Religious adherents vary widely in their views on birth control. This can be true even between different branches of one faith, as in the case of Judaism.
Some religious believers find that their own opinions of the use of
birth control differ from the beliefs espoused by the leaders of their
faith, and many grapple with the ethical dilemma of what is conceived as
"correct action" according to their faith, versus personal
circumstance, reason, and choice.
Christianity
Among Christian denominations today there are a large variety of
positions towards contraception. The Roman Catholic Church has
disallowed artificial contraception for as far back as one can
historically trace. Contraception was also officially disallowed by
non-Catholic Christians until 1930 when the Anglican Communion changed its policy. Soon after, according to Flann Campbell, most Protestant groups came to accept the use of modern contraceptives as a matter of what they considered Biblically allowable freedom of conscience.
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church is opposed to artificial contraception and all sexual acts outside of the context of marital intercourse. This belief dates back to the first centuries of Christianity.
Such acts are considered intrinsically disordered because of the
belief that all licit sexual acts must be both unitive (express love),
and procreative (open to procreation). The only form of birth control permitted is abstinence. Modern scientific methods of "periodic abstinence" such as natural family planning (NFP) were counted as a form of abstinence by Pope Paul VI in his 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae. The following is the condemnation of contraception:
Therefore We base Our words on the first principles of a
human and Christian doctrine of marriage when We are obliged once more
to declare that the direct interruption of the generative process
already begun and, above all, all direct abortion, even for therapeutic
reasons, are to be absolutely excluded as lawful means of regulating the
number of children. Equally to be condemned, as the magisterium of the
Church has affirmed on many occasions, is direct sterilization, whether
of the man or of the woman, whether permanent or temporary.
Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of,
or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent
procreation—whether as an end or as a means.
A number of other documents provide more insight into the Church's
position on contraception. The commission appointed to study the
question in the years leading up to Humanae Vitae issued two
unofficial reports, a so-called "majority report" which described
reasons the Catholic Church should change its teaching on contraception,
signed by 61 of 64 scholars assigned to the pontifical commission, and a
"minority report" which reiterated the reasons for upholding the
traditional Catholic view on contraception.
In 1997, the Vatican released a document entitled "Vademecum for
Confessors" (2:4) which states "[t]he Church has always taught the
intrinsic evil of contraception." Furthermore, many Church Fathers condemned the use of contraception.
The 1987 document Donum Vitae opposes in-vitro fertilization on grounds that it is harmful to embryos and separates procreation from union of the spouses. Later on, the 2008 instruction Dignitas Personae denounces embryonic manipulations and new methods of contraception.
Roderick Hindery reported that a number of Western Catholics have
voiced significant disagreement with the Church's stance on
contraception. Among them, dissident theologian Charles Curran criticized the stance of Humanae vitae on artificial birth control. In 1968, the Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops issued what many interpreted as a dissenting document, the Winnipeg Statement,
in which the bishops recognized that a number of Canadian Catholics
found it "either extremely difficult or even impossible to make their
own all elements of this doctrine" (that of Humanae vitae). Additionally, in 1969, they reasserted the Catholic principle of primacy of conscience,
a principle that they said should be properly interpreted. They
insisted that "a Catholic Christian is not free to form his conscience
without consideration of the teaching of the magisterium, in the particular instance exercised by the Holy Father in an encyclical letter". According to the American Enterprise Institute,
78% of American Catholics say they believe the Church should allow
Catholics to use birth control, though other polls reflect different
numbers.
According to Stephen D. Mumford, the Vatican's
opposition towards birth control continues to this day and has been a
major influence on United States policies concerning the problem of
population growth and unrestricted access to birth control.
However, in December 2018, in a responsum (a reply by a Curial
department that is intended to settle a question or dispute, but that is
not a papal document), the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF), under its Prefect, Cardinal Luis Ladaria Ferrer,
S.J., stated that if the uterus can be found, with moral certainty, to
not be able to ever carry a fertilized ovum to the point of viability,
that a hysterectomy could be performed, because under that very narrow
circumstance it is considered the removal of a failed organ and not per
se a sterilization, since viability is not possible. If a hysterectomy is only done under this circumstance, it does not represent a shift in church teaching.
Protestantism
Author and FamilyLife Today
radio host Dennis Rainey suggests four categories as useful in
understanding current Protestant attitudes concerning birth control.
These are the "children in abundance" group, such as Quiverfull adherents who view all birth control and natural family planning
as wrong; the "children in managed abundance" group, which accept only
natural family planning; the "children in moderation" group which
accepts prudent use of a wide range of contraceptives; and, the "no
children" group which sees itself as within their Biblical rights to
define their lives around non-natal concerns.
Meanwhile, some Protestant movements, such as Focus on the Family, view contraception use outside of marriage as encouragement to promiscuity.
Sex is a powerful drive, and for most of human history it was firmly
linked to marriage and childbearing. Only relatively recently has the
act of sex commonly been divorced from marriage and procreation. Modern
contraceptive inventions have given many an exaggerated sense of safety
and prompted more people than ever before to move sexual expression
outside the marriage boundary.
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
"permits the use of certain contraceptive practices within marriage for
the purpose of spacing children, enhancing the expression of marital
love, and protecting health."
Some Hindu
scriptures include advice on what a couple should do to promote
conception—thus providing contraceptive advice to those who want it. The
Mahabharata
mentions that killing an embryo is a sin. It also mentions in the story
of King Yayati that a man solicited by a woman who is fertile and
doesn't grant her wishes is regarded as a killer of the embryo.
From this one could infer that contraception is also equivalent to
killing an embryo and would be regarded as sin. However, most Hindus
accept that there is a duty to have a family during the householder
stage of life, and so are unlikely to use contraception to avoid having
children altogether. The Dharma
(doctrine of the religious and moral codes of Hindus) emphasizes the
need to act for the sake of the good of the world. Some Hindus,
therefore, believe that producing more children than the environment can
support goes against this Hindu code. Although fertility is important,
conceiving more children than can be supported is treated as violating
the Ahimsa (nonviolent rule of conduct).
Because India
has such a large and dense population, much of the discussion of birth
control has focused on the environmental issue of overpopulation rather
than more personal ethics, and birth control is not a major ethical
issue.
Islam
The Qur'an
does not make any explicit statements about the morality of
contraception, but contains statements encouraging procreation. The
Islamic prophet Muhammad also is reported to have said "marry and procreate".
Coitus interruptus,
a primitive form of birth control, was a known practice at the time of
Muhammad, and his companions engaged in it. Muhammad knew about this,
but never advised or preached against it.
Muslim scholars have extended the example of coitus interruptus, by analogy, to declaring permissible other forms of contraception, subject to three conditions.
As offspring are the right of both the husband and the wife, the birth control method should be used with both parties' consent.
The method should not cause permanent sterility.
The method should not otherwise harm the body.
Ahmadiyya Muslims believe birth control is prohibited if resorted to for fear of financial strain.
Judaism
The Jewish view on birth control currently varies between the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform
branches of Judaism. Among Orthodox Judaism, use of birth control has
been considered only acceptable for use in certain circumstances, for
example, when the couple already has two children or if they are both in
school. However, it is more complex than that. The biblical law of
being "fruitful" and "multiplying" is viewed as one that applies only to
men, and women have no commandment to have children. This is the reason
why women are the ones to choose a form of contraception that they wish
to use (i.e. spermicide, oral contraception, intrauterine device,
etc.), while males don't. Generally speaking, when Orthodox Jewish
couples contemplate the use of contraceptives, they generally consult a rabbi who evaluates the need for the intervention and which method is preferable from a halachic
point of view. Including the previously mentioned reasons (already
having children, student status, etc.) there are many other reasons for a
rabbi to grant a couple permission to use contraception. In many modern
Orthodox communities, it is recommended for young newlywed couples to
wait a year before having a child so as to strengthen their marital
foundation and their relationship before bringing children into the
home. This is because children generally require a strong parental unit,
and bring challenges and difficult decisions which can be a heavier
burden on the marriage itself if the parents are not functioning
together well. Since marriage is a sacred relationship of the highest
importance in Judaism, couples are always counseled to behave and live
in a manner that constantly works to uphold a happy and loving home;
this may include planning to slightly delay having children when the
couple has had a speedy dating and marriage timeline (as is common in
Orthodoxy when many couples abstain from premarital sex).
Conservative Judaism, while generally encouraging its members to
follow the traditional Jewish views on birth control has been more
willing to allow greater exceptions regarding its use to fit better
within modern society. Reform Judaism has generally been the most
liberal with regard to birth control allowing individual followers to
use their own judgment in what, if any, birth control methods they might
wish to employ. Jews who follow halakha
based on the Talmudic tradition of law will not have sex during the
11–14 days after a women begins menstruating. This precludes them from
utilizing some forms of "natural birth control" such as the "Calendar-based contraceptive methods" which are relatively unobjectionable to other religious groups.
The introduction of oral contraception, or "the pill," in the
1960s and the intrauterine device did not cause a big uprising in the
Jewish community as it did in other religious communities due to the
understanding of their great benefit and no strict association with
their availability and greater promiscuity, as has been the fear in
other religions.
Buddhism
Buddhist
attitudes to contraception are based on the idea that it is wrong to
kill for any reason. The most common Buddhist view on birth control is
that contraception is acceptable if it prevents conception, but that
contraceptives that work by stopping the development of a fertilized egg
are wrong and should not be used.
Buddhists believe that life begins (or more technically: a consciousness
arises) when the egg is fertilised. That is why some birth control
methods, such as the copper IUD, which act by killing the fertilised egg
and preventing implantation are unacceptable since they harm the
consciousness which has already become embodied.
Bahá'í
Bahá'ís
do not "condemn the practice of birth control or...confirm it,"
although they see procreation as an essential part of marriage and
oppose contraception which violates the spirit of that provision.
The purpose of sexuality education curriculum in Europe is to facilitate adolescents
to gain knowledge, attitudes, skills and values to make appropriate and
healthy choices in their sexual behavior, thus preventing them from sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and HPV, teenage or unwanted pregnancies, and from domestic and sexual violence, contributing to a greater society. While European educators and policy makers recognize the benefits of sexuality education as being essential in the realm of sexual health,
the content and approach of the curriculum have undergone significant
changes over time and differ among each European country. Influenced by politics,
as well as social and religious movements, European educators and
policy makers recognize the struggle to find common criteria of
sexuality education curriculum.
Common Sex Education Curricula
Researchers identify the most common delivery of sexuality education curriculum as being through a biology, relationship, and ideological focus.
In this form of curriculum, practiced through a moral and informative
approach by a teacher’s instruction, attention is directed towards the
reproductive and physical aspects of sexuality education rather than the emotional and social aspects. While this approach is identified as the most common form of sexuality education in Europe, Europe is not limited to this practice. With a total of twenty seven countries within the European Union, a wide variety of practices are implemented in an attempt to address and/or ignore sexuality education.
European policy makers and educators recognize the need for an
implementation of an ideal curriculum for European countries to adopt,
while distinguishing the political, social, and religious movements that
hinder this action.
The Safe Project
The Safe Project was introduced by a coalition of European health organizations including the IPPF European Network, WHO Regional Office for Europe, and Lund University,
in 2004 in response to European policy makers and educators speaking
out about the political, social, and religious struggles encountered
when implementing sexuality education curriculum in Europe.
The SAFE project conducted extensive research, implemented advocacy,
engaged the youth, and created a greater recognition among public health
organizations of the sexual rights of European youth as well as the
creation of a model curriculum, providing an outline of the ideal sexuality education curriculum to be practiced within the European Union. This model of sexuality education curriculum was charted in a ninety eight page product entitled The Reference Guide to Sexuality Education in Europe, selling thousands of copies to public health organizations and journals, as well as various books within academia.
The Model Sex Education Curricula
The ideal sexuality education curriculum within the European Union,
as proposed by the SAFE Project, is one that would be provided for
varying ages of students, from the primary to the secondary level. A multi-dimensional staff including public health professionals, school instructors with knowledge in the sciences, and non-governmental organizations, would be responsible for providing instruction in an interactive approach.
Educators recognize the benefits of health organizations and agencies
not only as offering a more emotional and social approach to sexuality education, but also expertise in recognizing issues among youth such as indications of sexual abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy. Similarly, non-government organizations(NGOs)
provide students as well as the public with private counseling,
sexuality seminars, public health campaigns, as well as peer-led
informational groups, in which they are able to step outside of a
strictly lecture and informational curriculum in sexuality education and accommodate the personal needs of European youth.[2][page needed]
While the ideal curriculum would be altered to accommodate the needs of
its audience, its goal is to inform students on the topic of sexuality,
raising awareness and therefore allowing students to make healthier
decisions in regards to sexuality and relationship activity as well as
European youth distinguishing their sexual rights. Younger audiences within the primary setting would be instructed by their classroom teacher in areas of puberty, sexual development, and bullying while secondary audiences would be instructed by a multi-dimensional staff in the topical areas of racism, homophobia, sexual violence, abstinence, safe sex, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy and contraceptives, as well as the biological, emotional, and social effects of sexuality.
Complications
Several complications are associated with the implementation of an ideal sexuality education
curriculum including the area and diversity of each European country,
variances in political and religious views, and a lack of
sustainability.
The area in which a country is located can affect religious and
political beliefs, as well as resources and access to health education, similarly the idea of diversity and the exposure to information and resources as well.
Politics and religion are two controversial topics that both have strong oppositions to sexuality education.
With strong oppositions and public protests, political and religious
affiliated organizations voice their negative opinions of a sexuality education curriculum that informs youth of sexual resources and options concerning contraception and abortion. With sexuality education not being mandatory in all twenty seven countries of the European Union and the controversial opposition of political and religious organizations, policy makers are unable to make an ideal sexuality education curriculum concrete.
A lack of sustainability within sexuality education
curriculum is also an issue addressed by European policy makers and
educators. Upon a country acknowledging the benefits, as well as a need
for sexuality education, they implement the ideal sexuality education curriculum in which they see positive results in the decline of sexually transmitted diseases as well as teenage and unplanned pregnancies.
Upon government officials recognizing the positive results of the
curriculum, the program is eliminated due to the significant
improvements and the mindset that the problem is fixed and therefore the
curriculum is no longer needed. With governmental cuts in sexuality education
programs as well as the funding provided for those programs, policy
makers and educators face great difficulty in the implementation of a
continent-wide curriculum.
Corrupted Children
A child's mindset is shaped in numerous ways whether it is from their:
parents
environment
experiences
As they grow, sex education will become a topic in their life that
they will be curious about. Depending on how they are raised, they will
have many questions or no questions at all. This article explains sexual
innocence and how children flourish as adults.
"Sexuality education debates and policy may sometimes posit young people as categorically less
able, less intelligent, and less responsible than their adult counterparts. In the United
States, young people’s relationships are at times denigrated as no more than puppy love,
their sexual desires simply signs of raging hormones, and their sexual behaviors transgressions
to control. Within this adult-leaning framework, young people are at their best when
sexually innocent. At their most vulnerable, they are on the verge of succumbing to sexual
danger; and, at their most corrupting, they are the source of significant risks to others."
From a more liberal standpoint, the sexuality of a teenager is
complex. Truly age of consent cannot be put on the liberal or the
conservative side of a liberal to conservative spectrum. However,
liberals will debate that teenage sexuality should be expressed more
often than the conservative side.
The
IPPF European Network strives for support and access to sexual and
reproductive health services, while serving as a voice for the sexual
rights of European individuals globally.
The WHO Regional Office for Europe advocates for public health,
implements programs for disease prevention and control, addresses
health threats, responds to health emergencies, and sustains and
supports the implementation of public health policies.
Lund University is one of Europe’s most renowned universities, as well as one of the top one-hundred universities globally.
Sexuality education in Belgium
is a mandatory practice that offers schools a great amount of autonomy
on the curriculum that they offer. Majority of the curriculum offered to
students is mandated by school instructors calling upon outside
resources such as health organizations or facilities for guidance.
Topics discussed within the curriculum are gender, physical development, sexual orientation, intimacy, morality, and risk prevention.
The curriculum of sexuality education within Cyprus is referred to as Sexuality Education and Interpersonal Relationship Education. The curriculum is taught through the instruction of biology, home economics, and religion educators in which a great emphasis is placed on the importance of family relationships and development, rather than sexuality.
Sexuality Education has been mandatory since 1970 in Denmark
in which school staff and educations have great autonomy within the
curriculum. The curriculum is delivered through a biological and Danish
focus, in which topics discussed include contraceptives, pregnancy, and puberty.
Estonia
Sexuality education within Estonia is offered through the lens of human studies in formal classroom settings, in which an instructor focuses on a personal relationships curriculum.
Sexuality education in Ireland
is a mandatory practice as of 2003, however parents are able to remove
their children from the curriculum, focusing on a variety of topics in
the areas of relational, social, and personal health.
Italy
Italy, with great influence from the Catholic Church, has created a sexuality education curriculum taught through formal classroom instruction, focusing on the biological aspects of sex and behavior.
Sexuality education in Lithuania is taught through the perspective of Biology, Ethics,
and Physical Culture in which instructors base a curriculum off of
their responsibility to inform students how to make healthy life style
choices.
Sexuality education in Spain
is not a mandatory practice however upon a school deciding to instruct
its students on the topic, educators rely heavily on outside health organizations and professionals to provide private workshops.
Other Countries
Australia
The Victorian Government (Australia) developed a policy for the promotion of Health and Human Relations Education in schools in 1980 that was introduced into the State's primary and secondary schools during 1981. The initiative was developed and implemented by the Honorable Norman Lacy MP, Minister for Educational Services from 1979-1982.
A Consultative Council for Health and Human Relations Education was established in December 1980 under the chairmanship of Dame Margaret Blackwood; its members possessed considerable expertise in the area.
The Council had three major functions:
1. to advise and to be consulted on all aspects of Health and Human Relations'Education in schools;
2. to develop, for consideration of the Government, appropriate curriculum for schools;
3. to advise and recommend the standards for in-service courses for teachers and relevant members of the school community.
Support services for the Consultative Council were provided by a new Health and Human Relations Unit within the Special Services Division of the Education Department of Victoria
and was responsible for the implementation of the Government's policy
and guidelines in this area. The Unit advised principals, school
councils, teachers, parents, tertiary institutions and others in all
aspects of Health and Human Relations Education.
In 1981 the Consultative Council recommended the adoption of a set of guidelines for the provision of Health and Human Relations Education
in schools as well as a Curriculum Statement to assist schools in the
development of their programs. These were presented to the Victorian
Cabinet in December 1981 and adopted as Government policy.
Comprehensive sex education (CSE) is a sex education
instruction method based on-curriculum that aims to give students the
knowledge, attitudes, skills and values to make appropriate and healthy
choices in their sexual lives. The intention is that this understanding will prevent students from contracting sexually transmitted infections in the future, including HIV and HPV.
CSE is also designed with the intention of reducing unplanned and
unwanted pregnancies, as well as lowering rates of domestic and sexual violence, thus contributing to a healthier society, both physically and mentally.
Comprehensive sex education ultimately promotes sexual abstinence
as the safest sexual choice for young people. However, CSE curriculums
and teachers are still committed to teaching students about topics
connected to future sexual activity, such as age of consent, safe sex, contraception such as: birth control, abortion, and use of condoms.
This also includes discussions which promote safe behaviors, such as
communicating with partners and seeking testing for sexually transmitted
infections. Additionally, comprehensive sex education curricula may
include discussions surrounding pregnancy outcomes such as parenting,
adoption, and abortion. The most widely agreed benefit of using comprehensive sex education over abstinence-only sex education
is that CSE acknowledges the student population will be sexually active
in their future. By acknowledging this, CSE can encourage students to
plan ahead to make the healthiest possible sexual decisions.
This ideology of arming students to most successfully survive their
future sexual experiences underlies the majority of topics within CSE,
including condoms, contraception, and refusal skills.
History
As
of the year 2019, sex education in the United States is mandated on a
state level. It is up to the different states, districts, and school
boards to determine the implementation of federal policy and funds for
sex education. 24 out of the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia mandate sex education and 34 states mandate HIV education. Where sex education is mandated, there is no federal policy requiring the instruction of comprehensive sex education.
In prior years under the Bush administration, there was strong
support in congress by conservative republicans for the sanction of
abstinence-only-until-marriage sex education.
Under President Obama's administration, abstinence-only-until-marriage
sex education was opposed and suggested to be eliminated. Now under President Trump's administration, federal agenda has reverted back to supporting an abstinence approach.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s 2014 School Health
Policies and Practices Study found that on average high school courses
require 6.2 hours of taught class time on human sexuality, but only 4
hours or less on HIV, other sexually transmitted infections and
pregnancy prevention.
Benefits
Studies
have found that comprehensive sex education is more effective than
receiving no instruction and/or those who receive abstinence-only
instruction.
Acknowledging that people may engage in premarital sex rather than
ignoring it (which abstinence-only is often criticized for) allows
educators to give the students the necessary information to safely
navigate their future sexual lives.
CSE advocates argue that promoting abstinence without accompanied
information regarding safe sex practices is a disregard of reality, and
is ultimately putting the student at risk.
For example, programs funded under AEGP are reviewed for compliance
with the 8 standards (listed below in "Abstinence Education Grant
Program (AGEP) Requirements), but are not screened for medical accuracy.
Therefore, critics believe that students under these educational
programs are put at a disadvantage because it prevents them from making
informed choices about their sexual health. Additionally, under these
AEGP programs, health educators have referred to those that engage in
sex, especially females, as "dirty" and "used." They have also used
phrases such as "stay like a new toothbrush, wrapped up and unused" and
"chewed-up gum" to teach abstinence. Under a CSE model, language would
be more sensitive.
There is clear evidence that CSE has a positive impact on sexual
and reproductive health (SRH), notably in contributing to reducing STIs, HIV and unintended pregnancy.
Sexuality education does not hasten sexual activity but has a positive
impact on safer sexual behaviours and can delay sexual debut.
A 2014 review of school-based sexuality education programmes has
demonstrated increased HIV knowledge, increased self-efficacy related to
condom use and refusing sex, increased contraception and condom use, a
reduced number of sexual partners and later initiation of first sexual
intercourse.
A Cochrane review of 41 randomized controlled trials in Europe, the
United States, Nigeria and Mexico also confirmed that CSE prevents
unintended adolescent pregnancies.
CSE is very beneficial in regards to teen pregnancy because studies
show that, teen pregnancy and childbearing have a significant negative
impact on high school success and completion, as well as future job
prospects.
A study in Kenya, involving more than 6,000 students who had received
sexuality education led to delayed sexual initiation, and increased
condom use among those who were sexually active once these students
reached secondary school compared to more than 6,000 students who did
not receive sexuality education.
CSE also reduces the frequency of sex and the number of partners which
in turn also reduces the rates of sexually transmitted infections.
UNAIDS and the African Union
have recognized CSE’s impact on increasing condom use, voluntary HIV
testing and reducing pregnancy among adolescent girls and have included
comprehensive, age-appropriate sexuality education as one of the key
recommendations to fast track the HIV response and end the AIDS epidemic
among young women and girls in Africa.
As the field of sexuality education develops, there is increasing
focus on addressing gender, power relations and human rights in order
to improve the impact on SRH outcomes. Integrating content on gender and
rights makes sexuality education even more effective.
A review of 22 curriculum- based sexuality education programmes found
that 80 per cent of programmes that addressed gender or power relations
were associated with a significant decrease in pregnancy, childbearing
or STIs. These programmes were five times as effective as those
programmes that did not address gender or power.
CSE empowers young people to reflect critically on their environment
and behaviours, and promotes gender equality and equitable social norms,
which are important contributing factors for improving health outcomes,
including HIV infection rates. The impact of CSE also increases when
delivered together with efforts to expand access to a full range of
high- quality, youth-friendly services and commodities, particularly in
relation to contraceptive choice.
A global review of evidence in the education sector also found that teaching sexuality education builds confidence,
a necessary skill for delaying the age that young people first engage
in sexual intercourse, and for using contraception, including condoms.
CSE has a demonstrated impact on improving knowledge, self-esteem,
changing attitudes, gender and social norms, and building self-efficacy.
Criticism
Comprehensiveness
While
CSE implementation is on the rise in the United States, it remains
difficult for state officials to regulate what is and is not taught in
the classroom. This is due in large part to the undefinability of CSE;
CSE has the potential to comprise such a wide range of sexual
information, and over-all focus varies widely between curriculums.
Educators have also accused CSE as fundamentally operating as a form of
"abstinence-plus," due to the reality that CSE often involves minimal
body related information and excessive promotions of abstinence.
"So-called Comprehensive Sex Ed" says Sharon Lamb, a professor at the
University of Massachusetts Boston, "has been made less comprehensive as
curricula are revised to meet current federal, state, and local
requirements."
Inclusion of LGBT community
The
LGBT population experiences health disparities associated with stigma,
discrimination, negative connotations as well as stereotypes.
This population is subject to systemic barriers to adequate healthcare
services ultimately impacting their wellbeing and welfare negatively.
The care that they are provided with often is from clinicians who are
not trained well in addressing the concerns of this population.
This lack of training from the provider hinders the experience and
ultimately influences the quality of care and adequate delivery of
healthcare.
Due to discrimination and lack of cultural sensitivity that perpetuate
prejudice, this population experiences limited health-seeking behaviors.
Thus, making preventative services unattainable, furthermore,
increasing and prolonging illnesses and ailments. Research shows higher
risk of contracting HIV and other STDs; the number is increased when
assessing the intersecting population of gay men of color. Lesbian and bisexual females are less likely to obtain routine care like: breast and cervical cancer screenings.
Gay men are at an increased risk of prostate, testicular, anal, and
colon cancers, while lesbian and bisexual women have an increased risk
of ovarian, breast, and endometrial cancers.
As a result stigma, discrimination, victimization, and sexual abuse
LGBT youth is more likely to be involved in high-risk sexual behaviors
at an earlier age.
While comprehensive sex education exists in schooling, many
programs do not address the needs of the LGBT community. This population
faces different health disparities ultimately driven by discrimination,
shortfalls of peers, the lack of parental support, community services,
and school based sex education.
The implementation of LGBT comprehensive sex education utilized as an
intervention seeks to combat these health disparities, by informing the
population of the importance of developing sexual health.
Sexual health involves not only preventing disease, but also a
respectful approach to sexual relationships, sexuality, and accepting an
individual's gender iedntity and sexual orientation.
The term "comprehensive" is also often misleading because some
comprehensive programs do not show the holistic picture of human
sexuality. LGBT
advocates have long been critical of the ways in which comprehensive
sex education generally promotes marriage as the end goal for students.
LGBT advocates want to express other forms of relationships other than
marriage. Students should have sex education that encompasses the
different forms and should be allowed to exercise those forms in which
they are most comfortable with. Even when curriculums claim to be
inclusive of LGBT experiences, they often promote heteronormative
lifestyles as "normal." Inclusion of LGBT identities and health topics is necessary for LGBT students to feel safe and seen in their sex ed classrooms.
When sex education fails to include LGBT identities and experiences,
LGBT youth can be vulnerable to risky sexual behaviors and encourage
negative sexual health outcomes. Due to the lack of LGBT sex education
provided in schools, LGBT youth will look to peers and the internet
which can lead to misinformation. When these students do not have access to or an interest in marriage they are practically erased from the CSE narrative.
In a Canada, a federal report showed that LGBT community has less
access to health services and faces more comprehensive health
challenges compared to the general population. As a result of lack of
support for the LGBT population, the Comprehensive Health Education
Workers (CHEW) Project emerged in October 2014. Their goal is to educate
the LGBT community about topics such sexual and gender identity,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), healthy social relationships,
and depression. They do this though workshops, arts‐based projects, and
one‐on‐one meetings. The CHEW project is set exclusively to the LGBT
community in order to establish a safe environment in which LGBT youth
can gain resources for sex education.
A cross sectional study done in New York City analyzed the sexual
behaviors of high school girls. Studies found that, "high school girls
who identified as LGBT were more likely to report substance use such as:
alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, meth, ecstasy and prescription
drugs. They also had higher rates of contemplating and/or attempting
suicide." Another study found that "the LGBT youth accesses health information online five times more than the heterosexual
population, and these rates are even higher for LGBT youth that
identify as a person of color which stems from the fact that they lack
health resources.
Rights, Respect, Responsibility includes an inclusive LGBT curriculum
for grades K-12. By having a curriculum, such as the Right, Respect,
Responsibility suggests, students will be have accurate information to
all identities as well as establish a safe classroom for LGBT students.
As of May 2018, only 12 states require discussion of sexual
orientation and of these, only 9 states require that discussion of
sexual orientation be inclusive (California, Colorado, Delaware, Iowa,
New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Washington).
Additionally, several states have passed legislation that bans teachers
from discussing gay and transgender issues, such as sexual health and
HIV/AIDS awareness, in a positive light.
Furthermore, three states require that teachers only portray LGBT
people in a negative light (Alabama, South Carolina, and Texas).
School context
"Before
the late 1800s, delivering sex education in the United States and
Canada was primarily seen as a parent’s responsibility.
Today, programs under the Sexuality Information and Education Council
of the United States (SIECUS) begin comprehensive sex education in
pre-kindergarten, drawing criticism related to the age at which it is
appropriate to address sexual matters with children.
Federal funding for sexual education
Although
there is no federal mandate that requires states to teach sexual
education, there is federal funding available to assist with sexual
education programs.
Abstinence Education Grant Program (AGEP)
Historically,
funding for abstinence education has always been favored over CSE. In
1996, during Bill Clinton's presidency, legislation was passed to
promote abstinence in education programs. Under Title V Section 510 of
the Social Security Act, the Abstinence Education Grant Program (AGEP),
was passed. AEGP has always been renewed before its expiration date, and
each time funds gradually increase from fifty million dollars per year
to seventy-five and as high as $6.75 million per state grant in 2015.
The way the funds are disbursed are based on the proportion of
low-income children in each state. So far, thirty-six states have been
given AEGP funds.
Abstinence Education Grant Program (AGEP) Requirements
Part
of Section 510(b) of Title V of the Social Security Act, contains the
"A-H guidelines," which are the eight criteria that programs must abide
by order to be eligible to receive federal funding. They are as follows:
A. Has as its exclusive purpose teaching the social,
psychological, and health gains to be realized by abstaining from sexual
activity;
B. Teaches abstinence from sexual activity outside marriage as the expected standard for all school-age children;
C. Teaches that abstinence from sexual activity is the only certain
way to avoid out-of-wedlock pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases,
and other associated health problems;
D. Teaches that a mutually faithful, monogamous relationship in the
context of marriage is the expected standard of sexual activity;
E. Teaches that sexual activity outside the context of marriage is likely to have harmful psychological and physical effects;
F. Teaches that bearing children out of wedlock is likely to have
harmful consequences for the child, the child's parents, and society;
G. Teaches young people how to reject sexual advances and how
alcohol and drug use increase vulnerability to sexual advances; and
H. Teaches the importance of attaining self-sufficiency before engaging in sexual activity;
In addition to abiding by these 8 conditions, AGEP compliant programs
cannot discuss contraception, STIs, or methods for protecting against
STIs, except when describing failure rates.
Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program (TPP)
More recently legislation has pushed for funding that goes beyond abstinence only education.
In 2010, President Obama introduced the Teen Pregnancy Prevention
Program (TPP), which provides a total of $114.5 million annually to sex
education programs that are "medically accurate and age-appropriate."
TPP falls under a subsection of United States Department of Health and
Human Services ("HHS") which is overseen by the Office of Adolescent
Health. Funding for TPP is dispersed if "they emulate specific
evidence-based programs promulgated under TPP."
California Comprehensive Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Prevention Education Act
In
January 2016, the California Healthy Youth Act, amended the California
Comprehensive Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Prevention Education Act to
include minority groups and expand health education. Before it
authorized schools to provide comprehensive sex education and required
that all materials are made accessible to students with a variety of
needs. It also focused solely on marital relationships. It now mandates
that schools provide comprehensive sex education and states that
"materials cannot be biased and must be appropriate for students of all
races, genders, sexual orientations, and ethnic and cultural
backgrounds, as well as those with disabilities and English language
learners." Additionally, education must now include "instruction about
forming healthy and respectful committed relationships," regardless if
marital status. Furthermore, it is now required to have discussions
about all FDA-approved contraceptive methods in preventing pregnancy,
including the morning after pill.
In conclusion now requires that all sex education programs promulgated in the state should
normalize sexuality as part of human development;
ensure people receive integrated, comprehensive, accurate, and unbiased sexual health and HIV prevention and instruction; and
provide pupils with the knowledge and skills to have healthy, positive, and safe relationships.
As a human right
Some critics state that young people’s access to CSE is grounded in internationally recognized human rights, which require governments to guarantee the overall protection of health, well-being and dignity, as per the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and specifically to guarantee the provision of unbiased, scientifically accurate sexuality education.
The commitment of individual states to realizing these rights has
been reaffirmed by the international community, in particular the Commission on Population and Development
(CPD), which – in its resolutions 2009/12 and 2012/13 – called on
governments to provide young people with comprehensive education on
human sexuality, SRH and gender equality.
Other analysis show that comprehensive sex education is not an
international right nor a human right because it not clearly stated in
either a treaty nor custom. By international law, states are required to
provide access to information and education about reproductive health,
but this does not require a sex education curriculum. It may take
different forms such as mandating that local school districts create a
system for providing information to students, or mandating that health
clinics and practitioners dispense information to patients.
In curricula
Teaching methods
As
CSE gains momentum and interest at international, regional and national
levels, governments are increasingly putting in place measures to
scale-up their delivery of some form of life skills-based sexuality
education, as well as seeking guidance on best practice, particularly
regarding placement within the school curriculum.
Sexuality education may be delivered as a stand-alone subject or
integrated across relevant subjects within the school curricula. These
options have direct implications for implementation, including teacher
training, the ease of evaluating and revising curricula, the likelihood
of curricula being delivered, and the methods through which it is
delivered.
Within countries, choices about implementing integrated or
stand-alone sexuality education are typically linked to national
policies and overall organization of the curricula. The evidence base on
the effectiveness of stand-alone vs. integrated sexuality education
programming is still limited. However, there are discernible differences
for policy-makers to consider when deciding the position of CSE within
the curriculum.
As a stand-alone subject, sexuality education is set apart from
the rest of the curriculum, whether on its own or within a broader
stand-alone health and life skills curriculum. This makes it more
vulnerable to potentially being sacrificed due to time and budget
constraints, since school curricula are typically overcrowded.
However, a stand-alone curriculum also presents opportunities for
specialized teacher training pathways, and the use of non-formal
teaching methodologies that aim to build learners’ critical thinking
skills. The pedagogical approaches promoted through sexuality education –
such as learner-centred methodologies, development of skills and
values, group learning and peer engagement – are increasingly being
recognized as transformative approaches that impact on learning and
education more widely. As a standalone subject, it is also significantly
easier to monitor, which is crucial in terms of evaluating the
effectiveness of programming, and revising curricula where it is not
delivering the desired learning outcomes.
When sexuality education is integrated or infused, it is
mainstreamed across a number of subject areas, such as biology, social
studies, home economics or religious studies. While this model may
reduce pressure on an overcrowded curriculum, it is difficult to monitor
or evaluate, and may limit teaching methodologies to traditional
approaches.
Terminology
Apart
from the different teaching methods, termiology also differs. Abortion,
homosexuality, abstinence have connotations and definitions that vary
state. For example, the word "abstinence" may refer to disengaging from
all forms of sexual activities until marriage or may refer to only
disengaging from sexual intercourse. Furthermore, the degree of sexual
activity that "abstinence" connotates is often unclear, because sexual
behavior that is not sexual intercourse may or may not be included in
its definition. As a result, students are left confused about what
activities are risky and teachers do not know what they can and cannot
teach.
The term "comprehensive," is also falls on spectrum, therefore
can be considered an umbrella term. CSE means something radical for some
institutions while it can mean something moderate and even conservative
for others.
According to the Sexuality Information and Education Council of
the United States (SIECUS), the guidelines for comprehensive sexuality
education are as follows:
appropriate to the age, developmental level, and cultural background of students;
respects the diversity of values and beliefs represented in the community;
complements and augments the sexuality education children receive
from their families, religious and community groups, and healthcare
professionals;
teaches not only about abstinence, but also contraception, including emergency contraception and reproductive choice;
teaches about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) issues and questions issues;
teaches anatomy, development, puberty, and relationships;
teaches all of the other issues one would expect to be covered in a traditional sexuality education class; and
should be science-based and medically accurate
Sexual education exemption
Just
as teaching methods and curricula vary by state, excusal from sex
education also varies by state. States may have with an opt out or opt
in produce. In some states, students can opt out of receiving sexual
education without specifying a particular reason. In other states,
students can only opt out for religious or moral reasons. In an opt-in
provision, parents must actively agree to allow their children to
receive sex education prior to the start of the sexual education.
Sexual content in the media
Since 1997, the amount of sexual content on TV has nearly doubled in the United States.
Additionally, a study done in 2008 showed that nearly 40% of popular
music lyrics contained sexual references which were often sexually
degrading. These lyrics were also often accompanied with mentions of
other risk behaviors, such as substance use and violence.
Teens (ages 13–15) in the United States, use entertainment media
as their top source for education in regards to sexuality and sexual
health. Additionally, a study found that 15-19 year olds in the U.S use
media far more than parents or schools to obtain information about birth
control.
Some studies have found that, "very few teen television shows mention
any of the responsibilities or risks (e.g., using contraception,
pregnancy, STIs) associated with sex and almost none of the shows with
sexual content include precaution, prevention, or negative outcomes as
the primary theme."
Television shows 16 and Pregnant and its spin-off, Teen Mom, which
first aired on MTV in 2009 received major disapproval from some parents
as they thought the shows glamorized teen pregnancy and motherhood.
However, 16 and Pregnant actually led to a 4.3 percent reduction in teen
pregnancy, mostly as a result of increased contraceptive use.
In contrast, other data shows that exposure to high levels of sexual
content on the television causes adolescents to have twice the risk of
becoming pregnant in the following 3 years, compared to those who were
exposed to low levels.
The film Mean Girls, directed by Mark Waters shed light on the
state sex education in some parts of the United States. In the film the
health instructor states, "At your age, you're going to have a lot of
urges. You're going to want to take off your clothes and touch each
other. But if you do touch each other, you will get chlamydia and die."
This line is meant to be satirical, but it illustrates common flaws
within sex education in the U.S. It depicts simplistic descriptions of
sexual activity and implementation of fear without any legitimate basis.
Comprehensive sex education is the main topic in the documentary The Education of Shelby Knox released in 2005 about Lubbock, Texas, which has one of the highest teen pregnancy and STD rates in the nation. The "solution" to which is a strict abstinence-only sex education curriculum in the public schools and a conservative preacher who urges kids to pledge abstinence until marriage.
Not only have films portrayed sex education, but so has social media. Platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Vine, and others are used as a tool to uplift the narratives of marginalized communities such as persons of color and LGBT persons in hopes to "strengthen sexual health equity for all."
As a result of the mass amount of sex content in media, media
literacy education (MLE) has emerged. It was created to address the
influence of unhealthy media messages on risky health decisions, such as
intention to use substances, body image issues, and eating disorders.
A study analyzed the effectiveness of a teacher-led MLE program, called
Media Aware Sexual Health (MASH), which provides students with accurate
health information and teaches them how to apply that information to
critical analysis of media messages. This comprehensive sex education
resulted in increased intentions to talk to a parent, partner and
medical professional prior to sexual activity, and intentions for condom
use.
Due to knowledge gaps in most sex education curricula for teens, free online resources like Sex, Etc., Scarleteen.com, and teensource.org have been created to promote comprehensive, inclusive, and shame-free sex education for teenagers.
