. News wrote in 2013 that "[i]f having a master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur
in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting
to feel that the PhD is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers." Similarly, an article on the Australian public service states that "credentialism
in the public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of
graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees becoming the base
entry level qualification."
The Economist published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These included a prediction by economist Richard B. Freeman
that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students
would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of postdoctoral research
fellows earned less than or equal to an average construction worker
($38,600 a year). According to the article, only the fastest developing
countries (e.g. China or Brazil) have a shortage of PhDs.
The US higher education system often offers little incentive to
move students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide
incentive to slow them down. To counter this problem, the United States
introduced the Doctor of Arts degree in 1970 with seed money from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to
complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, although the
Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component. Germany
is one of the few nations engaging these issues, and it has been doing
so by reconceptualising PhD programs to be training for careers, outside
academia, but still at high-level positions. This development can be
seen in the extensive number of PhD holders, typically from the fields
of law, engineering, and economics, at the very top corporate and
administrative positions. To a lesser extent, the UK research councils
have tackled the issue by introducing, since 1992, the EngD.
Mark C. Taylor opined in 2011 in Nature
that total reform of PhD programs in almost every field is necessary in
the U.S. and that pressure to make the necessary changes will need to
come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private
sectors, etc.). Other articles in Nature have also examined the issue of PhD reform.
Freeman Dyson, professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, was opposed to the PhD system and did not have a PhD degree.
On the other hand, it was understood by all his peers that he was a
world leading scientist with many accomplishments already under his belt
during his graduate study years and he was eligible to gain the degree
at any given moment.
National variations
In
German-speaking nations, most Eastern European nations, successor
states of the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many
Spanish-speaking countries, the corresponding degree to a Doctor of
Philosophy is simply called "Doctor" (Doktor), and the subject area is distinguished by a Latin suffix (e.g., "Dr. med." for Doctor medicinae, Doctor of Medicine; "Dr. rer. nat." for Doctor rerum naturalium, Doctor of the Natural Sciences; "Dr. phil." for Doctor philosophiae, Doctor of Philosophy; "Dr. iur." for Doctor iuris, Doctor of Laws).
Degrees around the globe
The UNESCO, in its International Standard Classification of Education
(ISCED), states that: "Programmes to be classified at ISCED level 8 are
referred to in many ways around the world such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit,
D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. However, it is important to note
that programmes with a similar name to 'doctor' should only be included
in ISCED level 8 if they satisfy the criteria described in Paragraph
263. For international comparability purposes, the term 'doctoral or
equivalent' is used to label ISCED level 8."
Argentina
Admission
In Argentina, the admission to a PhD program at public Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate
degree. Non-Argentine Master's titles are generally accepted into a PhD
program when the degree comes from a recognized university.
Funding
While a
significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and
living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run
institutions, international institutions, such as the Fulbright Program
and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant
full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.
Others apply for funds to CONICET, the national public body of
scientific and technical research, which typically awards more than a
thousand scholarships each year for this purpose, thus guaranteeing many
PhD candidates remain within the system.
Requirements for completion
Upon
completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a graduate
student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original
contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of
academic excellence.
The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or
thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director and
reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This committee should be composed of
examiners that are external to the program, and at least one of them
should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of
Doctor, respective to the correspondent field of science that the
candidate has contributed with original and rigorous research, is
received after a successful defense of the candidate's dissertation.
Australia
Admission
Admission
to a PhD program in Australia requires applicants to demonstrate
capacity to undertake research in the proposed field of study. The
standard requirement is a bachelor's degree with either first-class or
upper second-class honors. Research master's degrees and coursework
master's degrees with a 25% research component are usually considered
equivalent. It is also possible for research master's degree students to
"upgrade" to PhD candidature after demonstrating sufficient progress.
Scholarships
PhD
students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their PhD
degree. The most common of these was the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award
(APA) until its dissolution in 2017. It was replaced by Research
Training Program (RTP), awarded to students of "exceptional research
potential," which provides a living stipend to students of approximately
A$27,000 a year (tax-free). RTPs are paid for a duration of 3 years,
while a 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of
the control of the student.
Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA
amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students
are forced to live under the poverty line.
In addition to the more common RTP and university scholarships,
Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding, coming
from industry, private enterprise, and organisations.
Fees
Australian
citizens, permanent residents, and New Zealand citizens are not charged
course fees for their PhD or research master's degree, with the
exception in some universities of the student services and amenities fee
(SSAF) which is set by each university and typically involves the
largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid
for by the Australian government, except for the SSAF, under the
Research Training Program.
International students and coursework master's degree students must pay
course fees unless they receive a scholarship to cover them.
Requirements for completion
Completion
requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required
coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all
in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000-word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure on higher degree by research (HDR) students to publish has resulted in increasing interest in Ph.D by publication
as opposed to the more traditional Ph.D by dissertation, which
typically requires a minimum of two publications, but which also
requires traditional thesis elements such as an introductory exegesis,
and linking chapters between papers.
The PhD thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the
field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners
are nominated by the candidate's university, and their identities are
often not revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. A
formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the
thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be travelled
by the overseas examiners; however, since 2016, there is a trend toward
implementing this in many Australian universities. At the University of
South Australia, PhD candidates who started after January 2016 now
undertake an oral defence via an online conference with two examiners.
Canada
Admission
Admission to a doctoral programme at a Canadian university usually requires completion of a Master's degree
in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research
ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree
to a PhD program; other programs allow a student to fast-track to a
doctoral program after one year of outstanding work in a Master's
program (without having to complete the Master's).
An application package typically includes a research proposal,
letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample
or Graduate Record Examinations
scores. A common criterion for prospective PhD students is the
comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences
in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful
completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate
program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the
student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or
written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a
specialized area (see below) or both.
At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required
to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an
acceptable score on a standard examination (for example the Test of English as a Foreign Language).
Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate
ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student
applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate
some English language ability.
Funding
While
some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within
the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree)
not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (e.g.,
employment) outside of their studies, particularly if they have been
given funding. For large and prestigious scholarships, such as those
from NSERC and Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies, this is an absolute requirement.
At some Canadian universities, most PhD students receive an award
equivalent to part or all of the tuition amount for the first four
years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver).
Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships
and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is
encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require
all PhD candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of
their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding,
there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards
available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.
Requirements for completion
In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations.
At this stage, the student is known as a "PhD student" or "doctoral
student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed
most of their required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore,
it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months
after the first registration, the student will have successfully
completed the comprehensive exams.
Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the
student becomes known as a "PhD candidate." From this stage on, the bulk
of the student's time will be devoted to their own research,
culminating in the completion of a PhD thesis or dissertation. The final
requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the
public in some, but not all, universities. At most Canadian
universities, the time needed to complete a PhD degree typically ranges
from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be
unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly
given that funding packages often support students for only two to four
years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion
of the thesis supervisor or department chair. Alternative arrangements
exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the
program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is
completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are
obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been
received by the thesis office. In other words, if a PhD student defers
or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated
to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good
standing.
Colombia
Admission
In
Colombia, the PhD course admission may require a master's degree
(Magíster) in some universities, specially public universities. However,
it could also be applied for a direct doctorate in specific cases,
according to the jury's recommendations on the thesis proposal.
Funding
Most
of postgraduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by
means of teaching assistant seats or research works. Some institutions
such as Colciencias, Colfuturo, CeiBA, and Icetex grant scholarships or provide awards in the form of forgivable loans.
Requirements for completion
After
two or two and a half years, it is expected that the research work of
the doctoral candidate be submitted in the form of oral qualification,
where suggestions and corrections about the research hypothesis and
methodology, as well as on the course of the research work, are
performed. The PhD degree is only received after a successful defense of
the candidate's thesis is performed (four or five years after the
enrollment), most of the time also requiring the most important results
having been published in at least one peer-reviewed high-impact
international journal.
Finland
In Finland, the degree of filosofian tohtori (abbreviated FT) is awarded by traditional universities, such as University of Helsinki.
A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately
4–5 years of research (amounting to 3–5 scientific articles, some of
which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies. Other universities such as Aalto University award degrees such as tekniikan tohtori (TkT, engineering), taiteen tohtori (TaT, art), etc., which are translated in English to Doctor of Science (D.Sc.), and they are formally equivalent. The licentiate (filosofian lisensiaatti or FL) requires only 2–3 years of research and is sometimes done before an FT.
France
History
Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (doctorat d'État, the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (doctorat de troisième cycle, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur created in 1923), for technical research. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained, called "doctorate" (Doctorat). The latter is equivalent to the PhD.
Admission
Students
pursuing the PhD degree must first complete a master's degree program,
which takes two years after graduation with a bachelor's degree (five
years in total). The candidate must find funding and a formal doctoral advisor (Directeur de thèse) with a habilitation throughout the doctoral program.
The PhD admission is granted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale").
A PhD candidate can follow some in-service training offered by the
graduate school while continuing their research in a laboratory. Their
research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a
company. In the last case, the company hires the candidate and they are
supervised by both the company's tutor and a lab's professor. The
validation of the PhD degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the
master's degree.
Funding
The
financing of PhD research comes mainly from funds for research of the
French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common
procedure is a short-term employment contract
called doctoral contract: the institution of higher education is the
employer and the PhD candidate the employee. However, the candidate can
apply for funds from a company, which can host them at its premises (as
in the case where PhD candidates do their research at a company). In
another possible situation, the company and the institute can sign a
funding agreement together so that the candidate still has a public
doctoral contract but is works at the company on a daily basis (for
example, this is particularly the case for the (French) Scientific Cooperation Foundation). Many other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc.
Germany
Admission
In Germany, admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having an advanced degree (i.e., a master's degree, diplom, magister, or staatsexamen), mostly in a related field and having above-average grades. A candidate must also find a tenured professor from a university to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Betreuer) of the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally referred to as Doktorvater or Doktormutter,
which literally translate to "doctor's father" and "doctor's mother"
respectively. The formal admission is the beginning of the so-called Promotionsverfahren, while the final granting of the degree is called Promotion.
The duration of the doctorate depends on the field. A doctorate
in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in
other fields, two to six years. Most doctorates are awarded with
specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for
engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name
for all fields (such as the Ph.D.). The most important degrees are:
- Dr. rer. nat. (rerum naturalium; natural and formal sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
- Dr. phil. (philosophiae; humanities such as
philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology,
political science, or psychology as well);
- Dr. iur. (iuris; law);
- Dr. oec. (oeconomiae; economics);
- Dr. rer. pol. (rerum politicarum; economics, business administration, political science);
- Dr. theol. (theologiae; theology);
- Dr. med. (medicinae; medicine);
- Dr. med. dent. (medicinae dentariae; dentistry);
- Dr. med. vet. (medicinae veterinariae; veterinary medicine);
- Dr.-Ing. (engineering).
Over fifty such designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in
use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in
abbreviated form, e.g., Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann or Dr. Max Mustermann,
dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation
is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate,
which must be indicated by Dr. h.c. (from Latin honoris causa).
While most German doctorates are considered equivalent to the
PhD, an exception is the medical doctorate, where "doctoral"
dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.
There are different forms of university-level institution in Germany,
but only professors from "Universities" (Univ.-Prof.) can serve as
doctoral supervisors – "Universities of Applied Sciences" (Fachhochschulen) are not entitled to award doctorates, although some exceptions apply to this rule.
Structure
Depending on the university, doctoral students (Doktoranden)
can be required to attend formal classes or lectures, some of them also
including exams or other scientific assignments, in order to get one or
more certificates of qualification (Qualifikationsnachweise). Depending on the doctoral regulations (Promotionsordnung)
of the university and sometimes on the status of the doctoral student,
such certificates may not be required. Usually, former students,
research assistants or lecturers from the same university, may be spared
from attending extra classes. Instead, under the tutelage of a single
professor or advisory committee, they are expected to conduct
independent research. In addition to doctoral studies, many doctoral
candidates work as teaching assistants, research assistants, or
lecturers.
Many universities have established research-intensive Graduiertenkollegs ("graduate colleges"), which are graduate schools that provide funding for doctoral studies.
Duration
The
typical duration of a doctoral program can depend heavily on the subject
and area of research. Usually, three to five years of full-time
research work are required. The average time to graduation is 4.5 years.
In 2014, the median age of new PhD graduates was 30.4 years.
India
In India, generally, a master's degree is required to gain admission
to a doctoral program. Direct admission to a PhD programme after
bachelors is also offered by the IITs, the IIITs, the NITs and the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research. In some subjects, doing a Masters in Philosophy (M.Phil.) is a prerequisite to starting a PhD For funding/fellowship, it is required to qualify for the National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and Junior Research fellowship (NET for LS and JRF) conducted by the National Testing Agency (NTA).
In the last few years, there have been many changes in the rules
relating to a PhD in India. According to the new rules described by UGC,
universities must have to conduct entrance exams in general ability and
the selected subject. After clearing these tests, the shortlisted
candidates need to appear for an interview with the available
supervisor/guide. After successful completion of the coursework, the
students are required to give presentations of the research proposal
(plan of work or synopsis) at the beginning, submit progress reports,
give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend the thesis in an open defence viva-voce.
Italy
History
The Dottorato di ricerca
(research doctorate), abbreviated to "Dott. Ric." or "PhD", is an
academic title awarded at the end of a course of not less than three
years, admission to which is based on entrance examinations and academic
rankings in the Bachelor of Arts ("Laurea", a three-year diploma) and Master of Arts ("Laurea Magistrale" a two-year diploma). While the standard PhD follows the Bologna process, the MD–PhD programme may be completed in two years.
The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program (PhD) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento".
Further, the research doctorates or PhD (Dottorato di ricerca) in Italy were introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980, referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.
Hence, the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Scuola Superiore Universitaria), also called Schools of Excellence (Scuole di Eccellenza) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" PhD title by law and MIUR Decree.
Admission
Doctorate courses are open, without age or citizenship limits, to all those who already hold a "laurea magistrale"
(master degree) or similar academic title awarded abroad which has been
recognised as equivalent to an Italian degree by the Committee
responsible for the entrance examinations.
The number of places on offer each year and details of the entrance examinations are set out in the examination announcement.
Poland
A doctoral degree (Pol. doktor), abbreviated to PhD (Pol. dr) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences, regulated by the Polish parliament acts and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland.
Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to
a doctoral entrance exam. The title of PhD is awarded to a scientist
who has completed a minimum of three years of PhD studies (Pol. studia doktoranckie; not required to obtain PhD), finished a theoretical or laboratory scientific work, passed all PhD examinations; submitted the dissertation, a document presenting the author's research and findings,
and successfully defended the doctoral thesis. Typically, upon
completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public,
by a supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.
Scandinavia
The doctorate was introduced in Sweden in 1477 and in Denmark-Norway in 1479 and awarded in theology, law, and medicine, while the magister's degree was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate.
Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a degree
known as a doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark
and Norway both introduced the Dr. Phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing
the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while Uppsala University of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree Filosofie Doktor (fil. dr) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German Habilitation rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation.
The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment
as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the
British (higher) doctorates (DLitt, DSc). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD, the ph.d., in 1989; it formally replaced the Licentiate's
degree and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree;
officially, the ph.d. is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially,
it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate," as opposed to the dr.
phil., "the grand doctorate." Holders of a ph.d. degree are not entitled
to style themselves as "Dr."
Currently Denmark distinctions between the dr. phil. as the proper
doctorate and a higher degree than the ph.d., whereas in Norway, the
historically analogous dr. philos. degree is officially regarded as
equivalent to the new ph.d. Today, the Norwegian PhD degree is awarded
to candidates who have completed a supervised doctoral programme at an
institution,
while candidates with a master's degree who have conducted research on
their own may submit their work for a Dr. Philos. defence at a relevant
institution. PhD candidates must complete one trial lecture before they can defend their thesis, whereas Dr. Philos. candidates must complete two trial lectures.
In Sweden, the doctorate of philosophy was introduced at Uppsala University's Faculty of Philosophy in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish filosofie doktor
and commonly abbreviated fil. dr or FD. The degree represents the
traditional Faculty of Philosophy and encompasses subjects from biology,
physics, and chemistry, to languages, history, and social sciences,
being the highest degree in these disciplines. Sweden currently has two
research-level degrees, the Licentiate's degree, which is comparable to
the Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate's degree and now as
the ph.d., and the higher doctorate of philosophy, Filosofie Doktor. Some universities in Sweden also use the term teknologie doktor
for doctorates awarded by institutes of technology (for doctorates in
engineering or natural science related subjects such as materials
science, molecular biology, computer science etc.). The Swedish term
fil. dr is often also used as a translation of corresponding degrees
from e.g. Denmark and Norway.
Singapore
Singapore has six universities offering doctoral study opportunities: National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Management University, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore University of Technology and Design, and Singapore University of Social Sciences.
Spain
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Real Decreto (Royal Decree in Spanish) 99/2011 from the 2014/2015 academic year.
They are granted by a university on behalf of the King, and its diploma
has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a
National Registry of Theses called TESEO.
All doctoral programs are of a research nature. The studies
should include original results and can take a maximum of three years,
although this period can be extended under certain circumstances to 5
years.
The student must write their thesis presenting a new discovery or
original contribution to science. If approved by her or his "thesis
director (or directors)," the study will be presented to a panel of 3-5
distinguished scholars. Any doctor attending the public presentations is
allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on their research. If
approved, they will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted:
Unsatisfactory, Pass, Satisfactory, and Excellent. "Cum laude" (with all
honours, in Latin) denomination can be added to the Excellent ones if
all five members of the tribunal agree.
The social standing of doctors in Spain was evidenced by the fact that Philip III
let PhD holders to take seat and cover their heads during an act in the
University of Salamanca in which the King took part so as to recognise
their merits. This right to cover their heads in the presence of the
King is traditionally reserved in Spain to Grandees and Dukes.
The concession is remembered in solemn ceremonies held by the
University by telling Doctors to take seat and cover their heads as a
reminder of that royal leave.[93]
All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as
equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").
Ukraine
Starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukrainian: Доктор філософії)
is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is
awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific
knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. A PhD
degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine.
Upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue their
studies and get a post-doctoral degree called "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc.
Ukrainian: Доктор наук), which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine.
United Kingdom
Admission
Universities
admit applicants to PhD programs on a case-by-case basis; depending on
the university, admission is typically conditional on the prospective
student having completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper
second-class honours or a postgraduate master's degree but requirements
can vary.
In the case of the University of Oxford,
for example, "The one essential condition of being accepted … is
evidence of previous academic excellence, and of future potential." Some UK universities (e.g. Oxford)
abbreviate their Doctor of Philosophy degree as "DPhil", while most use
the abbreviation "PhD"; but these are stylistic conventions, and the
degrees are in all other respects equivalent. Commonly, students are
first accepted onto an MPhil or MRes
programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory
progress, this is sometimes referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate)
status. This is typically done after one or two years and the research
work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make
satisfactory progress, they may be offered the opportunity to write up
and submit for an MPhil degree,e.g. at King's College London and the University of Manchester. In many universities, the MPhil is also offered as a stand-alone research degree.
PhD students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences. This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about overseas terrorism and weapons proliferation.
Funding
In the United Kingdom, funding for PhD students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils (UK Research and Innovation - UKRI)or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend.
Tuition fees are charged at different rates for "Home/EU" and
"Overseas" students, generally £3,000–£6,000 per year for the former and
£9,000–14,500 for the latter (which includes EU citizens who have not
been normally resident in the EEA
for the last three years), although this can rise to over £16,000 at
elite institutions. Higher fees are often charged for laboratory-based
degrees. As of 2022/23,
the national indicative fee for PhD students is £4,596, increasing
annually, typically with inflation; there is no regulation of the fees
charged by institutions, but if they charge a higher fee they may not
require Research Council funded students to make up any difference
themselves.
As of 2022/23, the national minimum stipend for UKRI-funded students is £16,062 per year, increasing annually typically with inflation.
The period of funding for a PhD project is between three and four
years, depending on the research council and the decisions of individual
institutions, with extensions in funding of up to twelve months available to offset periods of absence for maternity leave, shared
parental leave, adoption leave, absences covered by a medical certificate, and extended
jury service.
PhD work beyond this may be unfunded or funded from other sources. A
very small number of scientific studentships are sometimes paid at a
higher rate – for example, in London, Cancer Research UK, the ICR and
the Wellcome Trust stipend rates start at around £19,000 and progress
annually to around £23,000 a year; an amount that is tax and national
insurance free. Research Council funding is distributed to Doctoral
Training Partnerships and Centres for Doctoral Training, who are
responsible for student selection, within the eligibility guidelines
established by the Research Councils.
The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council), for example,
explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or a master's degree) is required.
Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may
choose to undertake the degree part-time, thus reducing the tuition
fees. The tuition fee per annum for part-time PhD degrees are typically
50 - 60% of the equivalent full-time doctorate.
However, since the duration of a part-time PhD degree is longer than a
full-time degree, the overall cost may be the same or higher.
The part-time PhD degree option provides free time in which to earn
money for subsistence. Students may also take part in tutoring, work as
research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of
typically £12–14 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or
as a sole means of funding.
Completion
There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the program
and the thesis is submitted at the end of a three- to four-year program.
These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students.
With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended
for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is
rare.
For full-time PhDs, a 4-year time limit has now been fixed and
students must apply for an extension to submit a thesis past this point.
Since the early 1990s, British funding councils have adopted a policy
of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to
submit their theses in four years after achieving PhD-student status (or
pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in
subsequent years.
Inadvertently, this leads to significant pressure on the candidate to
minimise the scope of projects with a view on thesis submission,
regardless of quality, and discourage time spent on activities that
would otherwise further the impact of the research on the community
(e.g., publications in high-impact journals, seminars, workshops).
Furthermore, supervising staff are encouraged in their career
progression to ensure that the PhD students under their supervision
finalise the projects in three rather than the four years that the
program is permitted to cover. These issues contribute to an overall
discrepancy between supervisors and PhD candidates in the priority they
assign to the quality and impact of the research contained in a PhD
project, the former favouring quick PhD projects over several students
and the latter favouring a larger scope for their own ambitious project,
training, and impact.
There has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated
PhD programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These
courses include a Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which
consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects.
The PhD must then be completed within the next 3 years. As this includes
the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage
completion of both MRes and PhD within 4 years from commencement. These
programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills
than a standard PhD, and for the university, they are a means of
gaining an extra years' fees from public sources.
Other doctorates
In the United Kingdom, PhD degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as DLitt (Doctor of Letters) or DSc
(Doctor of Science), which may be granted on the recommendation of a
committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of
submitted (and usually published) research. However, some UK
universities still maintain the option of submitting a thesis for the
award of a higher doctorate.
Recent years have seen the introduction of professional
doctorates, which are the same level as PhDs but more specific in their
field.
Most tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a
taught component or a professional qualification. These are most notably
in the fields of engineering (EngD),
educational psychology (DEdPsych), occupational psychology (DOccPsych),
clinical psychology (DClinPsych), health psychology (DHealthPsy),
social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business
administration (DBA), and music (DMA). A more generic degree also used is DProf or ProfD.
These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of
smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000-word thesis
component, which together are officially considered equivalent to a PhD
degree.
United States
In the United States, the PhD degree is the highest academic degree
awarded by universities in most fields of study. There are more than
282 universities in the United States that award the PhD degree, and
those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well
as the rigor of their academic programs.
Requirements
Typically,
PhD programs require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in a
relevant field (and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's
degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation,
relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the
field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam
specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT).
Duration, age structure, statistics (US)
Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner.
As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate
education, there are significant individual differences in the time
taken to complete the degree. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD
program in the US will complete their degree within ten years,
approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13%
of students will continue on past ten years.
The median age of PhD recipients in the US is 32 years. While
many candidates are awarded their degree in their 20s, 6% of PhD
recipients in the US are older than 45 years.
The number of PhD diplomas awarded by US universities has
risen nearly every year since 1957, according to data compiled by the US
National Science Foundation. In 1957, US universities awarded 8,611 PhD
diplomas; 20,403 in 1967; 31,716 in 1977; 32,365 in 1987; 42,538 in
1997; 48,133 in 2007, and 55,006 in 2015.
Funding
PhD students at US universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. Many US PhD students work as teaching assistants or research assistants. Graduate schools increasingly
encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by
fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research
grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League
and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire
duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it. especially in the forms of tuition waivers/stipends.
USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics
Candidate of Science degree awarded by the State Higher Attestation Commission
The degree of Candidate of Sciences (Russian: кандидат наук, Kandidat Nauk) was the first advanced research qualification in the former USSR (it was introduced there in 1934) and some Eastern Bloc countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary)
and is still awarded in some post-Soviet states (Russian Federation,
Belarus, and others). According to "Guidelines for the recognition of
Russian qualifications in the other European countries,"
in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees (like Russian
Federation, some post-Soviet states, Germany, Poland, Austria and
Switzerland), should be considered for recognition at the level of the
first doctoral degree, and in countries with only one doctoral degree,
the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as
equivalent to this PhD degree.
Since most education systems only have one advanced research
qualification granting doctoral degrees or equivalent qualifications
(ISCED 2011, par.270), the degree of Candidate of Sciences
(Kandidat Nauk) of the former USSR countries is usually considered to
be at the same level as the doctorate or PhD degrees of those countries.
According to the Joint Statement by the Permanent Conference of
the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder of the
Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK), German Rectors' Conference (HRK) and the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation, the degree of Kandidat Nauk is recognised in Germany at the level of the German degree of Doktor and the degree of Doktor Nauk at the level of German Habilitation. The Russian degree of Kandidat Nauk is also officially recognised by the Government of the French Republic as equivalent to French doctorate.
According to the International Standard Classification of Education, for purposes of international educational statistics, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences)
belongs to ISCED level 8, or "doctoral or equivalent," together with
PhD, DPhil, DLitt, DSc, LLD, Doctorate, or similar. It is mentioned in
the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as an
equivalent to PhD belonging to this level. In the same way as PhD degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) allows its holders to reach the level of the Docent. The second doctorate (or post-doctoral degree) in some post-Soviet states called Doctor of Sciences (Russian: доктор наук, Doktor Nauk) is given as an example of second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates in ISCED 2011 (par.270) and is similar to Habilitation in Germany, Poland and several other countries. It constitutes a higher qualification compared to PhD as against the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) or Dublin Descriptors.
About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities study at the expense of budget funds. The average stipend in Russia (as of August 2011) is $430 a year ($35/month). The average tuition fee in graduate school is $2,000 per year.
PhD degree awarded by university
On 19 June 2013, for the first time in the Russian Federation,
defenses were held for the PhD degree awarded by universities, instead
of the Candidate of Sciences degree awarded by the State Supreme
Certification Commission.
Renat Yuldashev, the graduate of the Department of Applied Cybernetics
of the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of St. Petersburg State
University, was the first to defend his thesis in field of mathematics
according to new rules for the PhD SPbSU degree.
For the defense procedure in the field of mathematics, it was
used the experience of joint Finnish-Russian research and educational
program organized in 2007 by the Faculty of Information Technology of
the University of Jyväskylä and the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics
of St. Petersburg State University: co-chairs of the program —
N. Kuznetsov, G. Leonov, P. Neittaanmäki, were organizers of the first
defenses and co-supervisors of dissertations.
Models of supervision
At
some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise
PhD studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics
who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson, and Parry (1997).
Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in
research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they
term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples
such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on
the benefits that a PhD candidate may gain if they publish work;
students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from
their supervisors.
Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has
distinguished between two models of supervision:
The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique;
The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid
and dynamic change in the PhD process. These two models were first
distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005).
Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may
have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations
that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987;
Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of PhD supervision. Similar expectations
are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision
(Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005).
PhD Graduates in the workforce
The number of PhD graduates has grown substantially in many countries since 2000,
PhD Graduates still represent a relatively small, elite group within
most countries — around 1.1% of adults among OECD countries.
Some countries notably Slovenia, Switzerland and Luxembourg have higher
numbers of PhD Graduates per capita as illustrated by this OECD figure
below. For Slovenia, this is due to a fact, that MSc degrees before
Bologna Process are ranked in the same level of education as PhD. Taking
that into consideration, Slovenia has 1.4% of PhD graduates, which is
comparable to the average in OECD and EU-23 countries.
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