Causality (physics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality_(physics)

In physics, causality, requires the cause of an event to be in the past light cone of the result and to be ultimately reducible to fundamental interactions. Similarly, a cause cannot have an effect outside its future light cone.

Macroscopic vs microscopic causality

Causality can be defined macroscopically, at the level of human observers, or microscopically, for fundamental events at the atomic level. The strong causality principle forbids information transfer faster than the speed of light; the weak causality principle operates at the microscopic level and need not lead to information transfer. Physical models can obey the weak principle without obeying the strong version. In the algebraic formulation of quantum field theory, microscopic causality is taken as an axiom, formulated technically but equivalent to the idea that two measurements in different places at the same time cannot affect each other.

Macroscopic causality

In classical physics, an effect cannot occur before its cause which is why solutions such as the advanced time solutions of the Liénard–Wiechert potential are discarded as physically meaningless. In both Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, causality means that an effect cannot occur from a cause that is not in the back (past) light cone of that event. Similarly, a cause cannot have an effect outside its front (future) light cone. These restrictions are consistent with the constraint that mass and energy that act as causal influences cannot travel faster than the speed of light and/or backwards in time.

Another requirement of causality is that cause and effect be mediated across space and time (requirement of contiguity). This requirement has been very influential in the past, in the first place as a result of direct observation of causal processes (like pushing a cart), in the second place as a problematic aspect of Newton's theory of gravitation (attraction of the earth by the sun by means of action at a distance) replacing mechanistic proposals like Descartes' vortex theory; in the third place as an incentive to develop dynamic field theories (e.g., Maxwell's electrodynamics and Einstein's general theory of relativity) restoring contiguity in the transmission of influences in a more successful way than in Descartes' theory.

Simultaneity

In modern physics, the notion of causality had to be clarified. The word simultaneous is observer-dependent in special relativity. The principle is relativity of simultaneity. Consequently, the relativistic principle of causality says that the cause must precede its effect according to all inertial observers. This is equivalent to the statement that the cause and its effect are separated by a timelike interval, and the effect belongs to the future of its cause. If a timelike interval separates the two events, this means that a signal could be sent between them at less than the speed of light. On the other hand, if signals could move faster than the speed of light, this would violate causality because it would allow a signal to be sent across spacelike intervals, which means that at least to some inertial observers the signal would travel backward in time. For this reason, special relativity does not allow communication faster than the speed of light.

In the theory of general relativity, the concept of causality is generalized in the most straightforward way: the effect must belong to the future light cone of its cause, even if the spacetime is curved. New subtleties must be taken into account when we investigate causality in quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory in particular. In those two theories, causality is closely related to the principle of locality. Bell's Theorem shows that conditions of "local causality" in experiments involving quantum entanglement result in non-classical correlations predicted by quantum mechanics.

Despite these subtleties, causality remains an important and valid concept in physical theories. For example, the notion that events can be ordered into causes and effects is necessary to prevent (or at least outline) causality paradoxes such as the grandfather paradox, which asks what happens if a time-traveler kills his own grandfather before he ever meets the time-traveler's grandmother. See also Chronology protection conjecture.

Determinism (or, what causality is not)

The word causality in this context means that all effects must have specific physical causes due to fundamental interactions. Causality in this context is not associated with definitional principles such as Newton's second law. As such, in the context of causality, a force does not cause a mass to accelerate nor vice versa. Rather, Newton's second law can be derived from the conservation of momentum, which itself is a consequence of the spatial homogeneity of physical laws.

The empiricists' aversion to metaphysical explanations (like Descartes' vortex theory) meant that scholastic arguments about what caused phenomena were either rejected for being untestable or were just ignored. The complaint that physics does not explain the cause of phenomena has accordingly been dismissed as a problem that is philosophical or metaphysical rather than empirical (e.g., Newton's "Hypotheses non fingo"). According to Ernst Mach the notion of force in Newton's second law was pleonastic, tautological and superfluous and, as indicated above, is not considered a consequence of any principle of causality. Indeed, it is possible to consider the Newtonian equations of motion of the gravitational interaction of two bodies,

${\displaystyle m_1\frac{d^2{\mathbf{r}}_1}{d{t}^2}=-\frac{m_1{m}_{2}G({\mathbf{r}}_1-{\mathbf{r}}_2)}{|{\mathbf{r}}_1-{\mathbf{r}}_2{|}^3};m_2\frac{d^2{\mathbf{r}}_2}{d{t}^2}=-\frac{m_1{m}_{2}G({\mathbf{r}}_2-{\mathbf{r}}_1)}{|{\mathbf{r}}_2-{\mathbf{r}}_1{|}^3},}$

as two coupled equations describing the positions ${\displaystyle {\mathbf{r}}_1(t)}$ and ${\displaystyle {\mathbf{r}}_2(t)}$ of the two bodies, without interpreting the right hand sides of these equations as forces; the equations just describe a process of interaction, without any necessity to interpret one body as the cause of the motion of the other, and allow one to predict the states of the system at later (as well as earlier) times.

The ordinary situations in which humans singled out some factors in a physical interaction as being prior and therefore supplying the "because" of the interaction were often ones in which humans decided to bring about some state of affairs and directed their energies to producing that state of affairs—a process that took time to establish and left a new state of affairs that persisted beyond the time of activity of the actor. It would be difficult and pointless, however, to explain the motions of binary stars with respect to each other in that way which, indeed, are time-reversible and agnostic to the arrow of time, but with such a direction of time established, the entire evolution system could then be completely determined.

The possibility of such a time-independent view is at the basis of the deductive-nomological (D-N) view of scientific explanation, considering an event to be explained if it can be subsumed under a scientific law. In the D-N view, a physical state is considered to be explained if, applying the (deterministic) law, it can be derived from given initial conditions. (Such initial conditions could include the momenta and distance from each other of binary stars at any given moment.) Such 'explanation by determinism' is sometimes referred to as causal determinism. A disadvantage of the D-N view is that causality and determinism are more or less identified. Thus, in classical physics, it was assumed that all events are caused by earlier ones according to the known laws of nature, culminating in Pierre-Simon Laplace's claim that if the current state of the world were known with precision, it could be computed for any time in the future or the past (see Laplace's demon). However, this is usually referred to as Laplace determinism (rather than 'Laplace causality') because it hinges on determinism in mathematical models as dealt with in the mathematical Cauchy problem.

Confusion between causality and determinism is particularly acute in quantum mechanics, this theory being acausal in the sense that it is unable in many cases to identify the causes of actually observed effects or to predict the effects of identical causes, but arguably deterministic in some interpretations (e.g. if the wave function is presumed not to actually collapse as in the many-worlds interpretation, or if its collapse is due to hidden variables, or simply redefining determinism as meaning that probabilities rather than specific effects are determined).

Distributed causality

Theories in physics like the butterfly effect from chaos theory open up the possibility of a type of distributed parameter systems in causality.  The butterfly effect theory proposes:

"Small variations of the initial condition of a nonlinear dynamical system may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system."

This opens up the opportunity to understand a distributed causality.

A related way to interpret the butterfly effect is to see it as highlighting the difference between the application of the notion of causality in physics and a more general use of causality as represented by Mackie's INUS conditions. In classical (Newtonian) physics, in general, only those conditions are (explicitly) taken into account, that are both necessary and sufficient. For instance, when a massive sphere is caused to roll down a slope starting from a point of unstable equilibrium, then its velocity is assumed to be caused by the force of gravity accelerating it; the small push that was needed to set it into motion is not explicitly dealt with as a cause. In order to be a physical cause there must be a certain proportionality with the ensuing effect. A distinction is drawn between triggering and causation of the ball's motion. By the same token the butterfly can be seen as triggering a tornado, its cause being assumed to be seated in the atmospherical energies already present beforehand, rather than in the movements of a butterfly.

Causal sets

Main article: Causal sets

In causal set theory, causality takes an even more prominent place. The basis for this approach to quantum gravity is in a theorem by David Malament. This theorem states that the causal structure of a spacetime suffices to reconstruct its conformal class, so knowing the conformal factor and the causal structure is enough to know the spacetime. Based on this, Rafael Sorkin proposed the idea of Causal Set Theory, which is a fundamentally discrete approach to quantum gravity. The causal structure of the spacetime is represented as a poset, while the conformal factor can be reconstructed by identifying each poset element with a unit volume.

Redshift

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift 

Absorption lines in the visible spectrum of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to absorption lines in the visible spectrum of the Sun (left). Arrows indicate redshift. Wavelength increases up towards the red and beyond (frequency decreases).

In physics, a redshift is an increase in the wavelength, or equivalently, a decrease in the frequency, of electromagnetic radiation (such as light). The opposite change, a decrease in wavelength and increase in frequency and energy, is known as a blueshift.

Three forms of redshift occur in astronomy and cosmology: Doppler redshifts due to the relative motions of radiation sources, gravitational redshift as radiation escapes from gravitational potentials, and cosmological redshifts caused by the universe expanding. The value of a redshift is often denoted by the letter z, corresponding to the fractional change in wavelength (positive for redshifts, negative for blueshifts), and by the wavelength ratio 1 + z (which is greater than 1 for redshifts and less than 1 for blueshifts). Automated astronomical redshift surveys are an important tool for learning about the large-scale structure of the universe. Redshift and blueshift can also be related to photon energy and, via Planck's law, to a corresponding blackbody temperature.

Examples of strong redshifting are a gamma ray perceived as an X-ray, or initially visible light perceived as radio waves. The initial 3000 kelvin (K) radiation from the Big Bang has redshifted far down to become the 3 K cosmic microwave background. Subtler redshifts are seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects, and are used in terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns. Gravitational waves, which also travel at the speed of light, are subject to the same redshift phenomena.

Other physical processes exist that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation, including scattering and optical effects; however, the resulting changes are distinguishable from (astronomical) redshift and are not generally referred to as such.

History

The history of the subject began in the 19th century, with the development of classical wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena which are associated with the Doppler effect. The effect is named after the Austrian mathematician Christian Doppler, who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842. In 1845, the hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot. Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon would apply to all waves and, in particular, suggested that the varying colors of stars could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth.

Unaware of Doppler's work, French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau suggested in 1848 that a shift in spectral lines from stars might be used to measure their motion relative to Earth. In 1850, François-Napoléon-Marie Moigno analysed both Doppler's and Fizeau's ideas in a publication read by both James Clerk Maxwell and William Huggins, who initially stuck to the idea that the color of stars related to their chemistry, however by 1868, Huggins was the first to determine the velocity of a star moving away from the Earth by the analysis of spectral shifts.

In 1871, optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in Fraunhofer lines, using solar rotation, about 0.1 Å in the red. In 1887, Hermann Carl Vogel and Julius Scheiner discovered the "annual Doppler effect", the yearly change in the Doppler shift of stars located near the ecliptic, due to the orbital velocity of the Earth. In 1901, Aristarkh Belopolsky verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors.

Beginning with observations in 1912, Vesto Slipher discovered that the Andromeda Galaxy had a blue shift, indicating that it was moving towards the Earth. Slipher first reported his measurement in the inaugural volume of the Lowell Observatory Bulletin. Three years later, he wrote a review in the journal Popular Astronomy. In it he stated that "the early discovery that the great Andromeda spiral had the quite exceptional velocity of –300 km[/s] showed the means then available, capable of investigating not only the spectra of the spirals but their velocities as well." Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire celestial sphere, all but three having observable "positive" (that is recessional) velocities.

Until 1923 the nature of the nebulae was unclear. By that year Edwin Hubble had established that these were galaxies and worked out a procedure to measure distance based on the period-luminosity relation of variable Cepheids stars. This made it possible to test a prediction by Willem de Sitter in 1917 that redshift would be correlated with distance. In 1929 Hubble combined his distance estimates with redshift data from Slipher's reports and measurements by Milton Humason to report an approximate relationship between the redshift and distance, a result now called Hubble's law.

Theories relating to the redshift-distance relation also evolved during the 1920s. The solution to the equations of general relativity described by de Sitter contained no matter, but in 1922 Alexander Friedmann derived dynamic solutions, now called the Friedmann equations, based on frictionless fluid models. Independently Georges Lemaître derived similar equations in 1927 and his analysis became widely known around the time of Hubble's key publication.

By early 1930 the combination of the redshift measurements and theoretical models established a major breakthrough in the new science of cosmology: the universe had a history and its expansion could be investigated with physical models backed up with observational astronomy.

When cosmological redshifts were first discovered, Fritz Zwicky proposed an effect known as tired light. However this model has largely been ruled out by timescale stretch observations in type Ia supernovae.

Arthur Eddington used the term "red shift" as early as 1923, which is the oldest example of the term reported by the Oxford English Dictionary. Willem de Sitter used the single-word version redshift in 1934.

In the 1960s the discovery of quasars, which appear as very blue point sources and thus were initially thought to be unusual stars, led to the idea that they were as bright as they were because they were closer than their redshift data indicated. A flurry of theoretical and observational work concluded that these objects were very powerful but distant astronomical objects.

Physical origins

Redshifts are differences between two wavelength measurements and wavelengths are a property of both the photons and the measuring equipment. Thus redshifts characterise differences between two measurement locations. These differences are commonly organised in three groups, attributed to relative motion between the source and the observer, to the expansion of the universe, and to gravity. The following sections explain these groups.

Doppler effect

Main articles: Doppler effect and Relativistic Doppler effect

Doppler effect, yellow (c. 575 nm wavelength) ball appears greenish (blueshift to c. 565 nm wavelength) approaching observer, turns orange (redshift to c. 585 nm wavelength) as it passes, and returns to yellow when motion stops. To observe such a change in colour, the object would have to be travelling at approximately 5,200 km/s, or about 32 times faster than the speed record for the fastest space probe.

Redshift and blueshift

If a source of the light is moving away from an observer, then redshift (z > 0) occurs; if the source moves towards the observer, then blueshift (z < 0) occurs. This is true for all electromagnetic waves and is explained by the Doppler effect. Consequently, this type of redshift is called the Doppler redshift. If the source moves away from the observer with velocity v, which is much less than the speed of light (v ≪ c), the redshift is given by

$${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{v}{c}}$$

where c is the speed of light (since ${\displaystyle \gamma \approx 1}$). In the classical Doppler effect, the frequency of the source is not modified, but the recessional motion causes the illusion of a lower frequency.

A more complete treatment of the Doppler redshift requires considering relativistic effects associated with motion of sources close to the speed of light. A complete derivation of the effect can be found in the article on the relativistic Doppler effect. In brief, objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the time dilation of special relativity which can be corrected for by introducing the Lorentz factor γ into the classical Doppler formula as follows (for motion solely in the line of sight):

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\left(1+\frac{v}{c}\right)\gamma .}$$

This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G. R. Stilwell, called the Ives–Stilwell experiment.

Since the Lorentz factor is dependent only on the magnitude of the velocity, this causes the redshift associated with the relativistic correction to be independent of the orientation of the source movement. In contrast, the classical part of the formula is dependent on the projection of the movement of the source into the line-of-sight which yields different results for different orientations. If θ is the angle between the direction of relative motion and the direction of emission in the observer's frame (zero angle is directly away from the observer), the full form for the relativistic Doppler effect becomes:

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{1+v\cos (\theta )/c}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}}$$

and for motion solely in the line of sight (θ = 0°), this equation reduces to:

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\sqrt{\frac{1+v/c}{1-v/c}}}$$

For the special case that the light is moving at right angle (θ = 90°) to the direction of relative motion in the observer's frame, the relativistic redshift is known as the transverse redshift, and a redshift:

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}}$$

is measured, even though the object is not moving away from the observer. Even when the source is moving towards the observer, if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source will be redshifted.

Cosmological

Main article: Expansion of the universe

The observations of increasing redshifts from more and more distant galaxies can be modelled assuming a homogeneous and isotropic universe combined with general relativity. This cosmological redshift can be written as a function of a, the time-dependent cosmic scale factor:

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{a_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{w}}}{a_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}}}=\frac{a_0}{a(t)}}$$

The scale factor is monotonically increasing as time passes. Thus z is positive, close to zero for local stars, and increasing for distant galaxies that appear redshifted.

Using a Friedmann–Robertson–Walker model of the expansion of the universe, redshift can be related to the age of an observed object, the so-called cosmic time–redshift relation. Denote a density ratio as Ω₀:

$${\displaystyle {\mathrm{\Omega }}_0=\frac{\rho }{{\rho }_{\text{crit}}},}$$

with ρ_crit the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands. This density is about three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter of space. At large redshifts, 1 + z > Ω₀⁻¹, one finds:

$${\displaystyle t(z)\approx \frac{2}{3H_0{{\mathrm{\Omega }}_0}^{1/2}}(\frac{1}{z^{3/2}}),}$$

where t is age of the object after the big bang, H₀ is the present-day Hubble constant, and z is the redshift. For these large redshifts, the age of the universe, t(z), is small, meaning that the light was emitted when the universe was young.

The cosmological redshift is commonly attributed to stretching of the wavelengths of photons due to the stretching of space. This interpretation can be misleading. As required by general relativity, the cosmological expansion of space has no effect on local physics. There is no term related to expansion in Maxwell's equations that govern light propagation. The cosmological redshift can be interpreted as an accumulation of infinitesimal Doppler shifts along the trajectory of the light.

There are several websites for calculating various times and distances from redshift, as the precise calculations require numerical integrals for most values of the parameters.

Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects

The redshift of a galaxy includes both a component related to recessional velocity from expansion of the universe, and a component related to the peculiar motion of the galaxy with respect to its local universe. The redshift due to expansion of the universe depends upon the recessional velocity in a fashion determined by the cosmological model chosen to describe the expansion of the universe, which is very different from how Doppler redshift depends upon local velocity. Describing the cosmological expansion origin of redshift, cosmologist Edward Robert Harrison said, "Light leaves a galaxy, which is stationary in its local region of space, and is eventually received by observers who are stationary in their own local region of space. Between the galaxy and the observer, light travels through vast regions of expanding space. As a result, all wavelengths of the light are stretched by the expansion of space. It is as simple as that..." Steven Weinberg clarified, "The increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does not depend on the rate of change of a(t) [the scale factor] at the times of emission or absorption, but on the increase of a(t) in the whole period from emission to absorption."

Gravitational redshift

Main article: Gravitational redshift

In the theory of general relativity, there is time dilation within a gravitational well. Light emitted within the well will appear to have fewer cycles per second when measured outside of the well, due to differences in the two clocks. This is known as the gravitational redshift or Einstein shift. The theoretical derivation of this effect follows from the Schwarzschild solution of the Einstein equations which yields the following formula for redshift associated with a photon travelling in the gravitational field of an uncharged, nonrotating, spherically symmetric mass:

$${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{2GM}{r{c}^2}}},}$$

where

• G is the gravitational constant,
• M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field,
• r is the radial coordinate of the source (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate), and
• c is the speed of light.

This gravitational redshift result can be derived from the assumptions of special relativity and the equivalence principle; the full theory of general relativity is not required.

The effect is very small but measurable on Earth using the Mössbauer effect and was first observed in the Pound–Rebka experiment. However, it is significant near a black hole, and as an object approaches the event horizon the red shift becomes infinite. It is also the dominant cause of large angular-scale temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation (see Sachs–Wolfe effect).

Summary table

Several important special-case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries are summarised in the following table. In all cases the magnitude of the shift (the value of z) is independent of the wavelength.

Redshift summary

Redshift type	Geometry	Formulae
Relativistic Doppler	Minkowski space (flat spacetime)	For motion completely in the radial or line-of-sight direction: ${\displaystyle 1+z=\gamma \left(1+\frac{v_{\parallel }}{c}\right)=\sqrt{\frac{1+\frac{v_{\parallel }}{c}}{1-\frac{v_{\parallel }}{c}}}}$ ${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{v_{\parallel }}{c}}$ for small ${\displaystyle v_{\parallel }}$ For motion completely in the transverse direction: $${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v_{\perp }^2}{c^2}}}}$$ ${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{1}{2}{\left(\frac{v_{\perp }}{c}\right)}^2}$ for small ${\displaystyle v_{\perp }}$
Cosmological redshift	FLRW spacetime (expanding Big Bang universe)	$${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{a_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{w}}}{a_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}}}}$$ Hubble's law: $${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{H_{0}D}{c}}$$ for ${\displaystyle D\ll \frac{c}{H_0}}$
Gravitational redshift	Any stationary spacetime	$${\displaystyle 1+z=\sqrt{\frac{g_{tt}(\text{receiver})}{g_{tt}(\text{source})}}}$$ For the Schwarzschild geometry: $${\displaystyle 1+z=\sqrt{\frac{1-\frac{r_S}{r_{\text{receiver}}}}{1-\frac{r_S}{r_{\text{source}}}}}=\sqrt{\frac{1-\frac{2GM}{c^2{r}_{\text{receiver}}}}{1-\frac{2GM}{c^2{r}_{\text{source}}}}}}$$ ${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{r_S}{r_{\text{source}}}-\frac{r_S}{r_{\text{receiver}}}\right)}$ for ${\displaystyle r\gg r_S}$ In terms of escape velocity: ${\displaystyle z\approx \frac{1}{2}{\left(\frac{v_{\text{e}}}{c}\right)}_{\text{source}}^2-\frac{1}{2}{\left(\frac{v_{\text{e}}}{c}\right)}_{\text{receiver}}^2}$ for ${\displaystyle v_{\text{e}}\ll c}$

1. Where z = redshift; v_|| = velocity parallel to line-of-sight (positive if moving away from receiver); c = speed of light; γ = Lorentz factor; a = scale factor; D = proper distance; G = gravitational constant; M = object mass; r = radial Schwarzschild coordinate, g_tt = t,t component of the metric tensor

Measurement

High-redshift galaxy candidates in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, 2012

Using a telescope and a spectrometer, the variation in intensity of star light with frequency can be measured. The resulting spectrum can be compared to the spectrum from hot gases expected in stars, such as hydrogen, in a laboratory on Earth. As illustrated with the idealised spectrum in the top-right, to determine the redshift, features in the two spectra such as absorption lines, emission lines, or other variations in light intensity may be shifted.

Redshift (and blueshift) may be characterised by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths (or frequency) of an object. In astronomy, it is customary to refer to this change using a dimensionless quantity called z. If λ represents wavelength and f represents frequency (note, λf = c where c is the speed of light), then z is defined by the equations:

Calculation of redshift, ${\displaystyle z}$

Based on wavelength	Based on frequency
${\displaystyle z=\frac{{\lambda }_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{v}}-{\lambda }_{\mathrm{e}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}}{{\lambda }_{\mathrm{e}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}}}$	${\displaystyle z=\frac{f_{\mathrm{e}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}-f_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{v}}}{f_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{v}}}}$
${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{{\lambda }_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{v}}}{{\lambda }_{\mathrm{e}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}}}$	${\displaystyle 1+z=\frac{f_{\mathrm{e}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}}{f_{\mathrm{o}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{v}}}}$

Doppler effect blueshifts (z < 0) are associated with objects approaching (moving closer to) the observer with the light shifting to greater energies. Conversely, Doppler effect redshifts (z > 0) are associated with objects receding (moving away) from the observer with the light shifting to lower energies. Likewise, gravitational blueshifts are associated with light emitted from a source residing within a weaker gravitational field as observed from within a stronger gravitational field, while gravitational redshifting implies the opposite conditions.

Observations in astronomy

The lookback time by observed redshift up to z = 20 using parameters of the Planck mission in the standard model of cosmology. There are websites for calculating distances from redshift.

The redshift observed in astronomy can be measured because the emission and absorption spectra for atoms are distinctive and well known, calibrated from spectroscopic experiments in laboratories on Earth. When the redshifts of various absorption and emission lines from a single astronomical object are measured, z is found to be remarkably constant. Although distant objects may be slightly blurred and lines broadened, it is by no more than can be explained by thermal or mechanical motion of the source. For these reasons and others, the consensus among astronomers is that the redshifts they observe are due to some combination of the three established forms of Doppler-like redshifts.

Spectroscopy, as a measurement, is considerably more difficult than simple photometry, which measures the brightness of astronomical objects through certain filters. When photometric data is all that is available (for example, the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field), astronomers rely on a technique for measuring photometric redshifts. Due to the broad wavelength ranges in photometric filters and the necessary assumptions about the nature of the spectrum at the light-source, errors for these sorts of measurements can range up to δz = 0.5, and are much less reliable than spectroscopic determinations.

However, photometry does at least allow a qualitative characterisation of a redshift. For example, if a Sun-like spectrum had a redshift of z = 1, it would be brightest in the infrared (1000 nm) rather than at the blue-green (500 nm) color associated with the peak of its blackbody spectrum, and the light intensity will be reduced in the filter by a factor of four, (1 + z)². Both the photon count rate and the photon energy are redshifted. (See K correction for more details on the photometric consequences of redshift.)

Determining the redshift of an object with spectroscopy requires the wavelength of the emitted light in the rest frame of the source. Astronomical applications rely on distinct spectral lines. Redshifts cannot be calculated by looking at unidentified features whose rest-frame frequency is unknown, or with a spectrum that is featureless or white noise (random fluctuations in a spectrum). Thus gamma-ray bursts themselves cannot be used for reliable redshift measurements, but optical afterglow associated with the burst can be analysed for redshifts.

Local observations

In nearby objects (within our Milky Way galaxy) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line-of-sight velocities associated with the objects being observed. Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts enable astronomers to measure velocities and parametrise the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries. Similarly, small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters. Some approaches are able to track the redshift variations in multiple objects at once.

Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun. Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets, velocities of interstellar clouds, the rotation of galaxies, and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts. The temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening—effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line. By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21-centimeter hydrogen line in different directions, astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas, which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way. Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies, such as Andromeda.

Extragalactic observations

The most distant objects exhibit larger redshifts corresponding to the Hubble flow of the universe. The largest-observed redshift, corresponding to the greatest distance and furthest back in time, is that of the cosmic microwave background radiation; the numerical value of its redshift is about z = 1089 (z = 0 corresponds to present time), and it shows the state of the universe about 13.8 billion years ago, and 379,000 years after the initial moments of the Big Bang.

The luminous point-like cores of quasars were the first "high-redshift" (z > 0.1) objects discovered before the improvement of telescopes allowed for the discovery of other high-redshift galaxies.

For galaxies more distant than the Local Group and the nearby Virgo Cluster, but within a thousand megaparsecs or so, the redshift is approximately proportional to the galaxy's distance. This correlation was first observed by Edwin Hubble and has come to be known as Hubble's law. Vesto Slipher was the first to discover galactic redshifts, in about 1912, while Hubble correlated Slipher's measurements with distances he measured by other means to formulate his law. Because it is usually not known how luminous objects are, measuring the redshift is easier than more direct distance measurements, so redshift is sometimes in practice converted to a crude distance measurement using Hubble's law.

Gravitational interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant scatter in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram. The peculiar velocities associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the mass of virialised objects in the universe. This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies (such as the Andromeda Galaxy) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common barycenter, and redshift maps of clusters showing a fingers of god effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution. These "redshift-space distortions" can be used as a cosmological probe in their own right, providing information on how structure formed in the universe, and how gravity behaves on large scales.

The Hubble law's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the universe is constant. However, when the universe was much younger, the expansion rate, and thus the Hubble "constant", was larger than it is today. For more distant galaxies, then, whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times, the approximation of constant expansion rate fails, and the Hubble law becomes a non-linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question. Observations of the redshift-distance relationship can be used, then, to determine the expansion history of the universe and thus the matter and energy content.

It was long believed that the expansion rate has been continuously decreasing since the Big Bang, but observations beginning in 1988 of the redshift-distance relationship using Type Ia supernovae have suggested that in comparatively recent times the expansion rate of the universe has begun to accelerate.

Highest redshifts

See also: List of most distant astronomical objects by type

Comoving distance and lookback time for the Planck 2018 cosmology parameters, from redshift 0 to 15, with distance (blue solid line) on the left axis, and time (orange dashed line) on the right. Note that the time that has passed (in billions of years) from a given redshift until now is not the same as the distance (in giga light years) light would have travelled from that redshift, due to the expansion of the universe over the intervening period.

The most reliable redshifts are from spectroscopic data, and the highest-confirmed spectroscopic redshift of a galaxy is that of JADES-GS-z14-0 with a redshift of z = 14.32, corresponding to 290 million years after the Big Bang. The previous record was held by GN-z11, with a redshift of z = 11.1, corresponding to 400 million years after the Big Bang.

Slightly less reliable are Lyman-break redshifts, the highest of which is the lensed galaxy A1689-zD1 at a redshift z = 7.5 and the next highest being z = 7.0. The most distant-observed gamma-ray burst with a spectroscopic redshift measurement was GRB 090423, which had a redshift of z = 8.2. The most distant-known quasar, ULAS J1342+0928, is at z = 7.54. The highest-known redshift radio galaxy (TGSS1530) is at a redshift z = 5.72 and the highest-known redshift molecular material is the detection of emission from the CO molecule from the quasar SDSS J1148+5251 at z = 6.42.

Extremely red objects (EROs) are astronomical sources of radiation that radiate energy in the red and near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These may be starburst galaxies that have a high redshift accompanied by reddening from intervening dust, or they could be highly redshifted elliptical galaxies with an older (and therefore redder) stellar population. Objects that are even redder than EROs are termed hyper extremely red objects (HEROs).

In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6.60. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.

Nonetheless, relic sources post far higher redshifts than even the furthest astronomical objects observed. The cosmic microwave background has a redshift of z = 1089, corresponding to an age of approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang and a proper distance of more than 46 billion light-years. This redshift corresponds to a shift in average temperature from 3000 K down to 3 K. The yet-to-be-observed first light from the oldest Population III stars, not long after atoms first formed and the CMB ceased to be absorbed almost completely, may have redshifts in the range of 20 < z < 100. Other high-redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the cosmic neutrino background from about two seconds after the Big Bang (and a redshift in excess of z > 10¹⁰) and the cosmic gravitational wave background emitted directly from inflation at a redshift in excess of z > 10²⁵.

Redshift surveys

Main article: Redshift survey

Rendering of the 2dFGRS data

With advent of automated telescopes and improvements in spectroscopes, a number of collaborations have been made to map the universe in redshift space. By combining redshift with angular position data, a redshift survey maps the 3D distribution of matter within a field of the sky. These observations are used to measure properties of the large-scale structure of the universe. The Great Wall, a vast supercluster of galaxies over 500 million light-years wide, provides a dramatic example of a large-scale structure that redshift surveys can detect.

The first redshift survey was the CfA Redshift Survey, started in 1977 with the initial data collection completed in 1982. More recently, the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey determined the large-scale structure of one section of the universe, measuring redshifts for over 220,000 galaxies; data collection was completed in 2002, and the final data set was released 30 June 2003. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) began collecting data in 1998 and published its eighteenth data release in 2023. SSDS has measured redshifts for galaxies as high as 0.8, and has recorded over 100,000 quasars at z = 3 and beyond. The DEEP2 Redshift Survey used the Keck telescopes with the "DEIMOS" spectrograph; a follow-up to the pilot program DEEP1, DEEP2 was designed to measure faint galaxies with redshifts 0.7 and above, and it recorded redshifts of over 38,000 objects by its conclusion in 2013.

Effects from physical optics or radiative transfer

The interactions and phenomena summarised in the subjects of radiative transfer and physical optics can result in shifts in the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation. In such cases, the shifts correspond to a physical energy transfer to matter or other photons rather than being by a transformation between reference frames. Such shifts can be from such physical phenomena as coherence effects or the scattering of electromagnetic radiation whether from charged elementary particles, from particulates, or from fluctuations of the index of refraction in a dielectric medium as occurs in the radio phenomenon of radio whistlers. While such phenomena are sometimes referred to as "redshifts" and "blueshifts", in astrophysics light–matter interactions that result in energy shifts in the radiation field are generally referred to as "reddening" rather than "redshifting" which, as a term, is normally reserved for the effects discussed above.

In many circumstances scattering causes radiation to redden because entropy results in the predominance of many low-energy photons over few high-energy ones (while conserving total energy). Except possibly under carefully controlled conditions, scattering does not produce the same relative change in wavelength across the whole spectrum; that is, any calculated z is generally a function of wavelength. Furthermore, scattering from random media generally occurs at many angles, and z is a function of the scattering angle. If multiple scattering occurs, or the scattering particles have relative motion, then there is generally distortion of spectral lines as well.

In interstellar astronomy, visible spectra can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as interstellar reddening—similarly Rayleigh scattering causes the atmospheric reddening of the Sun seen in the sunrise or sunset and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue colour. This phenomenon is distinct from redshifting because the spectroscopic lines are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional dimming and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the line of sight.

Blueshift

"Blueshift" redirects here. For the term as used in photochemistry, see hypsochromic shift. For the political phenomenon, see blue shift (politics). For other uses of "blueshift" or "blue shift", see Blueshift (disambiguation).

The opposite of a redshift is a blueshift. A blueshift is any decrease in wavelength (increase in energy), with a corresponding increase in frequency, of an electromagnetic wave. In visible light, this shifts a color towards the blue end of the spectrum.

Doppler blueshift

Doppler redshift and blueshift

Doppler blueshift is caused by movement of a source towards the observer. The term applies to any decrease in wavelength and increase in frequency caused by relative motion, even outside the visible spectrum. Only objects moving at near-relativistic speeds toward the observer are noticeably bluer to the naked eye, but the wavelength of any reflected or emitted photon or other particle is shortened in the direction of travel.

Doppler blueshift is used in astronomy to determine relative motion:

• The Andromeda Galaxy is moving toward our own Milky Way galaxy within the Local Group; thus, when observed from Earth, its light is undergoing a blueshift.
• Components of a binary star system will be blueshifted when moving towards Earth
• When observing spiral galaxies, the side spinning toward us will have a slight blueshift relative to the side spinning away from us (see Tully–Fisher relation).
• Blazars are known to propel relativistic jets toward us, emitting synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung that appears blueshifted.
• Nearby stars such as Barnard's Star are moving toward us, resulting in a very small blueshift.
• Doppler blueshift of distant objects with a high z can be subtracted from the much larger cosmological redshift to determine relative motion in the expanding universe.

Gravitational blueshift

Matter waves (protons, electrons, photons, etc.) falling into a gravity well become more energetic and undergo observer-independent blueshifting.

Unlike the relative Doppler blueshift, caused by movement of a source towards the observer and thus dependent on the received angle of the photon, gravitational blueshift is absolute and does not depend on the received angle of the photon:

Photons climbing out of a gravitating object become less energetic. This loss of energy is known as a "redshifting", as photons in the visible spectrum would appear more red. Similarly, photons falling into a gravitational field become more energetic and exhibit a blueshifting. ... Note that the magnitude of the redshifting (blueshifting) effect is not a function of the emitted angle or the received angle of the photon—it depends only on how far radially the photon had to climb out of (fall into) the potential well.

It is a natural consequence of conservation of energy and mass–energy equivalence, and was confirmed experimentally in 1959 with the Pound–Rebka experiment. Gravitational blueshift contributes to cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropy via the Sachs–Wolfe effect: when a gravitational well evolves while a photon is passing, the amount of blueshift on approach will differ from the amount of gravitational redshift as it leaves the region.

Blue outliers

There are far-away active galaxies that show a blueshift in their [O III] emission lines. One of the largest blueshifts is found in the narrow-line quasar, PG 1543+489, which has a relative velocity of −1150 km/s. These types of galaxies are called "blue outliers".

Cosmological blueshift

In a hypothetical universe undergoing a runaway Big Crunch contraction, a cosmological blueshift would be observed, with galaxies further away being increasingly blueshifted—the exact opposite of the actually observed cosmological redshift in the present expanding universe.