Three-dimensional space

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A representation of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with the x-axis pointing towards the observer.

Three-dimensional space (also: 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This is the informal meaning of the term dimension.

In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n = 3, the set of all such locations is called three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is commonly represented by the symbol ℝ³. This serves as a three-parameter model of the physical universe (that is, the spatial part, without considering time) in which all known matter exists. However, this space is only one example of a large variety of spaces in three dimensions called 3-manifolds. In this classical example, when the three values refer to measurements in different directions (coordinates), any three directions can be chosen, provided that vectors in these directions do not all lie in the same 2-space (plane). Furthermore, in this case, these three values can be labeled by any combination of three chosen from the terms width, height, depth, and length.

In euclidean geometry

Coordinate systems

In mathematics, analytic geometry (also called Cartesian geometry) describes every point in three-dimensional space by means of three coordinates. Three coordinate axes are given, each perpendicular to the other two at the origin, the point at which they cross. They are usually labeled x, y, and z. Relative to these axes, the position of any point in three-dimensional space is given by an ordered triple of real numbers, each number giving the distance of that point from the origin measured along the given axis, which is equal to the distance of that point from the plane determined by the other two axes.

Other popular methods of describing the location of a point in three-dimensional space include cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates, though there are an infinite number of possible methods. See Euclidean space.

Below are images of the above-mentioned systems.

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  Cartesian coordinate system
   
  
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  Cylindrical coordinate system
   
  
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  Spherical coordinate system
  

Lines and planes

Two distinct points always determine a (straight) line. Three distinct points are either collinear or determine a unique plane. Four distinct points can either be collinear, coplanar or determine the entire space.

Two distinct lines can either intersect, be parallel or be skew. Two parallel lines, or two intersecting lines, lie in a unique plane, so skew lines are lines that do not meet and do not lie in a common plane.
Two distinct planes can either meet in a common line or are parallel (do not meet). Three distinct planes, no pair of which are parallel, can either meet in a common line, meet in a unique common point or have no point in common. In the last case, the three lines of intersection of each pair of planes are mutually parallel.

A line can lie in a given plane, intersect that plane in a unique point or be parallel to the plane. In the last case, there will be lines in the plane that are parallel to the given line.

A hyperplane is a subspace of one dimension less than the dimension of the full space. The hyperplanes of a three-dimensional space are the two-dimensional subspaces, that is, the planes. In terms of cartesian coordinates, the points of a hyperplane satisfy a single linear equation, so planes in this 3-space are described by linear equations. A line can be described by a pair of independent linear equations, each representing a plane having this line as a common intersection.

Varignon's theorem states that the midpoints of any quadrilateral in ℝ³ form a parallelogram, and so, are coplanar.

Spheres and balls

A perspective projection of a sphere onto two dimensions

A sphere in 3-space (also called a 2-sphere because it is a 2-dimensional object) consists of the set of all points in 3-space at a fixed distance r from a central point P. The solid enclosed by the sphere is called a ball (or, more precisely a 3-ball). The volume of the ball is given by

${\displaystyle V={\frac {4}{3}}\pi r^{3}}$.

Another type of sphere arises from a 4-ball, whose three-dimensional surface is the 3-sphere: points equidistant to the origin of the euclidean space ℝ⁴. If a point has coordinates, P(x, y, z, w), then x² + y² + z² + w² = 1 characterizes those points on the unit 3-sphere centered at the origin.

Surfaces of revolution

A surface generated by revolving a plane curve about a fixed line in its plane as an axis is called a surface of revolution. The plane curve is called the generatrix of the surface. A section of the surface, made by intersecting the surface with a plane that is perpendicular (orthogonal) to the axis, is a circle. Simple examples occur when the generatrix is a line. If the generatrix line intersects the axis line, the surface of revolution is a right circular cone with vertex (apex) the point of intersection. However, if the generatrix and axis are parallel, the surface of revolution is a circular cylinder.

Quadric surfaces

In analogy with the conic sections, the set of points whose cartesian coordinates satisfy the general equation of the second degree, namely,

${\displaystyle Ax^{2}+By^{2}+Cz^{2}+Fxy+Gyz+Hxz+Jx+Ky+Lz+M=0,}$

where A, B, C, F, G, H, J, K, L and M are real numbers and not all of A, B, C, F, G and H are zero is called a quadric surface.

There are six types of non-degenerate quadric surfaces:

1. Ellipsoid
2. Hyperboloid of one sheet
3. Hyperboloid of two sheets
4. Elliptic cone
5. Elliptic paraboloid
6. Hyperbolic paraboloid

The degenerate quadric surfaces are the empty set, a single point, a single line, a single plane, a pair of planes or a quadratic cylinder (a surface consisting of a non-degenerate conic section in a plane π and all the lines of ℝ³ through that conic that are normal to π). Elliptic cones are sometimes considered to be degenerate quadric surfaces as well.

Both the hyperboloid of one sheet and the hyperbolic paraboloid are ruled surfaces, meaning that they can be made up from a family of straight lines. In fact, each has two families of generating lines, the members of each family are disjoint and each member one family intersects, with just one exception, every member of the other family. Each family is called a regulus.

In linear algebra

Another way of viewing three-dimensional space is found in linear algebra, where the idea of independence is crucial. Space has three dimensions because the length of a box is independent of its width or breadth. In the technical language of linear algebra, space is three-dimensional because every point in space can be described by a linear combination of three independent vectors.

Dot product, angle, and length

A vector can be pictured as an arrow. The vector's magnitude is its length, and its direction is the direction the arrow points. A vector in ℝ³ can be represented by an ordered triple of real numbers. These numbers are called the components of the vector.

The dot product of two vectors A = [A₁, A₂, A₃] and B = [B₁, B₂, B₃] is defined as:

${\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {B} =A_{1}B_{1}+A_{2}B_{2}+A_{3}B_{3}.}$

The magnitude of a vector A is denoted by ||A||. The dot product of a vector A = [A₁, A₂, A₃] with itself is

${\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {A} =\|\mathbf {A} \|^{2}=A_{1}^{2}+A_{2}^{2}+A_{3}^{2},}$

which gives

${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {A} \|={\sqrt {\mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {A} }}={\sqrt {A_{1}^{2}+A_{2}^{2}+A_{3}^{2}}},}$

the formula for the Euclidean length of the vector.

Without reference to the components of the vectors, the dot product of two non-zero Euclidean vectors A and B is given by

${\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \cdot \mathbf {B} =\|\mathbf {A} \|\,\|\mathbf {B} \|\cos \theta ,}$

where θ is the angle between A and B.

Cross product

The cross product or vector product is a binary operation on two vectors in three-dimensional space and is denoted by the symbol ×. The cross product a × b of the vectors a and b is a vector that is perpendicular to both and therefore normal to the plane containing them. It has many applications in mathematics, physics, and engineering.

The space and product form an algebra over a field, which is neither commutative nor associative, but is a Lie algebra with the cross product being the Lie bracket.

One can in n dimensions take the product of n − 1 vectors to produce a vector perpendicular to all of them. But if the product is limited to non-trivial binary products with vector results, it exists only in three and seven dimensions.

The cross-product in respect to a right-handed coordinate system

In calculus

Gradient, divergence and curl

In a rectangular coordinate system, the gradient is given by

${\displaystyle \nabla f={\frac {\partial f}{\partial x}}\mathbf {i} +{\frac {\partial f}{\partial y}}\mathbf {j} +{\frac {\partial f}{\partial z}}\mathbf {k} }$

The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field F = U i + V j + W k is equal to the scalar-valued function:

${\displaystyle \operatorname {div} \,\mathbf {F} =\nabla \cdot \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\partial U}{\partial x}}+{\frac {\partial V}{\partial y}}+{\frac {\partial W}{\partial z}}.}$

Expanded in Cartesian coordinates (see Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates for spherical and cylindrical coordinate representations), the curl ∇ × F is, for F composed of [F_x, F_y, F_z]:

${\displaystyle {\begin{vmatrix}\mathbf {i} &\mathbf {j} &\mathbf {k} \\\\{\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}&{\frac {\partial }{\partial y}}&{\frac {\partial }{\partial z}}\\\\F_{x}&F_{y}&F_{z}\end{vmatrix}}}$

where i, j, and k are the unit vectors for the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively. This expands as follows:

${\displaystyle \left({\frac {\partial F_{z}}{\partial y}}-{\frac {\partial F_{y}}{\partial z}}\right)\mathbf {i} +\left({\frac {\partial F_{x}}{\partial z}}-{\frac {\partial F_{z}}{\partial x}}\right)\mathbf {j} +\left({\frac {\partial F_{y}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial F_{x}}{\partial y}}\right)\mathbf {k} }$

Line integrals, surface integrals, and volume integrals

For some scalar field f : U ⊆ Rⁿ → R, the line integral along a piecewise smooth curve C ⊂ U is defined as

${\displaystyle \int \limits _{C}f\,ds=\int _{a}^{b}f(\mathbf {r} (t))|\mathbf {r} '(t)|\,dt.}$

where r: [a, b] → C is an arbitrary bijective parametrization of the curve C such that r(a) and r(b) give the endpoints of C and ${\displaystyle a$ .

For a vector field F : U ⊆ Rⁿ → Rⁿ, the line integral along a piecewise smooth curve C ⊂ U, in the direction of r, is defined as

${\displaystyle \int \limits _{C}\mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )\cdot \,d\mathbf {r} =\int _{a}^{b}\mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} (t))\cdot \mathbf {r} '(t)\,dt.}$

where · is the dot product and r: [a, b] → C is a bijective parametrization of the curve C such that r(a) and r(b) give the endpoints of C.

A surface integral is a generalization of multiple integrals to integration over surfaces. It can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral. To find an explicit formula for the surface integral, we need to parameterize the surface of interest, S, by considering a system of curvilinear coordinates on S, like the latitude and longitude on a sphere. Let such a parameterization be x(s, t), where (s, t) varies in some region T in the plane. Then, the surface integral is given by

${\displaystyle \iint _{S}f\,\mathrm {d} S=\iint _{T}f(\mathbf {x} (s,t))\left\|{\partial \mathbf {x} \over \partial s}\times {\partial \mathbf {x} \over \partial t}\right\|\mathrm {d} s\,\mathrm {d} t}$

where the expression between bars on the right-hand side is the magnitude of the cross product of the partial derivatives of x(s, t), and is known as the surface element. Given a vector field v on S, that is a function that assigns to each x in S a vector v(x), the surface integral can be defined component-wise according to the definition of the surface integral of a scalar field; the result is a vector.

A volume integral refers to an integral over a 3-dimensional domain.

It can also mean a triple integral within a region D in R³ of a function ${\displaystyle f(x,y,z),}$ and is usually written as:

${\displaystyle \iiint \limits _{D}f(x,y,z)\,dx\,dy\,dz.}$

Fundamental theorem of line integrals

The fundamental theorem of line integrals, says that a line integral through a gradient field can be evaluated by evaluating the original scalar field at the endpoints of the curve. Let ${\displaystyle \varphi :U\subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {R} }$. Then

${\displaystyle \varphi \left(\mathbf {q} \right)-\varphi \left(\mathbf {p} \right)=\int _{\gamma [\mathbf {p} ,\,\mathbf {q} ]}\nabla \varphi (\mathbf {r} )\cdot d\mathbf {r} .}$

Stokes' theorem

Stokes' theorem relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector field F over a surface Σ in Euclidean three-space to the line integral of the vector field over its boundary ∂Σ:

${\displaystyle \iint _{\Sigma }\nabla \times \mathbf {F} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {\Sigma } =\oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} .}$

Divergence theorem

Suppose V is a subset of ${\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}$ (in the case of n = 3, V represents a volume in 3D space) which is compact and has a piecewise smooth boundary S (also indicated with ∂V = S ). If F is a continuously differentiable vector field defined on a neighborhood of V, then the divergence theorem says:

${\displaystyle \iiint _{V}\left(\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {F} \right)\,dV=}$ ${\displaystyle \scriptstyle S}$ ${\displaystyle (\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathbf {n} )\,dS.}$

The left side is a volume integral over the volume V, the right side is the surface integral over the boundary of the volume V. The closed manifold ∂V is quite generally the boundary of V oriented by outward-pointing normals, and n is the outward pointing unit normal field of the boundary ∂V. (dS may be used as a shorthand for ndS.)

In topology

Three-dimensional space has a number of topological properties that distinguish it from spaces of other dimension numbers. For example, at least three dimensions are required to tie a knot in a piece of string.

With the space ${\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\mathbb {R} }^{3}}$, the topologists locally model all other 3-manifolds.

Pythagorean theorem

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pythagorean theorem
The sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (a and b) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c).

In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem, also known as Pythagoras' theorem, is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a, b and c, often called the "Pythagorean equation":

${\displaystyle a^{2}+b^{2}=c^{2},}$

where c represents the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the lengths of the triangle's other two sides.

Although it is often argued that knowledge of the theorem predates him, the theorem is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BC) as it is he who, by tradition, is credited with its first proof, although no evidence of it exists. There is some evidence that Babylonian mathematicians understood the formula, although little of it indicates an application within a mathematical framework. Mesopotamian, Indian and Chinese mathematicians all discovered the theorem independently and, in some cases, provided proofs for special cases.

The theorem has been given numerous proofs – possibly the most for any mathematical theorem. They are very diverse, including both geometric proofs and algebraic proofs, with some dating back thousands of years. The theorem can be generalized in various ways, including higher-dimensional spaces, to spaces that are not Euclidean, to objects that are not right triangles, and indeed, to objects that are not triangles at all, but n-dimensional solids. The Pythagorean theorem has attracted interest outside mathematics as a symbol of mathematical abstruseness, mystique, or intellectual power; popular references in literature, plays, musicals, songs, stamps and cartoons abound.

Pythagorean proof

The Pythagorean proof (click to view animation)

The Pythagorean theorem was known long before Pythagoras, but he may well have been the first to prove it. In any event, the proof attributed to him is very simple, and is called a proof by rearrangement.

The two large squares shown in the figure each contain four identical triangles, and the only difference between the two large squares is that the triangles are arranged differently. Therefore, the white space within each of the two large squares must have equal area. Equating the area of the white space yields the Pythagorean theorem, Q.E.D.

That Pythagoras originated this very simple proof is sometimes inferred from the writings of the later Greek philosopher and mathematician Proclus. Several other proofs of this theorem are described below, but this is known as the Pythagorean one.

Other forms of the theorem

As pointed out in the introduction, if c denotes the length of the hypotenuse and a and b denote the lengths of the other two sides, the Pythagorean theorem can be expressed as the Pythagorean equation:

${\displaystyle a^{2}+b^{2}=c^{2}.}$

If the length of both a and b are known, then c can be calculated as

${\displaystyle c={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}.}$

If the length of the hypotenuse c and of one side (a or b) are known, then the length of the other side can be calculated as

${\displaystyle a={\sqrt {c^{2}-b^{2}}}}$

or

${\displaystyle b={\sqrt {c^{2}-a^{2}}}.}$

The Pythagorean equation relates the sides of a right triangle in a simple way, so that if the lengths of any two sides are known the length of the third side can be found. Another corollary of the theorem is that in any right triangle, the hypotenuse is greater than any one of the other sides, but less than their sum.

A generalization of this theorem is the law of cosines, which allows the computation of the length of any side of any triangle, given the lengths of the other two sides and the angle between them. If the angle between the other sides is a right angle, the law of cosines reduces to the Pythagorean equation.

Other proofs of the theorem

This theorem may have more known proofs than any other (the law of quadratic reciprocity being another contender for that distinction); the book The Pythagorean Proposition contains 370 proofs.

Proof using similar triangles

Proof using similar triangles

This proof is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles, that is, upon the fact that the ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is the same regardless of the size of the triangles.

Let ABC represent a right triangle, with the right angle located at C, as shown on the figure. Draw the altitude from point C, and call H its intersection with the side AB. Point H divides the length of the hypotenuse c into parts d and e. The new triangle ACH is similar to triangle ABC, because they both have a right angle (by definition of the altitude), and they share the angle at A, meaning that the third angle will be the same in both triangles as well, marked as θ in the figure. By a similar reasoning, the triangle CBH is also similar to ABC. The proof of similarity of the triangles requires the triangle postulate: the sum of the angles in a triangle is two right angles, and is equivalent to the parallel postulate. Similarity of the triangles leads to the equality of ratios of corresponding sides:

${\displaystyle {\frac {BC}{AB}}={\frac {BH}{BC}}{\text{ and }}{\frac {AC}{AB}}={\frac {AH}{AC}}.}$

The first result equates the cosines of the angles θ, whereas the second result equates their sines.
These ratios can be written as

${\displaystyle BC^{2}=AB\times BH{\text{ and }}AC^{2}=AB\times AH.}$

Summing these two equalities results in

${\displaystyle BC^{2}+AC^{2}=AB\times BH+AB\times AH=AB\times (AH+BH)=AB^{2},}$

which, after simplification, expresses the Pythagorean theorem:

${\displaystyle BC^{2}+AC^{2}=AB^{2}\ .}$

The role of this proof in history is the subject of much speculation. The underlying question is why Euclid did not use this proof, but invented another. One conjecture is that the proof by similar triangles involved a theory of proportions, a topic not discussed until later in the Elements, and that the theory of proportions needed further development at that time.

Euclid's proof

Proof in Euclid's Elements

In outline, here is how the proof in Euclid's Elements proceeds. The large square is divided into a left and right rectangle. A triangle is constructed that has half the area of the left rectangle. Then another triangle is constructed that has half the area of the square on the left-most side. These two triangles are shown to be congruent, proving this square has the same area as the left rectangle. This argument is followed by a similar version for the right rectangle and the remaining square. Putting the two rectangles together to reform the square on the hypotenuse, its area is the same as the sum of the area of the other two squares. The details follow.

Let A, B, C be the vertices of a right triangle, with a right angle at A. Drop a perpendicular from A to the side opposite the hypotenuse in the square on the hypotenuse. That line divides the square on the hypotenuse into two rectangles, each having the same area as one of the two squares on the legs.
For the formal proof, we require four elementary lemmata:

1. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and the angles included by those sides equal, then the triangles are congruent (side-angle-side).
   
2. The area of a triangle is half the area of any parallelogram on the same base and having the same altitude.
   
3. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of two adjacent sides.
   
4. The area of a square is equal to the product of two of its sides (follows from 3).

Next, each top square is related to a triangle congruent with another triangle related in turn to one of two rectangles making up the lower square.

Illustration including the new lines

 

Showing the two congruent triangles of half the area of rectangle BDLK and square BAGF

The proof is as follows:

1. Let ACB be a right-angled triangle with right angle CAB.
   
2. On each of the sides BC, AB, and CA, squares are drawn, CBDE, BAGF, and ACIH, in that order. The construction of squares requires the immediately preceding theorems in Euclid, and depends upon the parallel postulate.
   
3. From A, draw a line parallel to BD and CE. It will perpendicularly intersect BC and DE at K and L, respectively.
   
4. Join CF and AD, to form the triangles BCF and BDA.
   
5. Angles CAB and BAG are both right angles; therefore C, A, and G are collinear. Similarly for B, A, and H.
   
6. Angles CBD and FBA are both right angles; therefore angle ABD equals angle FBC, since both are the sum of a right angle and angle ABC.
   
7. Since AB is equal to FB and BD is equal to BC, triangle ABD must be congruent to triangle FBC.
   
8. Since A-K-L is a straight line, parallel to BD, then rectangle BDLK has twice the area of triangle ABD because they share the base BD and have the same altitude BK, i.e., a line normal to their common base, connecting the parallel lines BD and AL.
   
9. Since C is collinear with A and G, square BAGF must be twice in area to triangle FBC.
   
10. Therefore, rectangle BDLK must have the same area as square BAGF = AB².
    
11. Similarly, it can be shown that rectangle CKLE must have the same area as square ACIH = AC².
    
12. Adding these two results, AB² + AC² = BD × BK + KL × KC
    
13. Since BD = KL, BD × BK + KL × KC = BD(BK + KC) = BD × BC
    
14. Therefore, AB² + AC² = BC², since CBDE is a square.

This proof, which appears in Euclid's Elements as that of Proposition 47 in Book 1, demonstrates that the area of the square on the hypotenuse is the sum of the areas of the other two squares. This is quite distinct from the proof by similarity of triangles, which is conjectured to be the proof that Pythagoras used.

Proofs by dissection and rearrangement

We have already discussed the Pythagorean proof, which was a proof by rearrangement. The same idea is conveyed by the leftmost animation below, which consists of a large square, side a + b, containing four identical right triangles. The triangles are shown in two arrangements, the first of which leaves two squares a² and b² uncovered, the second of which leaves square c² uncovered. The area encompassed by the outer square never changes, and the area of the four triangles is the same at the beginning and the end, so the black square areas must be equal, therefore a² + b² = c².
 
A second proof by rearrangement is given by the middle animation. A large square is formed with area c², from four identical right triangles with sides a, b and c, fitted around a small central square. Then two rectangles are formed with sides a and b by moving the triangles. Combining the smaller square with these rectangles produces two squares of areas a² and b², which must have the same area as the initial large square.

The third, rightmost image also gives a proof. The upper two squares are divided as shown by the blue and green shading, into pieces that when rearranged can be made to fit in the lower square on the hypotenuse – or conversely the large square can be divided as shown into pieces that fill the other two. This way of cutting one figure into pieces and rearranging them to get another figure is called dissection. This shows the area of the large square equals that of the two smaller ones.

Animation showing proof by rearrangement of four identical right triangles

Animation showing another proof by rearrangement

Proof using an elaborate rearrangement

Einstein's proof by dissection without rearrangement

Right triangle on the hypotenuse dissected into two similar right triangles on the legs, according to Einstein's proof

Albert Einstein gave a proof by dissection in which the pieces need not get moved. Instead of using a square on the hypotenuse and two squares on the legs, one can use any other shape that includes the hypotenuse, and two similar shapes that each include one of two legs instead of the hypotenuse (see #Similar figures on the three sides). In Einstein's proof, the shape that includes the hypotenuse is the right triangle itself. The dissection consists of dropping a perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle of the triangle to the hypotenuse, thus splitting the whole triangle into two parts. Those two parts have the same shape as the original right triangle, and have the legs of the original triangle as their hypotenuses, and the sum of their areas is that of the original triangle. Because the ratio of the area of a right triangle to the square of its hypotenuse is the same for similar triangles, the relationship between the areas of the three triangles holds for the squares of the sides of the large triangle as well.

Algebraic proofs

Diagram of the two algebraic proofs

The theorem can be proved algebraically using four copies of a right triangle with sides a, b and c, arranged inside a square with side c as in the top half of the diagram. The triangles are similar with area ${\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}ab}$, while the small square has side b − a and area (b − a)². The area of the large square is therefore

${\displaystyle (b-a)^{2}+4{\frac {ab}{2}}=(b-a)^{2}+2ab=b^{2}-2ab+a^{2}+2ab=a^{2}+b^{2}.}$

But this is a square with side c and area c², so

${\displaystyle c^{2}=a^{2}+b^{2}.}$

A similar proof uses four copies of the same triangle arranged symmetrically around a square with side c, as shown in the lower part of the diagram. This results in a larger square, with side a + b and area (a + b)². The four triangles and the square side c must have the same area as the larger square,

${\displaystyle (b+a)^{2}=c^{2}+4{\frac {ab}{2}}=c^{2}+2ab,}$

giving

${\displaystyle c^{2}=(b+a)^{2}-2ab=b^{2}+2ab+a^{2}-2ab=a^{2}+b^{2}.}$

Diagram of Garfield's proof

A related proof was published by future U.S. President James A. Garfield (then a U.S. Representative). Instead of a square it uses a trapezoid, which can be constructed from the square in the second of the above proofs by bisecting along a diagonal of the inner square, to give the trapezoid as shown in the diagram. The area of the trapezoid can be calculated to be half the area of the square, that is

${\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}(b+a)^{2}.}$

The inner square is similarly halved, and there are only two triangles so the proof proceeds as above except for a factor of ${\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}}$, which is removed by multiplying by two to give the result.

Proof using differentials

One can arrive at the Pythagorean theorem by studying how changes in a side produce a change in the hypotenuse and employing calculus.

The triangle ABC is a right triangle, as shown in the upper part of the diagram, with BC the hypotenuse. At the same time the triangle lengths are measured as shown, with the hypotenuse of length y, the side AC of length x and the side AB of length a, as seen in the lower diagram part.

Diagram for differential proof

If x is increased by a small amount dx by extending the side AC slightly to D, then y also increases by dy. These form two sides of a triangle, CDE, which (with E chosen so CE is perpendicular to the hypotenuse) is a right triangle approximately similar to ABC. Therefore, the ratios of their sides must be the same, that is:

${\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}={\frac {x}{y}}.}$

This can be rewritten as ${\displaystyle y\,dy=x\,dx}$ , which is a differential equation that can be solved by direct integration:

${\displaystyle \int y\,dy=\int x\,dx\,,}$

giving

${\displaystyle y^{2}=x^{2}+C.}$

The constant can be deduced from x = 0, y = a to give the equation

${\displaystyle y^{2}=x^{2}+a^{2}.}$

This is more of an intuitive proof than a formal one: it can be made more rigorous if proper limits are used in place of dx and dy.

Converse

The converse of the theorem is also true:

For any three positive numbers a, b, and c such that a² + b² = c², there exists a triangle with sides a, b and c, and every such triangle has a right angle between the sides of lengths a and b.

An alternative statement is:

For any triangle with sides a, b, c, if a² + b² = c², then the angle between a and b measures 90°.

This converse also appears in Euclid's Elements (Book I, Proposition 48):

"If in a triangle the square on one of the sides equals the sum of the squares on the remaining two sides of the triangle, then the angle contained by the remaining two sides of the triangle is right."

It can be proven using the law of cosines or as follows:

Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b, and c, with a² + b² = c². Construct a second triangle with sides of length a and b containing a right angle. By the Pythagorean theorem, it follows that the hypotenuse of this triangle has length c = √a² + b², the same as the hypotenuse of the first triangle. Since both triangles' sides are the same lengths a, b and c, the triangles are congruent and must have the same angles. Therefore, the angle between the side of lengths a and b in the original triangle is a right angle.

The above proof of the converse makes use of the Pythagorean theorem itself. The converse can also be proven without assuming the Pythagorean theorem.

A corollary of the Pythagorean theorem's converse is a simple means of determining whether a triangle is right, obtuse, or acute, as follows. Let c be chosen to be the longest of the three sides and a + b > c (otherwise there is no triangle according to the triangle inequality). The following statements apply:

• If a² + b² = c², then the triangle is right.
• If a² + b² > c², then the triangle is acute.
• If a² + b² < c², then the triangle is obtuse.

Edsger W. Dijkstra has stated this proposition about acute, right, and obtuse triangles in this language:

sgn(α + β − γ) = sgn(a² + b² − c²),

where α is the angle opposite to side a, β is the angle opposite to side b, γ is the angle opposite to side c, and sgn is the sign function.

Consequences and uses of the theorem

Pythagorean triples

A Pythagorean triple has three positive integers a, b, and c, such that a² + b² = c². In other words, a Pythagorean triple represents the lengths of the sides of a right triangle where all three sides have integer lengths. Such a triple is commonly written (a, b, c). Some well-known examples are (3, 4, 5) and (5, 12, 13).
 
A primitive Pythagorean triple is one in which a, b and c are coprime (the greatest common divisor of a, b and c is 1).

The following is a list of primitive Pythagorean triples with values less than 100:

(3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (7, 24, 25), (8, 15, 17), (9, 40, 41), (11, 60, 61), (12, 35, 37), (13, 84, 85), (16, 63, 65), (20, 21, 29), (28, 45, 53), (33, 56, 65), (36, 77, 85), (39, 80, 89), (48, 55, 73), (65, 72, 97)

Incommensurable lengths

The spiral of Theodorus: A construction for line segments with lengths whose ratios are the square root of a positive integer

One of the consequences of the Pythagorean theorem is that line segments whose lengths are incommensurable (so the ratio of which is not a rational number) can be constructed using a straightedge and compass. Pythagoras's theorem enables construction of incommensurable lengths because the hypotenuse of a triangle is related to the sides by the square root operation.

The figure on the right shows how to construct line segments whose lengths are in the ratio of the square root of any positive integer. Each triangle has a side (labeled "1") that is the chosen unit for measurement. In each right triangle, Pythagoras's theorem establishes the length of the hypotenuse in terms of this unit. If a hypotenuse is related to the unit by the square root of a positive integer that is not a perfect square, it is a realization of a length incommensurable with the unit, such as √2, √3, √5 .

Incommensurable lengths conflicted with the Pythagorean school's concept of numbers as only whole numbers. The Pythagorean school dealt with proportions by comparison of integer multiples of a common subunit. According to one legend, Hippasus of Metapontum (ca. 470 B.C.) was drowned at sea for making known the existence of the irrational or incommensurable.

Complex numbers

The absolute value of a complex number z is the distance r from z to the origin

For any complex number

${\displaystyle z=x+iy,}$

the absolute value or modulus is given by

${\displaystyle r=|z|={\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}.}$

So the three quantities, r, x and y are related by the Pythagorean equation,

${\displaystyle r^{2}=x^{2}+y^{2}.}$

Note that r is defined to be a positive number or zero but x and y can be negative as well as positive. Geometrically r is the distance of the z from zero or the origin O in the complex plane.

This can be generalised to find the distance between two points, z₁ and z₂ say. The required distance is given by

${\displaystyle |z_{1}-z_{2}|={\sqrt {(x_{1}-x_{2})^{2}+(y_{1}-y_{2})^{2}}},}$

so again they are related by a version of the Pythagorean equation,

${\displaystyle |z_{1}-z_{2}|^{2}=(x_{1}-x_{2})^{2}+(y_{1}-y_{2})^{2}.}$

Euclidean distance in various coordinate systems

The distance formula in Cartesian coordinates is derived from the Pythagorean theorem. If (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) are points in the plane, then the distance between them, also called the Euclidean distance, is given by

${\displaystyle {\sqrt {(x_{1}-x_{2})^{2}+(y_{1}-y_{2})^{2}}}.}$

More generally, in Euclidean n-space, the Euclidean distance between two points, ${\displaystyle A\,=\,(a_{1},a_{2},\dots ,a_{n})}$ and ${\displaystyle B\,=\,(b_{1},b_{2},\dots ,b_{n})}$, is defined, by generalization of the Pythagorean theorem, as:

${\displaystyle {\sqrt {(a_{1}-b_{1})^{2}+(a_{2}-b_{2})^{2}+\cdots +(a_{n}-b_{n})^{2}}}={\sqrt {\sum _{i=1}^{n}(a_{i}-b_{i})^{2}}}.}$

If Cartesian coordinates are not used, for example, if polar coordinates are used in two dimensions or, in more general terms, if curvilinear coordinates are used, the formulas expressing the Euclidean distance are more complicated than the Pythagorean theorem, but can be derived from it. A typical example where the straight-line distance between two points is converted to curvilinear coordinates can be found in the applications of Legendre polynomials in physics. The formulas can be discovered by using Pythagoras's theorem with the equations relating the curvilinear coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. For example, the polar coordinates (r, θ) can be introduced as:

${\displaystyle x=r\cos \theta ,\ y=r\sin \theta .}$

Then two points with locations (r₁, θ₁) and (r₂, θ₂) are separated by a distance s:

${\displaystyle s^{2}=(x_{1}-x_{2})^{2}+(y_{1}-y_{2})^{2}=(r_{1}\cos \theta _{1}-r_{2}\cos \theta _{2})^{2}+(r_{1}\sin \theta _{1}-r_{2}\sin \theta _{2})^{2}.}$

Performing the squares and combining terms, the Pythagorean formula for distance in Cartesian coordinates produces the separation in polar coordinates as:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s^{2}&=r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}-2r_{1}r_{2}\left(\cos \theta _{1}\cos \theta _{2}+\sin \theta _{1}\sin \theta _{2}\right)\\&=r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}-2r_{1}r_{2}\cos \left(\theta _{1}-\theta _{2}\right)\\&=r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}-2r_{1}r_{2}\cos \Delta \theta ,\end{aligned}}}$

using the trigonometric product-to-sum formulas. This formula is the law of cosines, sometimes called the generalized Pythagorean theorem. From this result, for the case where the radii to the two locations are at right angles, the enclosed angle Δθ = π/2, and the form corresponding to Pythagoras's theorem is regained: ${\displaystyle s^{2}=r_{1}^{2}+r_{2}^{2}.}$ The Pythagorean theorem, valid for right triangles, therefore is a special case of the more general law of cosines, valid for arbitrary triangles.

Pythagorean trigonometric identity

Similar right triangles showing sine and cosine of angle θ

In a right triangle with sides a, b and hypotenuse c, trigonometry determines the sine and cosine of the angle θ between side a and the hypotenuse as:

${\displaystyle \sin \theta ={\frac {b}{c}},\quad \cos \theta ={\frac {a}{c}}.}$

From that it follows:

${\displaystyle {\cos }^{2}\theta +{\sin }^{2}\theta ={\frac {a^{2}+b^{2}}{c^{2}}}=1,}$

where the last step applies Pythagoras's theorem. This relation between sine and cosine is sometimes called the fundamental Pythagorean trigonometric identity. In similar triangles, the ratios of the sides are the same regardless of the size of the triangles, and depend upon the angles. Consequently, in the figure, the triangle with hypotenuse of unit size has opposite side of size sin θ and adjacent side of size cos θ in units of the hypotenuse.

Relation to the cross product

The area of a parallelogram as a cross product; vectors a and b identify a plane and a × b is normal to this plane.

The Pythagorean theorem relates the cross product and dot product in a similar way:

${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} \|^{2}+(\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} )^{2}=\|\mathbf {a} \|^{2}\|\mathbf {b} \|^{2}.}$

This can be seen from the definitions of the cross product and dot product, as

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} &=ab\mathbf {n} \sin {\theta }\\\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} &=ab\cos {\theta },\end{aligned}}}$

with n a unit vector normal to both a and b. The relationship follows from these definitions and the Pythagorean trigonometric identity.

This can also be used to define the cross product. By rearranging the following equation is obtained

${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {a} \times \mathbf {b} \|^{2}=\|\mathbf {a} \|^{2}\|\mathbf {b} \|^{2}-(\mathbf {a} \cdot \mathbf {b} )^{2}.}$

This can be considered as a condition on the cross product and so part of its definition, for example in seven dimensions.

Generalizations

Similar figures on the three sides

A generalization of the Pythagorean theorem extending beyond the areas of squares on the three sides to similar figures was known by Hippocrates of Chios in the 5th century BC, and was included by Euclid in his Elements:

If one erects similar figures (see Euclidean geometry) with corresponding sides on the sides of a right triangle, then the sum of the areas of the ones on the two smaller sides equals the area of the one on the larger side.

This extension assumes that the sides of the original triangle are the corresponding sides of the three congruent figures (so the common ratios of sides between the similar figures are a:b:c). While Euclid's proof only applied to convex polygons, the theorem also applies to concave polygons and even to similar figures that have curved boundaries (but still with part of a figure's boundary being the side of the original triangle).

The basic idea behind this generalization is that the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any linear dimension, and in particular is proportional to the square of the length of any side. Thus, if similar figures with areas A, B and C are erected on sides with corresponding lengths a, b and c then:

${\displaystyle {\frac {A}{a^{2}}}={\frac {B}{b^{2}}}={\frac {C}{c^{2}}}\,,}$

${\displaystyle \Rightarrow A+B={\frac {a^{2}}{c^{2}}}C+{\frac {b^{2}}{c^{2}}}C\,.}$

But, by the Pythagorean theorem, a² + b² = c², so A + B = C.

Conversely, if we can prove that A + B = C for three similar figures without using the Pythagorean theorem, then we can work backwards to construct a proof of the theorem. For example, the starting center triangle can be replicated and used as a triangle C on its hypotenuse, and two similar right triangles (A and B ) constructed on the other two sides, formed by dividing the central triangle by its altitude. The sum of the areas of the two smaller triangles therefore is that of the third, thus A + B = C and reversing the above logic leads to the Pythagorean theorem a² + b² = c².

Generalization for similar triangles, green area A + B = blue area C

Pythagoras's theorem using similar right triangles

Generalization for regular pentagons

Law of cosines

The separation s of two points (r₁, θ₁) and (r₂, θ₂) in polar coordinates is given by the law of cosines. Interior angle Δθ = θ₁−θ₂.

The Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the more general theorem relating the lengths of sides in any triangle, the law of cosines:

${\displaystyle a^{2}+b^{2}-2ab\cos {\theta }=c^{2},}$

where θ is the angle between sides a and b.

When θ is 90 degrees (π/2 radians), then cosθ = 0, and the formula reduces to the usual Pythagorean theorem.

Arbitrary triangle

Generalization of Pythagoras's theorem by Tâbit ibn Qorra. Lower panel: reflection of triangle ABD (top) to form triangle DBA, similar to triangle ABC (top).

 

At any selected angle of a general triangle of sides a, b, c, inscribe an isosceles triangle such that the equal angles at its base θ are the same as the selected angle. Suppose the selected angle θ is opposite the side labeled c. Inscribing the isosceles triangle forms triangle ABD with angle θ opposite side a and with side r along c. A second triangle is formed with angle θ opposite side b and a side with length s along c, as shown in the figure. Thābit ibn Qurra stated that the sides of the three triangles were related as:

${\displaystyle a^{2}+b^{2}=c(r+s)\ .}$

As the angle θ approaches π/2, the base of the isosceles triangle narrows, and lengths r and s overlap less and less. When θ = π/2, ADB becomes a right triangle, r + s = c, and the original Pythagorean theorem is regained.

One proof observes that triangle ABC has the same angles as triangle ABD, but in opposite order. (The two triangles share the angle at vertex B, both contain the angle θ, and so also have the same third angle by the triangle postulate.) Consequently, ABC is similar to the reflection of ABD, the triangle DBA in the lower panel. Taking the ratio of sides opposite and adjacent to θ,

${\displaystyle {\frac {c}{a}}={\frac {a}{r}}\ .}$

Likewise, for the reflection of the other triangle,

${\displaystyle {\frac {c}{b}}={\frac {b}{s}}\ .}$

Clearing fractions and adding these two relations:

${\displaystyle cr+cs=a^{2}+b^{2}\ ,}$

the required result.

The theorem remains valid if the angle ${\displaystyle \theta }$ is obtuse so the lengths r and s are non-overlapping.

General triangles using parallelograms

Generalization for arbitrary triangles,
green area = blue area

 

Construction for proof of parallelogram generalization

Pappus's area theorem is a further generalization, that applies to triangles that are not right triangles, using parallelograms on the three sides in place of squares (squares are a special case, of course). The upper figure shows that for a scalene triangle, the area of the parallelogram on the longest side is the sum of the areas of the parallelograms on the other two sides, provided the parallelogram on the long side is constructed as indicated (the dimensions labeled with arrows are the same, and determine the sides of the bottom parallelogram). This replacement of squares with parallelograms bears a clear resemblance to the original Pythagoras's theorem, and was considered a generalization by Pappus of Alexandria in 4 AD.

The lower figure shows the elements of the proof. Focus on the left side of the figure. The left green parallelogram has the same area as the left, blue portion of the bottom parallelogram because both have the same base b and height h. However, the left green parallelogram also has the same area as the left green parallelogram of the upper figure, because they have the same base (the upper left side of the triangle) and the same height normal to that side of the triangle. Repeating the argument for the right side of the figure, the bottom parallelogram has the same area as the sum of the two green parallelograms.

Solid geometry

Pythagoras's theorem in three dimensions relates the diagonal AD to the three sides.

 

A tetrahedron with outward facing right-angle corner.

 

In terms of solid geometry, Pythagoras's theorem can be applied to three dimensions as follows. Consider a rectangular solid as shown in the figure. The length of diagonal BD is found from Pythagoras's theorem as:

${\displaystyle {\overline {BD}}^{\,2}={\overline {BC}}^{\,2}+{\overline {CD}}^{\,2}\ ,}$

where these three sides form a right triangle. Using horizontal diagonal BD and the vertical edge AB, the length of diagonal AD then is found by a second application of Pythagoras's theorem as:

${\displaystyle {\overline {AD}}^{\,2}={\overline {AB}}^{\,2}+{\overline {BD}}^{\,2}\ ,}$

or, doing it all in one step:

${\displaystyle {\overline {AD}}^{\,2}={\overline {AB}}^{\,2}+{\overline {BC}}^{\,2}+{\overline {CD}}^{\,2}\ .}$

This result is the three-dimensional expression for the magnitude of a vector v (the diagonal AD) in terms of its orthogonal components {v_k} (the three mutually perpendicular sides):

${\displaystyle \|\mathbf {v} \|^{2}=\sum _{k=1}^{3}\|\mathbf {v} _{k}\|^{2}.}$

This one-step formulation may be viewed as a generalization of Pythagoras's theorem to higher dimensions. However, this result is really just the repeated application of the original Pythagoras's theorem to a succession of right triangles in a sequence of orthogonal planes.

A substantial generalization of the Pythagorean theorem to three dimensions is de Gua's theorem, named for Jean Paul de Gua de Malves: If a tetrahedron has a right angle corner (like a corner of a cube), then the square of the area of the face opposite the right angle corner is the sum of the squares of the areas of the other three faces. This result can be generalized as in the "n-dimensional Pythagorean theorem":

Let ${\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n}}$ be orthogonal vectors in ℝⁿ. Consider the n-dimensional simplex S with vertices ${\displaystyle 0,x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}}$. (Think of the (n − 1)-dimensional simplex with vertices ${\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}}$ not including the origin as the "hypotenuse" of S and the remaining (n − 1)-dimensional faces of S as its "legs".) Then the square of the volume of the hypotenuse of S is the sum of the squares of the volumes of the n legs.

This statement is illustrated in three dimensions by the tetrahedron in the figure. The "hypotenuse" is the base of the tetrahedron at the back of the figure, and the "legs" are the three sides emanating from the vertex in the foreground. As the depth of the base from the vertex increases, the area of the "legs" increases, while that of the base is fixed. The theorem suggests that when this depth is at the value creating a right vertex, the generalization of Pythagoras's theorem applies. In a different wording:

Given an n-rectangular n-dimensional simplex, the square of the (n − 1)-content of the facet opposing the right vertex will equal the sum of the squares of the (n − 1)-contents of the remaining facets.

Inner product spaces

Vectors involved in the parallelogram law

The Pythagorean theorem can be generalized to inner product spaces, which are generalizations of the familiar 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional Euclidean spaces. For example, a function may be considered as a vector with infinitely many components in an inner product space, as in functional analysis.

In an inner product space, the concept of perpendicularity is replaced by the concept of orthogonality: two vectors v and w are orthogonal if their inner product ${\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {w} \rangle }$ is zero. The inner product is a generalization of the dot product of vectors. The dot product is called the standard inner product or the Euclidean inner product. However, other inner products are possible.

The concept of length is replaced by the concept of the norm ||v|| of a vector v, defined as:

${\displaystyle \lVert \mathbf {v} \rVert \equiv {\sqrt {\langle \mathbf {v} ,\mathbf {v} \rangle }}\,.}$

In an inner-product space, the Pythagorean theorem states that for any two orthogonal vectors v and w we have

${\displaystyle \left\|\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {w} \right\|^{2}=\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|^{2}+\left\|\mathbf {w} \right\|^{2}.}$

Here the vectors v and w are akin to the sides of a right triangle with hypotenuse given by the vector sum v + w. This form of the Pythagorean theorem is a consequence of the properties of the inner product:

${\displaystyle \left\|\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {w} \right\|^{2}=\langle \mathbf {v+w} ,\ \mathbf {v+w} \rangle =\langle \mathbf {v} ,\ \mathbf {v} \rangle +\langle \mathbf {w} ,\ \mathbf {w} \rangle +\langle \mathbf {v,\ w} \rangle +\langle \mathbf {w,\ v} \rangle \ =\left\|\mathbf {v} \right\|^{2}+\left\|\mathbf {w} \right\|^{2},}$

where the inner products of the cross terms are zero, because of orthogonality.

A further generalization of the Pythagorean theorem in an inner product space to non-orthogonal vectors is the parallelogram law :

${\displaystyle 2\|\mathbf {v} \|^{2}+2\|\mathbf {w} \|^{2}=\|\mathbf {v+w} \|^{2}+\|\mathbf {v-w} \|^{2}\ ,}$

which says that twice the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides of a parallelogram is the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals. Any norm that satisfies this equality is ipso facto a norm corresponding to an inner product.

The Pythagorean identity can be extended to sums of more than two orthogonal vectors. If v₁, v₂, ..., v_n are pairwise-orthogonal vectors in an inner-product space, then application of the Pythagorean theorem to successive pairs of these vectors (as described for 3-dimensions in the section on solid geometry) results in the equation

${\displaystyle \left\|\sum _{k=1}^{n}\mathbf {v} _{k}\right\|^{2}=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\|\mathbf {v} _{k}\|^{2}}$

Sets of m-dimensional objects in n-dimensional space

Another generalization of the Pythagorean theorem applies to Lebesgue-measurable sets of objects in any number of dimensions. Specifically, the square of the measure of an m-dimensional set of objects in one or more parallel m-dimensional flats in n-dimensional Euclidean space is equal to the sum of the squares of the measures of the orthogonal projections of the object(s) onto all m-dimensional coordinate subspaces.

In mathematical terms:

${\displaystyle \mu _{ms}^{2}=\sum _{i=1}^{x}\mathbf {\mu ^{2}} _{mp_{i}}}$

where:

• ${\displaystyle \mu _{m}}$ is a measure in m-dimensions (a length in one dimension, an area in two dimensions, a volume in three dimensions, etc.).
• ${\displaystyle s}$ is a set of one or more non-overlapping m-dimensional objects in one or more parallel m-dimensional flats in n-dimensional Euclidean space.
• ${\displaystyle \mu _{ms}}$ is the total measure (sum) of the set of m-dimensional objects.
• ${\displaystyle p}$ represents an m-dimensional projection of the original set onto an orthogonal coordinate subspace.
• ${\displaystyle \mu _{mp_{i}}}$ is the measure of the m-dimensional set projection onto m-dimensional coordinate subspace ${\displaystyle i}$. Because object projections can overlap on a coordinate subspace, the measure of each object projection in the set must be calculated individually, then measures of all projections added together to provide the total measure for the set of projections on the given coordinate subspace.
• ${\displaystyle x}$ is the number of orthogonal, m-dimensional coordinate subspaces in n-dimensional space (Rⁿ) onto which the m-dimensional objects are projected (m ≤ n):

${\displaystyle x={\binom {n}{m}}={\frac {n!}{m!(n-m)!}}}$

Non-Euclidean geometry

The Pythagorean theorem is derived from the axioms of Euclidean geometry, and in fact, the Pythagorean theorem given above does not hold in a non-Euclidean geometry. (The Pythagorean theorem has been shown, in fact, to be equivalent to Euclid's Parallel (Fifth) Postulate.) In other words, in non-Euclidean geometry, the relation between the sides of a triangle must necessarily take a non-Pythagorean form. For example, in spherical geometry, all three sides of the right triangle (say a, b, and c) bounding an octant of the unit sphere have length equal to π/2, and all its angles are right angles, which violates the Pythagorean theorem because a² + b² ≠ c².
 
Here two cases of non-Euclidean geometry are considered—spherical geometry and hyperbolic plane geometry; in each case, as in the Euclidean case for non-right triangles, the result replacing the Pythagorean theorem follows from the appropriate law of cosines.

However, the Pythagorean theorem remains true in hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry if the condition that the triangle be right is replaced with the condition that two of the angles sum to the third, say A+B = C. The sides are then related as follows: the sum of the areas of the circles with diameters a and b equals the area of the circle with diameter c.

Spherical geometry

Spherical triangle

For any right triangle on a sphere of radius R (for example, if γ in the figure is a right angle), with sides a, b, c, the relation between the sides takes the form:

${\displaystyle \cos \left({\frac {c}{R}}\right)=\cos \left({\frac {a}{R}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {b}{R}}\right).}$

This equation can be derived as a special case of the spherical law of cosines that applies to all spherical triangles:

${\displaystyle \cos \left({\frac {c}{R}}\right)=\cos \left({\frac {a}{R}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {b}{R}}\right)+\sin \left({\frac {a}{R}}\right)\sin \left({\frac {b}{R}}\right)\cos \gamma \ .}$

By expressing the Maclaurin series for the cosine function as an asymptotic expansion with the remainder term in big O notation,

${\displaystyle \cos x=1-{\frac {x^{2}}{2}}+O(x^{4}){\text{ as }}x\to 0\ ,}$

it can be shown that as the radius R approaches infinity and the arguments a/R, b/R, and c/R tend to zero, the spherical relation between the sides of a right triangle approaches the Euclidean form of the Pythagorean theorem. Substituting the asymptotic expansion for each of the cosines into the spherical relation for a right triangle yields

${\displaystyle 1-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {c}{R}}\right)^{2}+O\left({\frac {1}{R^{4}}}\right)=\left[1-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {a}{R}}\right)^{2}+O\left({\frac {1}{R^{4}}}\right)\right]\left[1-{\frac {1}{2}}\left({\frac {b}{R}}\right)^{2}+O\left({\frac {1}{R^{4}}}\right)\right]{\text{ as }}R\to \infty \ .}$

The constants a⁴, b⁴, and c⁴ have been absorbed into the big O remainder terms since they are independent of the radius R. This asymptotic relationship can be further simplified by multiplying out the bracketed quantities, cancelling the ones, multiplying through by −2, and collecting all the error terms together:

${\displaystyle \left({\frac {c}{R}}\right)^{2}=\left({\frac {a}{R}}\right)^{2}+\left({\frac {b}{R}}\right)^{2}+O\left({\frac {1}{R^{4}}}\right){\text{ as }}R\to \infty \ .}$

After multiplying through by R², the Euclidean Pythagorean relationship c² = a² + b² is recovered in the limit as the radius R approaches infinity (since the remainder term tends to zero):

${\displaystyle c^{2}=a^{2}+b^{2}+O\left({\frac {1}{R^{2}}}\right){\text{ as }}R\to \infty \ .}$

For small right triangles (a, b << R), the cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance, giving

${\displaystyle \sin ^{2}{\frac {c}{2R}}=\sin ^{2}{\frac {a}{2R}}+\sin ^{2}{\frac {b}{2R}}-2\sin ^{2}{\frac {a}{2R}}\sin ^{2}{\frac {b}{2R}}\,.}$

Hyperbolic geometry

Hyperbolic triangle

In a hyperbolic space with uniform curvature −1/R², for a right triangle with legs a, b, and hypotenuse c, the relation between the sides takes the form:

${\displaystyle \cosh {\frac {c}{R}}=\cosh {\frac {a}{R}}\,\cosh {\frac {b}{R}}}$

where cosh is the hyperbolic cosine. This formula is a special form of the hyperbolic law of cosines that applies to all hyperbolic triangles:

${\displaystyle \cosh {\frac {c}{R}}=\cosh {\frac {a}{R}}\ \cosh {\frac {b}{R}}-\sinh {\frac {a}{R}}\ \sinh {\frac {b}{R}}\ \cos \gamma \ ,}$

with γ the angle at the vertex opposite the side c.

By using the Maclaurin series for the hyperbolic cosine, cosh x ≈ 1 + x²/2, it can be shown that as a hyperbolic triangle becomes very small (that is, as a, b, and c all approach zero), the hyperbolic relation for a right triangle approaches the form of Pythagoras's theorem.

For small right triangles (a, b << R), the hyperbolic cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance, giving

${\displaystyle \sinh ^{2}{\frac {c}{2R}}=\sinh ^{2}{\frac {a}{2R}}+\sinh ^{2}{\frac {b}{2R}}+2\sinh ^{2}{\frac {a}{2R}}\sinh ^{2}{\frac {b}{2R}}\,.}$

Very small triangles

For any uniform curvature K (positive, zero, or negative), in very small right triangles (|K|a², |K|b² << 1) with hypotenuse c, it can be shown that

${\displaystyle c^{2}=a^{2}+b^{2}-{\frac {K}{3}}a^{2}b^{2}-{\frac {K^{2}}{45}}a^{2}b^{2}(a^{2}+b^{2})-{\frac {2K^{3}}{945}}a^{2}b^{2}(a^{2}-b^{2})^{2}+O(K^{4}c^{10})\,.}$

Differential geometry

Distance between infinitesimally separated points in Cartesian coordinates (top) and polar coordinates (bottom), as given by Pythagoras's theorem

On an infinitesimal level, in three dimensional space, Pythagoras's theorem describes the distance between two infinitesimally separated points as:

${\displaystyle ds^{2}=dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2},}$

with ds the element of distance and (dx, dy, dz) the components of the vector separating the two points. Such a space is called a Euclidean space. However, in Riemannian geometry, a generalization of this expression useful for general coordinates (not just Cartesian) and general spaces (not just Euclidean) takes the form:

${\displaystyle ds^{2}=\sum _{i,j}^{n}g_{ij}\,dx_{i}\,dx_{j}}$

which is called the metric tensor. (Sometimes, by abuse of language, the same term is applied to the set of coefficients g_ij.) It may be a function of position, and often describes curved space. A simple example is Euclidean (flat) space expressed in curvilinear coordinates. For example, in polar coordinates:

${\displaystyle ds^{2}=dr^{2}+r^{2}d\theta ^{2}\ .}$

History

The Plimpton 322 tablet records Pythagorean triples from Babylonian times.

 

There is debate whether the Pythagorean theorem was discovered once, or many times in many places, and the date of first discovery is uncertain, as is the date of the first proof. According to Joran Friberg, a historian of mathematics, evidence indicates that the Pythagorean theorem was well-known to the mathematicians of the First Babylonian Dynasty (20th to 16th centuries BC), which would have been over a thousand years before Pythagoras was born, thus an example of Stigler's law of eponymy. (Yale's Institute for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage's 3-D scan of a cuneiform tablet depicting the proof is one of their mostly widely used images.) Other sources, such as a book by Leon Lederman and Dick Teresi, mention that Pythagoras discovered the theorem, although Teresi subsequently stated that the Babylonians developed the theorem "at least fifteen hundred years before Pythagoras was born." The history of the theorem can be divided into four parts: knowledge of Pythagorean triples, knowledge of the relationship among the sides of a right triangle, knowledge of the relationships among adjacent angles, and proofs of the theorem within some deductive system.
Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1903–1996) conjectured that Pythagorean triples were discovered algebraically by the Babylonians. Written between 2000 and 1786 BC, the Middle Kingdom Egyptian Berlin Papyrus 6619 includes a problem whose solution is the Pythagorean triple 6:8:10, but the problem does not mention a triangle. The Mesopotamian tablet Plimpton 322, written between 1790 and 1750 BC during the reign of Hammurabi the Great, contains many entries closely related to Pythagorean triples.

In India, the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the dates of which are given variously as between the 8th and 5th century BC, contains a list of Pythagorean triples discovered algebraically, a statement of the Pythagorean theorem, and a geometrical proof of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle. The Apastamba Sulba Sutra (c. 600 BC) contains a numerical proof of the general Pythagorean theorem, using an area computation. Van der Waerden believed that "it was certainly based on earlier traditions". Carl Boyer states that the Pythagorean theorem in Śulba-sũtram may have been influenced by ancient Mesopotamian math, but there is no conclusive evidence in favor or opposition of this possibility.

Geometric proof of the Pythagorean theorem from the Zhoubi Suanjing.

With contents known much earlier, but in surviving texts dating from roughly the 1st century BC, the Chinese text Zhoubi Suanjing (周髀算经), (The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven) gives a reasoning for the Pythagorean theorem for the (3, 4, 5) triangle—in China it is called the "Gougu theorem" (勾股定理). During the Han Dynasty (202 BC to 220 AD), Pythagorean triples appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, together with a mention of right triangles. Some believe the theorem arose first in China, where it is alternatively known as the "Shang Gao theorem" (商高定理), named after the Duke of Zhou's astronomer and mathematician, whose reasoning composed most of what was in the Zhoubi Suanjing.

Pythagoras, whose dates are commonly given as 569–475 BC, used algebraic methods to construct Pythagorean triples, according to Proclus's commentary on Euclid. Proclus, however, wrote between 410 and 485 AD. According to Thomas L. Heath (1861–1940), no specific attribution of the theorem to Pythagoras exists in the surviving Greek literature from the five centuries after Pythagoras lived. However, when authors such as Plutarch and Cicero attributed the theorem to Pythagoras, they did so in a way which suggests that the attribution was widely known and undoubted. "Whether this formula is rightly attributed to Pythagoras personally, [...] one can safely assume that it belongs to the very oldest period of Pythagorean mathematics."

Around 400 BC, according to Proclus, Plato gave a method for finding Pythagorean triples that combined algebra and geometry. Around 300 BC, in Euclid's Elements, the oldest extant axiomatic proof of the theorem is presented.