Logo of The Campaign for Collective Apostasy in Spain, calling for defection from the Catholic Church
Countries with anti-apostasy policy at some level
Apostasy (/əˈpɒstəsi/; Greek: ἀποστασία apostasia, "a defection or revolt") is the formal disaffiliation from, or abandonment or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion contrary to one's previous beliefs. One who undertakes apostasy is known as an apostate. Undertaking apostasy is called apostatizing (or apostasizing – also spelled apostacizing). The term apostasy is used by sociologists to mean the renunciation and criticism of, or opposition to, a person's former religion, in a technical sense, with no pejorative connotation.
Occasionally, the term is also used metaphorically to refer to the renunciation of a non-religious belief or cause, such as a political party, brain trust, or a sports team.
Apostasy is generally not a self-definition: few former believers
call themselves apostates due to the term's negative connotation.
Many religious groups and some states punish apostates; this may
be the official policy of a particular religious group or it may simply
be the voluntary action of its members. Such punishments may include shunning, excommunication, verbal abuse, physical violence, or even execution. Examples of punishment by death for apostates can be found in the Sharia law
and they are currently imposed on apostates in certain Islamic
countries. As of 2014, about a quarter of the world’s countries and
territories (26%) had anti-blasphemy laws or policies, of which 13 nations, all Muslim-majority, have the death penalty for apostasy.
Sociological definitions
The American sociologist Lewis A. Coser (following the German philosopher and sociologist Max Scheler)
defines an apostate as not just a person who experienced a dramatic
change in conviction but "a man who, even in his new state of belief, is
spiritually living not primarily in the content of that faith, in the
pursuit of goals appropriate to it, but only in the struggle against the
old faith and for the sake of its negation."
The American sociologist David G. Bromley defined the apostate role as follows and distinguished it from the defector and whistleblower roles.
- Apostate role: defined as one that occurs in a highly polarized situation in which an organization member undertakes a total change of loyalties by allying with one or more elements of an oppositional coalition without the consent or control of the organization. The narrative documents the quintessentially evil essence of the apostate's former organization chronicled through the apostate's personal experience of capture and ultimate escape/rescue.
- Defector role: an organizational participant negotiates exit primarily with organizational authorities, who grant permission for role relinquishment, control the exit process, and facilitate role transmission. The jointly constructed narrative assigns primary moral responsibility for role performance problems to the departing member and interprets organizational permission as commitment to extraordinary moral standards and preservation of public trust.
- Whistle-blower role: defined here as when an organization member forms an alliance with an external regulatory agency through personal testimony concerning specific, contested organizational practices that the external unit uses to sanction the organization. The narrative constructed jointly by the whistle blower and regulatory agency is depicts the whistle-blower as motivated by personal conscience, and the organization by defense of the public interest.
Stuart A. Wright,
an American sociologist and author, asserts that apostasy is a unique
phenomenon and a distinct type of religious defection in which the
apostate is a defector "who is aligned with an oppositional coalition in
an effort to broaden the dispute, and embraces public claims-making
activities to attack his or her former group."
Human rights
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights, considers the recanting of a person's religion a human right legally protected by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:
The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views ... Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert.
History
As early as the 3rd century AD, apostasy against the Zoroastrian faith in the Sasanian Empire was criminalized. The high priest, Kidir, instigated pogroms against Jews, Christians, Buddhists, and others in effort to solidify the hold of the state religion.
As the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its state religion, apostasy became formally criminalized in the Theodosian Code, followed by the Corpus Juris Civilis (the Justinian Code).
The Justinian Code went on to form the basis of law in most of Western
Europe during the Middle Ages and so apostasy was similarly persecuted
to varying degrees in Europe throughout this period and into the early
modern period. Eastern Europe similarly inherited many of its legal
traditions regarding apostasy from the Romans, but not from the
Justinian Code.
With the rise of Islam came a relative religious tolerance in the Middle Eastern regions.
Nevertheless, as the Middle Ages progressed, the successive Islamic
caliphates began to enforce their own laws against apostasy, often
modeled on those of the Romans and the Europeans.
Atrocity stories
The
term "atrocity story" is controversial as it relates to the differing
views amongst scholars about the credibility of the accounts of former
members.
Bryan R. Wilson,
Reader Emeritus of Sociology of the University of Oxford, says
apostates of new religious movements are generally in need of
self-justification, seeking to reconstruct their past and to excuse
their former affiliations, while blaming those who were formerly their
closest associates. Wilson, thus, challenges the reliability of the
apostate's testimony by saying that the apostate "must always be seen as
one whose personal history predisposes him to bias with respect to both
his previous religious commitment and affiliations, the suspicion must
arise that he acts from a personal motivation to vindicate himself and
to regain his self-esteem, by showing himself to have been first a
victim but subsequently to have become a redeemed crusader." Wilson also
asserts that some apostates or defectors from religious organisations
rehearse atrocity stories to explain how, by manipulation, coercion or
deceit, they were recruited to groups that they now condemn.
Jean Duhaime of the Université de Montréal
writes, referring to Wilson, based on his analysis of three books by
apostates of new religious movements, that stories of apostates cannot
be dismissed only because they are subjective.
Danny Jorgensen, Professor at the Department of Religious Studies of the University of Florida, in his book The Social Construction and Interpretation of Deviance: Jonestown and the Mass Media argues that the role of the media
in constructing and reflecting reality is particularly apparent in its
coverage of cults. He asserts that this complicity exists partly because
apostates with an atrocity story to tell make themselves readily
available to reporters and partly because new religious movements have
learned to be suspicious of the media and, therefore, have not been open
to investigative reporters writing stories on their movement from an
insider's perspective. Besides this lack of information about the
experiences of people within new religious movements, the media is
attracted to sensational
stories featuring accusations of food and sleep deprivation, sexual and
physical abuse, and excesses of spiritual and emotional authority by
the charismatic leader.
Michael Langone
argues that some will accept uncritically the positive reports of
current members without calling such reports, for example, "benevolence
tales" or "personal growth tales". He asserts that only the critical
reports of ex-members are called "tales", which he considers to be a
term that clearly implies falsehood or fiction. He states that it wasn't
until 1996 that a researcher conducted a study to assess the extent to which so called "atrocity tales" might be based on fact.
Contemporary criminalization of apostasy
Historically, apostasy was considered a criminal offense in many societies, commonly likened with the crimes of treason, desertion, or mutiny. For instance, European converts from Christianity to Islam who sought refuge in the Barbary States or in the Ottoman Empire were termed "renegades" in the history of that region.
As of 2014, twenty-five countries criminalize public apostasy. As of 2014, no country in the Americas or Europe had any law forbidding the renunciation of religious belief.
Some countries included do not have actual anti-apostasy laws, however a Law Library of Congress report states their laws on blasphemy can be also utilised to try people for apostasy. These countries include - Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Oman and Syria.
The following countries have criminal statutes that forbid apostasy or blasphemy:
Countries (red) in which, as of 2013, apostasy or blasphemy against the local or state religion was punishable by execution under the law. Currently, this only occurs in some Muslim-majority countries.
Countries with anti-apostasy policy at some level
- Afghanistan – illegal (death penalty, though the U.S. and other coalition members have put pressure that has prevented recent executions)
- Brunei – per recently enacted Sharia law, Section 112(1) of the Brunei Penal Code states that a Muslim who declares himself non-Muslim commits a crime that is punishable with death, or with up to 30 year imprisonment, depending on the type of evidence. However, if the accused has recanted his conversion, he may be acquitted of the crime of apostasy.
- Comoros
- Iran – not in the Penal Code.
- Jordan – possibly illegal (fine, child custody loss, marriage annulment) although officials claim otherwise, convictions are recorded for apostasy
- Kuwait – Apostasy is not illegal in Kuwait, although apostasy is penalized in family courts for Muslims. For Muslims, apostasy in family court can result in loss of child custody, inheritance rights, annulment if married to a Muslim.
- Malaysia – illegal in five of thirteen states (fines) if they do not get conversion permission from Sharia court.
- Maldives – illegal for Muslim nationals (loss of citizenship). Illegal to proselytise for religions other than Islam.
- Mauritania – illegal (death penalty if still apostate after 3 days)
- Morocco – not illegal, but official Islamic council decreed apostates should be put to death. Illegal to proselytise for religions other than Islam (six months to three years imprisonment)
- Oman – illegal (prison) according to Article 209 of Oman penal code, and denies child custody rights under Article 32 of Personal Status Law
- Qatar – illegal (death penalty)
- Saudi Arabia – illegal (flogging, imprisonment and death penalty, although there have been no recently reported executions)
- Somalia – illegal (death penalty)
- Sudan – illegal (death penalty)
- Syria
- United Arab Emirates – illegal (3 years' imprisonment, death penalty)
- Yemen – illegal (death penalty)
From 1985 to 2006, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom
listed a total of four cases of execution for apostasy in the Muslim
world: one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in
Saudi Arabia in 1992.
Religious views
Baha'i
Both marginal and apostate Baha'is have existed in the Baha'i community who are known as nāqeżīn.
Muslims often regard adherents of the Bahá'í faith as apostates from Islam, and there have been cases in some Muslim countries where Baha'is have been harassed and persecuted.
Christianity
The Christian understanding of apostasy is "a willful falling away
from, or rebellion against, Christian truth. Apostasy is the rejection
of Christ by one who has been a Christian ...", though certain
Protestants believe that biblically this is impossible ('once saved, forever saved'). "Apostasy is the antonym of conversion; it is deconversion."
B. J. Oropeza states that apostasy is a "phenomenon that occurs when a
religious follower or group of followers turn away from or otherwise
repudiate the central beliefs and practices they once embraced in a
respective religious community." The Ancient Greek noun ἀποστασία apostasia ("rebellion, abandonment, state of apostasy, defection") is found only twice in the New Testament (Acts 21:21; 2 Thessalonians 2:3). However, "the concept of apostasy is found throughout Scripture." The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery
states that "There are at least four distinct images in Scripture of
the concept of apostasy. All connote an intentional defection from the
faith." These images are: Rebellion; Turning Away; Falling Away; Adultery.
- Rebellion: "In classical literature apostasia was used to denote a coup or defection. By extension the Septuagint always uses it to portray a rebellion against God (Joshua 22:22; 2 Chronicles 29:19)."
- Turning away: "Apostasy is also pictured as the heart turning away from God (Jeremiah 17:5-6) and righteousness (Ezekiel 3:20). In the OT it centers on Israel's breaking covenant relationship with God through disobedience to the law (Jeremiah 2:19), especially following other gods (Judges 2:19) and practicing their immorality (Daniel 9:9-11) ... Following the Lord or journeying with him is one of the chief images of faithfulness in the Scriptures ... The ... Hebrew root (swr) is used to picture those who have turned away and ceased to follow God ('I am grieved that I have made Saul king, because he has turned away from me,' 1 Samuel 15:11) ... The image of turning away from the Lord, who is the rightful leader, and following behind false gods is the dominant image for apostasy in the OT."
- Falling away: "The image of falling, with the sense of going to eternal destruction, is particularly evident in the New Testament ... In his [Christ's] parable of the wise and foolish builder, in which the house built on sand falls with a crash in the midst of a storm (Matthew 7:24-27) ... he painted a highly memorable image of the dangers of falling spiritually."
- Adultery: One of the most common images for apostasy in the Old Testament is adultery. "Apostasy is symbolized as Israel the faithless spouse turning away from Yahweh her marriage partner to pursue the advances of other gods (Jeremiah 2:1-3; Ezekiel 16) ... 'Your children have forsaken me and sworn by god that are not gods. I supplied all their needs, yet they committed adultery and thronged to the houses of prostitutes' (Jeremiah 5:7, NIV). Adultery is used most often to describe the horror of the betrayal and covenant breaking involved in idolatry. Like literal adultery it does include the idea of someone blinded by infatuation, in this case for an idol: 'How I have been grieved by their adulterous hearts ... which have lusted after their idols' (Ezekiel 6:9)."
Speaking with specific regard to apostasy in Christianity, Michael Fink writes:
Apostasy is certainly a biblical concept, but the implications of the teaching have been hotly debated. The debate has centered on the issue of apostasy and salvation. Based on the concept of God's sovereign grace, some hold that, though true believers may stray, they never totally fall away. Others affirm that any who fall away were never really saved. Though they may have "believed" for a while, they never experienced regeneration. Still others argue that the biblical warnings against apostasy are real and that believers maintain the freedom, at least potentially, to reject God's salvation.
In the recent past, in the Roman Catholic Church the word was also applied to the renunciation of monastic vows (apostasis a monachatu), and to the abandonment of the clerical profession for the life of the world (apostasis a clericatu) without necessarily amounting to a rejection of Christianity.
Penalties
Classical canon law viewed apostasy as distinct from heresy and schism. Apostasy a fide,
defined as total repudiation of the Christian faith, was considered as
different from a theological standpoint from heresy, but subject to the
same penalty of death by fire by decretist jurists. The influential 13th century theologian Hostiensis
recognized three types of apostasy. The first was conversion to another
faith, which was considered traitorous and could bring confiscation of
property or even the death penalty. The second and third, which was
punishable by expulsion from home and imprisonment, consisted of
breaking major commandments and breaking the vows of religious orders,
respectively.
A decretal by Boniface VIII
classified apostates together with heretics with respect to the
penalties incurred. Although it mentioned only apostate Jews explicitly,
it was applied to all apostates, and the Spanish Inquisition used it to persecute both the Marano Jews, who had been converted to Christianity by force, and to the Moriscos who had professed to convert to Christianity from Islam under pressure.
Temporal penalties for Christian apostates have fallen into disuse in the modern era.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witness publications define apostasy as the abandonment of the worship and service of God, constituting rebellion against God.
They apply the term to a range of conduct, including open dissent with
the religion's doctrines, celebration of "false religious holidays"
(including Christmas and Easter), and participation in activities and
worship of other religions.
Members of the religion who are accused of apostasy are typically
required to appear before a congregational judicial committee, by which
they may be "disfellowshipped"—the most severe of the religion's
disciplinary procedures that involves expulsion from the religion and
shunning by all congregants, including immediate family members not
living in the same home.
Baptized individuals who leave the organization because they disagree
with the religion's teachings are also regarded as apostates and are
shunned.
Watch Tower Society literature describes apostates as "mentally diseased" individuals who can "infect others with their disloyal teachings". Former members who are defined as apostates are said to have become part of the antichrist and are regarded as more reprehensible than non-Witnesses.
Mormonism
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (commonly called the Mormons)
are considered by church leadership to engage in apostasy when they
publicly teach or espouse opinions and doctrines contrary to the
teachings of the church. Apostasy is also assumed in cases of a member
engaging in activities forbidden by the church's teachings, such as
adultery or homosexual relations. In such circumstances the church will
frequently subject the non-conforming member to a disciplinary council
which may result in disfellowshipment (a temporary loss of church
participation privileges) or excommunication (a semi-permanent loss of
church membership). The nature of the disciplinary council varies with
the member's standing within the church as men's cases are often heard
by a much larger group than women's.
Hinduism
Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed", but
is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious
phenomena of India. In general Hinduism is more tolerant to apostasy
than other faiths based on a scripture or commandments with a lower
emphasis on orthodoxy and has a more open view on how a person chooses
his faith. Some Hindu sects believe that ethical conversion, without force or reward is completely acceptable.
The Vashistha Dharmasastra, the Apastamba Dharmasutra and Yajnavalkya state that a son of an apostate is also considered an apostate. Smr̥ticandrikā lists apostates as one group of people upon touching whom, one should take a bath. Kātyāyana condemns a Brahmin who has apostatised to banishment while a Vaishya or a Shudra to serve the king. Nāradasmṛti and Parasara-samhita states that a wife can remarry if her husband becomes an apostate. The saint Parashara commented that religious rites are disturbed if an apostate witnesses them. He also comments that that those who foregoes the Rig Veda, Samaveda and Yajurveda are "nagna" (naked) or an apostate.
Buddhism
There is no concept of heresy or apostasy in Buddhism, and people are free to leave Buddhism and renounce their beliefs in Buddhism without any consequence.
Islam
A 1978 fatwa (nonbinding legal opinion) issued by the Fatawa Council at Al-Azhar, the chief centre of Islamic and Arabic learning in the world.
The fatwa was issued in response to a query about a Egyptian Muslim man
marrying a German Christian woman and then converting to Christianity.
The council ruled that the man committed the crime of apostasy, and
should be given a chance to repent and return to Islam. If he refuses,
he is to be killed. The same conclusion was given for his children once
they reach the age of puberty.
In Islamic literature, apostasy is called irtidād or ridda; an apostate is called murtadd, which literally means 'one who turns back' from Islam. Someone born to a Muslim parent, or who has previously converted to Islam, becomes a murtadd if he or she verbally denies any principle of belief prescribed by Quran or a Hadith, deviates from approved Islamic belief (ilhad), or if he or she commits an action such as treating a copy of the Qurʾan with disrespect. A person born to a Muslim parent who later rejects Islam is called a murtad fitri, and a person who converted to Islam and later rejects the religion is called a murtad milli.
There are multiple verses in the Quran that condemn apostasy, but none which prescribe any punishments for apostasy and multiple Hadiths include statements that support the death penalty for apostasy. The majority of modern Ulama have come to the conclusion that despite the Quran suggesting that an apostate cannot be punished for apostasy, that the select Hadith which do support the death for apostasy override the Quranic verses which suggest otherwise.
The concept and punishment of Apostasy has been extensively covered in Islamic literature since the 7th century. A person is considered apostate if he or she converts from Islam to another religion.
A person is an apostate even if he or she believes in most of Islam,
but denies one or more of its principles or precepts, both verbally or
in writing. Similarly, doubting the existence of Allah,
makeing offerings to and worshipping an idol, a stupa or any other
image of God, confesses a belief in the rebirth or incarnation of God,
disrespecting the Quran or Islam's Prophets are all considered
sufficient evidence of apostasy.
Many Muslims consider the Islamic law on apostasy and the punishment for it to be one of the immutable laws under Islam. It is a hudud crime, which means it is a crime against God, and the punishment has been fixed by God. The punishment for apostasy includes
state enforced annulment of his or her marriage, seizure of the
person's children and property with automatic assignment to guardians
and heirs, and death for the apostate.
According to some scholars, if a Muslim consciously and without
coercion declares their rejection of Islam and does not change their
mind after the time allocated by a judge for research, then the penalty
for male apostates is death, and for females it is life imprisonment.
According to the Ahmadiyya Muslim sect, there is no punishment for apostasy, neither in the Quran nor as it was taught by Muhammad.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim sect's position is not widely accepted by clerics
in other sects of Islam, and the Ahmadiyya sect of Islam acknowledges
that major sects have a different interpretation and definition of
apostasy in Islam. Ulama of major sects of Islam consider the Ahmadi Muslim sect as kafirs (infidels) and apostates.
Today, apostasy is a crime in 16 out of 49 Muslim majority countries; in other Muslim nations such as Morocco, apostasy is not illegal but proselytizing to Muslims is. It is subject to the death penalty in some countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, although executions for apostasy are rare. Apostasy is legal in secular Muslim countries such as Turkey.
In numerous Islamic majority countries, many individuals have been
arrested and punished for the crime of apostasy without any associated
capital crimes.
In a 2013 report based on an international survey of religious
attitudes, more than 50% of the Muslim population in 6 Islamic countries
supported the death penalty for any Muslim who leaves Islam (apostasy).
A similar survey of the Muslim population in the United Kingdom, in
2007, found nearly a third of 16 to 24-year-old faithfuls believed that
Muslims who convert to another religion should be executed, while less
than a fifth of those over 55 believed the same.
Muslim historians recognize 632 AD as the year when the first
regional apostasy from Islam emerged, immediately after the death of
Muhammed. The civil wars that followed are now called the Riddah wars (Wars of Islamic Apostasy).
Judaism
Mattathias killing a Jewish apostate
The term apostasy is derived from Ancient Greek ἀποστασία from ἀποστάτης, meaning "political rebel," as applied to rebellion against God, its law and the faith of Israel (in Hebrew מרד) in the Hebrew Bible. Other expressions for apostate as used by rabbinical scholars are mumar (מומר, literally "the one that is changed") and poshea yisrael (פושע ישראל, literally, "transgressor of Israel"), or simply kofer (כופר, literally "denier" and heretic).
The Torah states:
If your brother, the son of your mother, your son or your daughter, the wife of your bosom, or your friend who is as your own soul, secretly entices you, saying, 'Let us go and serve other gods,' which you have not known, neither you nor your fathers, of the gods of the people which are all around you, near to you or far off from you, from one end of the earth to the other end of the earth, you shall not consent to him or listen to him, nor shall your eye pity him, nor shall you spare him or conceal him; but you shall surely kill him; your hand shall be first against him to put him to death, and afterward the hand of all the people. And you shall stone him with stones until he dies, because he sought to entice you away from the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage.
In 1 Kings King Solomon is warned in a dream which "darkly portray[s] the ruin that would be caused by departure from God":
If you or your sons at all turn from following Me, and do not keep My commandments and My statutes which I have set before you, but go and serve other gods and worship them, then I will cut off Israel from the land which I have given them; and this house which I have consecrated for My name I will cast out of My sight. Israel will be a proverb and a byword among all peoples.
The prophetic writings of Isaiah and Jeremiah
provide many examples of defections of faith found among the Israelites
(e.g., Isaiah 1:2–4 or Jeremiah 2:19), as do the writings of the
prophet Ezekiel
(e.g., Ezekiel 16 or 18). Israelite kings were often guilty of
apostasy, examples including Ahab (I Kings 16:30–33), Ahaziah (I Kings
22:51–53), Jehoram (2 Chronicles 21:6,10), Ahaz (2 Chronicles 28:1–4),
or Amon (2 Chronicles 33:21–23) among others. Amon's father Manasseh was
also apostate for many years of his long reign, although towards the
end of his life he renounced his apostasy (cf. 2 Chronicles 33:1–19).
In the Talmud, Elisha ben Abuyah is singled out as an apostate and Epikoros (Epicurean) by the Pharisees.
During the Spanish Inquisition, a systematic conversion of Jews to Christianity took place to avoid expulsion from the kingdoms of Castille and Aragon as had been the case previously elsewhere in medieval Europe. Although the vast majority of conversos
simply assimilated into the Catholic dominant culture, a minority
continued to practice Judaism in secret, gradually migrated throughout
Europe, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire, mainly to areas where
Sephardic communities were already present as a result of the Alhambra Decree.
Tens of thousands of Jews were baptised in the three months before the
deadline for expulsion, some 40,000 if one accepts the totals given by
Kamen, most of these undoubtedly to avoid expulsion, rather than as a sincere change of faith. These conversos
were the principal concern of the Inquisition; being suspected of
continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of denunciation and
trial.
Several notorious Inquisitors, such as Tomás de Torquemada, and Don Francisco the archbishop of Coria,
were descendants of apostate Jews. Other apostates who made their mark
in history by attempting the conversion of other Jews in the 14th
century include Juan de Valladolid and Astruc Remoch.
Abraham Isaac Kook,
first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in then Palestine, held that
atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of
man's many images of God. Since any man-made image of God can be
considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider
atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of god, thus in
the end serving the purpose of true monotheism.
Medieval Judaism was more lenient toward apostasy than the other monotheistic religions. According to Maimonides,
converts to other faiths were to be regarded as sinners, but still
Jewish. Forced converts were subject to special prayers and Rashi admonished those who rebuked or humiliated them.
There is no punishment today for leaving Judaism, other than
being excluded from participating in the rituals of the Jewish community
- including leading worship, Jewish marriage or divorce, being called
to the Torah and being buried in a Jewish cemetery.
Other religious movements
Controversies over new religious movements
(NRMs) have often involved apostates, some of whom join organizations
or web sites opposed to their former religions. A number of scholars
have debated the reliability of apostates and their stories, often
called "apostate narratives".
The role of former members, or "apostates", has been widely
studied by social scientists. At times, these individuals become
outspoken public critics of the groups they leave. Their motivations,
the roles they play in the anti-cult movement, the validity of their testimony, and the kinds of narratives they construct, are controversial. Some scholars like David G. Bromley, Anson Shupe, and Brian R. Wilson have challenged the validity of the testimonies presented by critical former members. Wilson discusses the use of the atrocity story that is rehearsed by the apostate to explain how, by manipulation, coercion, or deceit, he was recruited to a group that he now condemns.
Sociologist Stuart A. Wright
explores the distinction between the apostate narrative and the role of
the apostate, asserting that the former follows a predictable pattern,
in which the apostate uses a "captivity narrative"
that emphasizes manipulation, entrapment and being victims of "sinister
cult practices". These narratives provide a rationale for a
"hostage-rescue" motif, in which cults are likened to POW camps and deprogramming
as heroic hostage rescue efforts. He also makes a distinction between
"leavetakers" and "apostates", asserting that despite the popular
literature and lurid media accounts of stories of "rescued or recovering
'ex-cultists'", empirical studies of defectors from NRMs "generally
indicate favorable, sympathetic or at the very least mixed responses
toward their former group".
One camp that broadly speaking questions apostate narratives includes David G. Bromley, Daniel Carson Johnson,
Dr. Lonnie D. Kliever (1932–2004), Gordon Melton, and Bryan R. Wilson. An opposing camp less critical of apostate narratives as a group includes Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Dr. Phillip Charles Lucas, Jean Duhaime, Mark Dunlop, Michael Langone, and Benjamin Zablocki.
Some scholars have attempted to classify apostates of NRMs. James T. Richardson proposes a theory related to a logical relationship between apostates and whistleblowers, using Bromley's definitions,
in which the former predates the latter. A person becomes an apostate
and then seeks the role of whistleblower, which is then rewarded for
playing that role by groups that are in conflict with the original group
of membership such as anti-cult organizations. These organizations
further cultivate the apostate, seeking to turn him or her into a
whistleblower. He also describes how in this context, apostates'
accusations of "brainwashing" are designed to attract perceptions of
threats against the well being of young adults on the part of their
families to further establish their newfound role as whistleblowers. Armand L. Mauss,
defines true apostates as those exiters that have access to
oppositional organizations that sponsor their careers as such, and
validate the retrospective accounts of their past and their outrageous
experiences in new religions—making a distinction between these and
whistleblowers or defectors in this context. Donald Richter, a current member of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS) writes that this can explain the writings of Carolyn Jessop and Flora Jessop, former members of the FLDS church who consistently sided with authorities when children of the YFZ ranch were removed over charges of child abuse.
Massimo Introvigne in his Defectors, Ordinary Leavetakers and Apostates defines three types of narratives constructed by apostates of new religious movements:
- Type I narratives characterize the exit process as defection, in which the organization and the former member negotiate an exiting process aimed at minimizing the damage for both parties.
- Type II narratives involve a minimal degree of negotiation between the exiting member, the organization they intend to leave, and the environment or society at large, implying that the ordinary apostate holds no strong feelings concerning his past experience in the group. They may make "comments on the organization's more negative features or shortcomings" while also recognizing that there was "something positive in the experience."
- Type III narratives are characterized by the ex-member dramatically reversing their loyalties and becoming a professional enemy of the organization they have left. These apostates often join an oppositional coalition fighting the organization, often claiming victimization.
Introvigne argues that apostates professing Type II narratives prevail among exiting members of controversial groups or organizations, while apostates that profess Type III narratives are a vociferous minority.
Ronald Burks, a psychology assistant at the Wellspring Retreat and Resource Center,
in a study comparing Group Psychological Abuse Scale (GPA) and
Neurological Impairment Scale (NIS) scores in 132 former members of
cults and cultic relationships, found a positive correlation between
intensity of reform environment as measured by the GPA and cognitive
impairment as measured by the NIS. Additional findings were a reduced
earning potential in view of the education level that corroborates
earlier studies of cult critics (Martin 1993; Singer & Ofshe, 1990;
West & Martin, 1994) and significant levels of depression and
dissociation agreeing with Conway & Siegelman, (1982), Lewis &
Bromley, (1987) and Martin, et al. (1992).
Sociologists Bromley and Hadden note a lack of empirical support
for claimed consequences of having been a member of a "cult" or "sect",
and substantial empirical evidence against it. These include the fact
that the overwhelming proportion of people who get involved in NRMs
leave, most short of two years; the overwhelming proportion of people
who leave do so of their own volition; and that two-thirds (67%) felt
"wiser for the experience".
According to F. Derks and psychologist of religion Jan van der Lans, there is no uniform post-cult trauma.
While psychological and social problems upon resignation are not
uncommon, their character and intensity are greatly dependent on the
personal history and on the traits of the ex-member, and on the reasons
for and way of resignation.
The report of the "Swedish Government's Commission on New
Religious Movements" (1998) states that the great majority of members of
new religious movements derive positive experiences from their
subscription to ideas or doctrines
that correspond to their personal needs—and that withdrawal from these
movements is usually quite undramatic, as these people leave feeling
enriched by a predominantly positive experience. Although the report
describes that there are a small number of withdrawals that require
support (100 out of 50,000+ people), the report did not recommend that
any special resources be established for their rehabilitation, as these
cases are very rare.
Examples
Historical persons
- Julian the Apostate (331/332 – 363 CE), the Roman emperor, given a Christian education by those who assassinated his family, rejected his upbringing and declared his belief in Neoplatonism once it was safe to do so.
- Sir Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford was declared 'The Great Apostate' by Parliament in 1628 for changing his political support from Parliament to Charles I, thus shifting his religious support from Calvinism to Arminianism.
- Abraham ben Abraham, (Count Valentine (Valentin, Walentyn) Potocki), a Polish nobleman of the Potocki family who is claimed to have converted to Judaism and was burned at the stake in 1749 because he had renounced Catholicism and had become an observant Jew.
- Maria Monk (1816–1849), sometimes considered an apostate of the Catholic Church, though there is little evidence that she ever was a Catholic.
- Lord George Gordon, initially a zealous Protestant and instigator of the Gordon riots of 1780, finally renounced Christianity and converted to Judaism, for which he was ostracized.
Recent times
- In 2011, Youcef Nadarkhani, an Iranian pastor who converted from Islam to Christianity at the age of 19, was convicted for apostasy and was sentenced to death, but later acquitted.
- In 2013, Raif Badawi, a Saudi Arabian blogger, was found guilty of apostasy by the high court, which has a penalty of death. However he was not executed, but was imprisoned and punished by 600 lashes instead.
- In 2014, Meriam Yehya Ibrahim Ishag (a.k.a. Adraf Al-Hadi Mohammed Abdullah), a pregnant Sudanese woman, was convicted of apostasy for converting to Christianity from Islam. The government ruled that her father was Muslim, a female child takes the father's religion under Sudan's Islamic law. By converting to Christianity, she had committed apostasy, a crime punishable by death. Mrs Ibrahim Ishag was sentenced to death. She was also convicted of adultery on the grounds that her marriage to a Christian man from South Sudan was void under Sudan's version of Islamic law, which says Muslim women cannot marry non-Muslims. The death sentence was not carried out, and she left Sudan in secret.
- Tasleema Nasreen from Bangladesh, the author of Lajja, has been declared apostate – "an apostate appointed by imperialist forces to vilify Islam" – by several fundamentalist clerics in Dhaka.
