Land-use planning is the process of regulating the use of land in an effort to promote more desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. Goals of land use planning may include environmental conservation, restraint of urban sprawl, minimization of transport costs, prevention of land use conflicts, and a reduction in exposure to pollutants. By and large, the uses of land determine the diverse socioeconomic activities that occur in a specific area, the patterns of human behavior they produce, and their impact on the environment.
In urban planning, land use planning seeks to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land use conflicts. Governments use land use planning to manage the development of land within their jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. To this end, it is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land use options. Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods, districts, cities, or any defined planning area.
In the United States, the terms land use planning, regional planning, urban planning, and urban design are often used interchangeably, and will depend on the state, county, and/or project in question. Despite confusing nomenclature, the essential function of land use planning remains the same whatever term is applied. The Canadian Institute of Planners offers a definition that land use planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities. The American Planning Association states that the goal of land use planning is to further the welfare of people and their communities by creating convenient, equitable, healthful, efficient, and attractive environments for present and future generations.
History
Land use planning often leads to land use regulation, which typically encompasses zoning.
Zoning regulates the types of activities that can be accommodated on a
given piece of land, as well as the amount of space devoted to those
activities, and the ways that buildings may be situated and shaped.
The ambiguous nature of the term “planning”, as it relates to
land use, is historically tied to the practice of zoning. Zoning in the
US came about in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to protect the
interests of property owners. The practice was found to be
constitutionally sound by the Supreme Court decision of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. in 1926.
Soon after, the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act gave authority to
the states to regulate land use. Even so, the practice remains
controversial today.
The “taking clause” of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from taking private property for public use without just compensation. The case of Dolan v. City of Tigard demonstrated the criteria that determine the threshold of what is considered taking.
One interpretation of the taking clause is that any restriction on the
development potential of land through zoning regulation is a “taking”. A
deep-rooted anti-zoning sentiment exists in America, that no one has
the right to tell another what he can or cannot do with his land.
Ironically, although people are often averse to being told how to
develop their own land, they tend to expect the government to intervene
when a proposed land use is undesirable.
Conventional zoning has not typically regarded the manner in
which buildings relate to one another or the public spaces around them,
but rather has provided a pragmatic system for mapping jurisdictions
according to permitted land use. This system, combined with the interstate highway system, widespread availability of mortgage loans, growth in the automobile industry, and the over-all post-World War II economic expansion, destroyed most of the character that gave distinctiveness to American cities. The urban sprawl
that most US cities began to experience in the mid-twentieth century
was, in part, created by a flat approach to land use regulations. Zoning
without planning created unnecessarily exclusive zones. Thoughtless
mapping of these zones over large areas was a big part of the recipe for
suburban sprawl.
It was from the deficiencies of this practice that land use planning
developed, to envision the changes that development would cause and
mitigate the negative effects of such change.
Suburban development near Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States
As America grew and sprawl was rampant, the much-loved America of the
older towns, cities, or streetcar suburbs essentially became illegal
through zoning.
Unparalleled growth and unregulated development changed the look and
feel of landscapes and communities. They strained commercial corridors
and affected housing prices, causing citizens to fear a decline in the
social, economic and environmental attributes that defined their quality
of life.
Zoning regulations became politically contentious as developers,
legislators, and citizens struggled over altering zoning maps in a way
that was acceptable to all parties. Land use planning practices evolved
as an attempt to overcome these challenges. It engages citizens and
policy-makers to plan for development with more intention, foresight,
and community focus than had been previously used.
A broader description and application of land use planning
Description of land use planning
Land
use planning is defined as: the process by which optimum forms of land
use and management are indicated, considering the biophysical,
technological, social, economic and political conditions of a particular
territory. The objective of planning land use is to influence, control
or direct changes in the use of land, so that it is dedicated to the
most beneficial use, while maintaining the quality of the environment
and promoting conservation of the land resources. The territorial
diagnosis and the generation of alternatives of management and
environmental protection for the planning of the use of the land
produces the indispensable knowledge necessary for the formulation of
the policies of use, contributing to the search of competitive and
sustainable productive and extractive activities and systems. The
methodological process of land use planning contributes to: orienting
the location of economic and social activities regarding the aptitude of
the land and providing solutions to conflicts of use; indicate the base
of natural resources that should remain and protected areas; point out
the areas exposed to natural hazards and their management; identify
sustainable productive and extractive activities and systems; guide the
planning of land uses and indicate the areas that require land
adaptation or recovery projects.
Planning Process and Parties Involved
In
most countries, the local municipal council/local government, the body
responsible of the Environment and oftentimes the national government
assume all the functions of land use planning; among them the
corresponding function to territorial ordering (OT). For this reason,
the highlighted bodies have among other responsibilities the promotion
of the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources,
establishing policies, criteria, tools and procedures of the most
appropriate efficient and sustainable territorial order in coordination
with any other relevant corresponding entities such as construction
companies and the public.
Application of Land Use Planning
- "Developing cities and towns": Land use planning is an important component of city planning. The nature of cities required to the most beneficial use in terms of maximization of economic factors and promoting convenience, while maintaining the quality of the environment and promoting conservation of the land. The only way to achieve this is the utilization of the elements of land use planning.
- "The concept of Zoning": Zoning is the process by which areas of land are split into zones by appropriate establishments within which several users are assigned to each zone. Therefore, this makes zoning very important modus operandi in land use planning where it is used to design urban areas in many countries (Lewis-Roger, 1987). The topic of zoning is considered within the context of land use planning and design as a systemic perception. Zoning is used as a fundamental component of territorial planning, which is incorporated in the stages of the logical model of regional development. In the process of zoning, the actor divides land into units of different sizes, shapes and locations, according to the characteristics of the terrain and the corporality of a culture. The actor who generates a multiplicity of spaces using zoning, based on global spatial unit and the preferences of user who uses these spaces in multiple use form, decomposes his vision of it into four different dimensions namely; deontic, cognitive, expressive and aesthetics functions. Each of these dimensions represents land in different forms, intensities, positions and areas, which may not coincide with each other. The deontic space is that of the transforming actions of the world, of the duty to be and to do. The cognitive space is apprehended by the faculties of knowledge from the senses to the reason, such as the ecological and technological spaces. The aesthetic space refers to the scopes of feel and beauty. The expressive or indexical space corresponds to the internal and cultural expression of the identity of the person who organizes the space. Often, a fifth space is included, that is, the administrative space, which concerns the positioning of the legal, authoritative and legislative base being planned. Zoning should not be considered as the end in itself, but only as a means of approximation in relation to geographical reality. Instead of imposing pre-established categories, it is about looking for landscape discontinuities. The category system (taxonomy) must allow a deepening (level) of the landscapes according to their scale. For each order of phenomena there are thresholds of manifestation and “extinction” that by themselves can justify the systematic differentiation of landscapes into hierarchical units. The study and zoning of the coverage and land use requires first defining the concepts of land, coverage and use in order to avoid the problems of interpretation associated with the management of these concepts. The concept of land is defined as an entity formed by the mutual interaction of living and non-living nature in a recognizable portion of the Earth's surface. It is a more geographical than edaphological definition. The earth is conceived as the result of the integration of biophysical and socioeconomic elements whose interrelation generates certain particular spatial units or landscapes, therefore, land and landscape are considered in this guide as synonyms. Land cover, on the other hand, is defined as the different features that cover the land, such as water, forest, other types of vegetation, bare rocks or sand, man-made structures, etc. In general, these are the traits that can be directly observed in aerial photographs and frequently in satellite images. The concept of use, applies to the employment that man gives to different types of coverage, cyclically or permanently to meet his material or spiritual needs. Basically, this is where the need for zoning arises.
Conditions Necessary for Land Use Planning
- Community relation: For any land planning activity to be commenced the involved actors must involve the community or the member of the public in order to put into consideration their opinions on the proposed land planning initiatives. After all, the land is being planned so that the public can enjoy the benefits that comes from land use planning.
- Government and legal support: the government can support land use planning initiatives in a myriad of ways. The first is by financing or subsidizing a section of land use planning activities. The second way is by reducing bureaucracy and administration bottlenecks that comes with obtaining permits and licenses.
Pros and Cons of Land-Use Planning
Pros
- Land use planning is an important growth framework: certainly, prosperous urban areas have a vision that they must follow through a framework to achieve a development in a well-ordered way. Hence, land use planning provides this framework.
- A well planned urban area is a well-prepared urban area: Anticipating the future allows for better preparedness. Indeed, the presence of natural phenomenon that represents a threat to human life activities implies a limitation in the use of land. It is necessary then, to plan the use of the land taking into account its limitation in order to allow the containment of natural phenomenon and its manifestations either by restricting the presence of human life and/or activities, adapting infrastructure conditions in a manner that reduces its vulnerability to natural phenomenon or implementing plans conducive to risk mitigation. The absence of territorial planning plans, the lack of definition of areas exposed to threats and the lack of studies on natural phenomena that might bring threats, ensure an increase in the number and magnitude of disasters of natural origin. The process of land use planning developed putting into consideration this aspects, allows the identification, location and evaluation of areas exposed to natural phenomena, hence allowing the implementation of measures that guarantee risk mitigation.
- Good land use planning positively impacts the development of urban economy.
- Promote the national territorial order and economic ecological zoning as a support for the conservation, use and sustainable use of natural resources and biological diversity, as well as the orderly occupation of the territory.
- Incorporate the analysis of natural and anthropic risk in territorial planning processes, as well as adaptation measures to climate change.
- Promote mechanisms to prevent the settlement of populations and the development of socio-economic activities in areas with high potential for risks in the face of natural and anthropic hazards.
- Promote territorial planning as a basis for concerted development plans and border development, in the management of watersheds and coastal marine areas.
- Guides the actions of regional and local governments for the efficient fulfillment of their functions in this area of land use planning.
Cons
- The cost of land use planning is usually high, generally because of Malinvestment and the non-anticipation of Technology.
- Land use planning is often plagued by bureaucracy and administrative bottlenecks.
- Land use planning takes a lot of time.
- Administrative Bullying used to circumvents Eminent Domain is facilitated.
- Locally and privately applied remedies to problems such as flood control and reforestation are discouraged.
Land use planning and environmental sustainability
In view of sustainable development,
land use planning is seen as a political and technical-administrative
decision-making process agreed with social, economic, political and
technical factors, for orderly occupation and sustainable use of the
land under development. On the other hand, it seeks regulation and
promotion of the location and sustainable development of human
settlements, economic and social activities, and spatial physical
development, based on the identification of potentialities and
limitations that consider environmental, economic, sociocultural,
institutional and geopolitical criteria.
By and large, these parameters are put in place in order to make sure
that the environment is protected during land use or land development.
Indeed, based on the recommendations of the United Nations in its Habitat conference,
land is assigned a high importance for the development of human life as
it is the fundamental support for its permanence and development, this
being the most important objective of the policy of human settlements.
That is, the land resource is recognized as an essential element, which
supports the social, political and economic formation of society. As
mentioned earlier, the use of land refers to the occupation of a certain
area according to its agrological capacity and therefore its
development potential, it is classified according to its location as
urban or rural, it represents a fundamental element for the development
of the city and its inhabitants since it is from these that its urban
structure is formed and therefore its functionality is defined. For this
reason, there is a need to ensure sustainability in order to ensure the
we continue to enjoy the benefits that come from urban planning and to
ensure that future generations will continue enjoying these benefits.
To guarantee this, land use planning come into the fold. In a
broader sense, this is a tool through which State defines the type of
use land will have within a settlement, e.g. a city, while also
determining the guidelines for its use in order to ensure effectiveness
and sustainability. Land use, in this case, is assigned on the basis on
its physical and functional characteristics that they have in the urban
structure, and with the aim of occupying the space in an orderly manner
and according to their physical capacity (occupation of areas suitable
for urban development and environmental sustainability), which finally
it translates into a harmonious growth of the city. This tool is
structured through a planning system at the national and local level,
which establishes the general guidelines that should be taken into
account for the development of urban development. Here, the authorities
involved might formulate a number of restrictions to guarantee
sustainability, for example, banning land development in riparian zones
or in national parks. Basically, the goal here is to protect the
environment.
Types of planning
Various
types of planning have emerged over the course of the 20th century.
Below are the six main typologies of planning, as defined by David
Walters in his book, Designing Communities (2007):
- Traditional or comprehensive planning: Common in the US after World War II, characterized by politically neutral experts with a rational view of the new urban development. Focused on producing clear statements about the form and content of new development.
- Systems planning: 1950s–1970s, resulting from the failure of comprehensive planning to deal with the unforeseen growth of post World War II America. More analytical view of the planning area as a set of complex processes, less interested in a physical plan.
- Democratic planning: 1960s. Result of societal loosening of class and race barriers. Gave more citizens a voice in planning for future of community.
- Advocacy and equity planning: 1960s & 70s. Strands of democratic planning that sought specifically to address social issues of inequality and injustice in community planning.
- Strategic planning: 1960s-present. Recognizes small-scale objectives and pragmatic real-world constraints.
- Environmental planning: 1960s-present. Developed as many of the ecological and social implications of global development were first widely understood.
- Tenure responsive planning: 2015-onwards. It recognizes that land use planning should be collaborative but with the purpose of tenure security improvement. This is a hybrid approach whereby traditional, advocacy, democratic and bottom-up efforts are merged in such a way that they focus towards tenure security outcomes.
Today, successful planning involves a balanced mix of analysis of the
existing conditions and constraints; extensive public engagement;
practical planning and design; and financially and politically feasible
strategies for implementation.
Current processes include a combination of strategic and
environmental planning. It is becoming more widely understood that any
sector of land has a certain capacity for supporting human, animal, and
vegetative life in harmony, and that upsetting this balance has dire
consequences on the environment. Planners and citizens often take on an
advocacy role during the planning process in an attempt to influence
public policy.
Due to a host of political and economic factors, governments are slow
to adopt land use policies that are congruent with scientific data
supporting more environmentally sensitive regulations.
Since the 1990s, the activist/environmentalist approach to planning has grown into the Smart Growth movement, characterized by the focus on more sustainable and less environmentally damaging forms of development.
Moreover, there is changes on the requirements of land use planning
overtime. For example, whilst most of the urban planners suggest the
distance from the landfill that a housing estate should be built, they
must also take wind direction into consideration.
Aerial view of Rosslyn-Ballston corridor in Arlington, Virginia. High density, mixed use development is concentrated within ¼–½ mile from the Rosslyn, Court House and Clarendon Washington Metro stations (shown in red), with limited density outside that area. This photograph is taken from the United States Environmental Protection Agency website describing Arlington's award for overall excellence in smart growth in 2002 — the first ever granted by the agency.
Smart
growth supports the integration of mixed land uses into communities as a
critical component of achieving better places to live. Putting uses in
close proximity to one another has benefits for transportation
alternatives to driving, security, community cohesiveness, local
economies, and general quality of life issues. Smart growth strives to
provide a means for communities to alter the planning context which
currently renders mixed land uses illegal in most of the country.
Methods
Professional planners
work in the public sector for governmental and non-profit agencies, and
in the private sector for businesses related to land, community, and
economic development. Through research, design, and analysis of data, a
planner's work is to create a plan for some aspect of a community. This
process typically involves gathering public input to develop the vision
and goals for the community.
A charrette
is a facilitated planning workshop often used by professional planners
to gather information from their clients and the public about the
project at hand. Charettes involve a diverse set of stakeholders in the
planning process, to ensure that the final plan comprehensively
addresses the study area.
Geographic Information Systems,
or GIS, is a very useful and important tool in land use planning. It
uses aerial photography to show land parcels, topography, street names,
and other pertinent information. GIS systems contain layers of graphic
information and their relational databases that may be projected into
maps that allow the user to view a composite of a specific area, adding
an array of graphically oriented decision making tools to the planning
process.
A transect,
as used in planning, is a hierarchical scale of environmental zones
that define a land area by its character, ranging from rural, preserved
land to urban centers. As a planning methodology, the transect is used
as a tool for managing growth and sustainability by planning land use
around the physical character of the land. This allows a community to
plan for growth while preserving the natural and historical nature of
their environment.
Natural ecology and historical identity of the city are matched to its topography in the Urban Landscape System approach that intends to mitigate effects of climate change and improve city branding through the ontology of place.
Basis of land use planning authority in the United States.
Police power
is the basis for land use planning authority in the United States. This
authority is usually delegated by state governments to local
governments, including counties and cities. It is these local
governments that most frequently exercise police power in land use
planning matters. The regulation of land use based on police power is
distinct from the taking of private property by the government through
the power of eminent domain. If the regulation of land use is done under
the authority of the police power, the private property owner isn't
typically entitled to compensation as they would be if property was
taken under the power of eminent domain. The court decision in the case Commonwealth v. Alger was related to land use planning and dealt with the construction of a wharf on privately owned tidelands around Boston Harbor.
Practical Examples of Land Use Planning
Land Use Planning in Milan city
Milan
city is located in northern Italy. It is the second most populous city
in the country after Rome with a population of over 4 million (The CBD
and its metropolitan Boroughs).
Every area in Milan is a segment that starts from the center and
reaches the city limits, so that central areas and peripheral areas are
part of the same area. In Milan, zones are not identified by names but
numbers. The city hall area 1 of Milan includes the entire historical
center, starting from the geographical center of Milan in Piazza Duomo
up to the Cerchia dei Bastioni. The town hall area 2 goes from Piazza
della Repubblica to Crescenzago, Turro, Greco and Precotto. The town
hall 3 goes from Porta Venezia to Lambrate, passing through Città Studi.
Milan, Italy.
The town hall area 4 goes from Porta Vittoria to the Forlanini park,
also including Porta Romana, Corvetto and Santa Giulia. The town hall 5
goes from Porta Ticinese to the Agricultural Park, passing through
Chiesa Rossa and Gratosoglio. The town hall 6 goes from the Darsena, up
to Barona, Lorenteggio and Giambellino. The city hall area 7 goes from
Porta Magenta to Baggio and Figino passing through San Siro. The town
hall zone 8 goes from Porta Volta to Quarto Oggiaro, passing through QT8
and Gallaratese. And lastly, the town hall area 9 goes from Porta Nuova
to Niguarda and Bovisa. The idea here, is to allow members of the nine
zones to get easy access to the CBD. Effective measures have been put in
place to limit the impact of human activates on the many water bodies
in this city such as restricting land development in riparian areas. In
fact, the drive for the establishment of the city on the land where it
stands was easy accessibility to water.
The Future of Land Use Planning
Due
to the increasing discussions in the issues of climate change and
global warming, the future of land use planning will be dominated by
environmental sustainability themes more than economic convenience.
