In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion (Latin: petitio principii) is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it.
For example, the statement "Green is the best color because it is
the greenest of all colors" claims that the color green is the best
because it is the greenest—which it presupposes is the best.
It is a type of circular reasoning:
an argument that requires that the desired conclusion be true. This
often occurs in an indirect way such that the fallacy's presence is
hidden, or at least not easily apparent.
In modern vernacular usage, however, begging the question is often used to mean "raising the question" or "suggesting the question". Sometimes it is confused with "dodging the question", an attempt to avoid it.
The phrase begging the question originated in the 16th century as a mistranslation of the Latinpetitio principii, which in turn was a mistranslation of the Greek for "assuming the conclusion".
History
The original phrase used by Aristotle from which begging the question
descends is: τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (or sometimes ἐν ἀρχῇ) αἰτεῖν, "asking for the
initial thing". Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the
type of dialectical argument he discusses in his Topics,
book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a
thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking
yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the
responses and the original thesis.
In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the
answerer undertakes to defend is called "the initial thing" (τὸ ἐξ
ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ) and one of the rules of the debate is that the
questioner cannot simply ask for it (that would be trivial and
uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in Sophistical Refutations and in Prior Analytics book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1).
The stylized dialectical exchanges Aristotle discusses in the Topics included rules for scoring the debate, and one important issue was precisely the matter of asking for the initial thing—which
included not just making the actual thesis adopted by the answerer into
a question, but also making a question out of a sentence that was too
close to that thesis (for example, PA II 16).
The term was translated into English from Latin in the 16th century. The Latin version, petitio principii, "asking for the starting point", can be interpreted in different ways. Petitio (from peto), in the post-classical context in which the phrase arose, means assuming or postulating, but in the older classical sense means petition, request or beseeching. Principii, genitive of principium, means beginning, basis or premise (of an argument). Literally petitio principii means "assuming the premise" or "assuming the original point".
The Latin phrase comes from the Greek τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ αἰτεῖσθαι (tò en archêi aiteîsthai, "asking the original point") in Aristotle's Prior Analytics II xvi 64b28–65a26:
Begging or assuming the point at
issue consists (to take the expression in its widest sense) [of] failing
to demonstrate the required proposition. But there are several other
ways in which this may happen; for example, if the argument has not
taken syllogistic form at all, he may argue from premises which are less
known or equally unknown, or he may establish the antecedent utilizing
its consequents; for demonstration proceeds from what is more certain
and is prior. Now begging the question is none of these. [...] If,
however, the relation of B to C is such that they are identical, or that
they are clearly convertible, or that one applies to the other, then he
is begging the point at issue.... [B]egging the question is proving
what is not self-evidently employing itself...either because identical
predicates belong to the same subject, or because the same predicate
belongs to identical subjects.
Aristotle's distinction between apodictic science and other forms of non-demonstrative knowledge rest on an epistemology and metaphysics wherein appropriate first principles become apparent to the trained dialectician:
Aristotle's advice in S.E.
27 for resolving fallacies of Begging the Question is brief. If one
realizes that one is being asked to concede the original point, one
should refuse to do so, even if the point being asked is a reputable
belief. On the other hand, if one fails to realize that one has conceded
the point at issue and the questioner uses the concession to produce
the apparent refutation, then one should turn the tables on the
sophistical opponent by oneself pointing out the fallacy committed. In
dialectical exchange, it is a worse mistake to be caught asking for the
original point than to have inadvertently granted such a request. The
answerer in such a position has failed to detect when different
utterances mean the same thing. The questioner, if he did not realize he
was asking the original point, has committed the same error. But if he
has knowingly asked for the original point, then he reveals himself to
be ontologically confused: he has mistaken what is non-self-explanatory
(known through other things) to be something self-explanatory (known
through itself). In pointing this out to the false reasoner, one is not
just pointing out a tactical psychological misjudgment by the
questioner. It is not simply that the questioner falsely thought that
the original point is placed under the guise of a semantic equivalent,
or a logical equivalent, or a covering universal, or divided up into
exhaustive parts, would be more persuasive to the answerer. Rather, the
questioner falsely thought that a non-self-explanatory fact about the
world was an explanatory first principle. For Aristotle, those certain
facts are self-explanatory while others are not is not a reflection
solely of the cognitive abilities of humans. It is primarily a
reflection of the structure of noncognitive reality. In short, a
successful resolution of such a fallacy requires a firm grasp of the
correct explanatory powers of things. Without a knowledge of which
things are self-explanatory and which are not the reasoner is liable to
find a question-begging argument persuasive.
— Scott Gregory Schreiber, Aristotle on False Reasoning: Language and the World in the Sophistical Refutations
Thomas Fowler believed that petitio principii would be more properly called petitio quæsiti, which is literally "begging the question".
Definition
To "beg the question" (also called petitio principii) is to attempt to support a claim with a premise that itself restates or presupposes the claim. It is an attempt to prove a proposition while simultaneously taking the proposition for granted.
When the fallacy involves only a single variable, it is sometimes called a hysteron proteron (Greek for "later earlier"), a rhetorical device, as in the statement:
"Opium induces sleep because it has a soporific quality."
Reading this sentence, the only thing one can learn is a new word in a
more classical style (soporific), for referring to a more common action
(induces sleep), but it does not explain why it causes that effect. A
sentence attempting to explain why opium induces sleep, or the same, why
opium has soporific quality, would be the following one:
"Opium induces sleep because it contains Morphine-6-glucuronide,
which inhibits the brain's receptors for pain, causing a pleasurable
sensation that eventually induces sleep."
This form of the fallacy may not be immediately obvious. Linguistic
variations in syntax, sentence structure, and the literary device may
conceal it, as may other factors involved in an argument's delivery. It
may take the form of an unstated premise which is essential but not
identical to the conclusion, or is "controversial or questionable for
the same reasons that typically might lead someone to question the
conclusion":
...[S]eldom is anyone going to
simply place the conclusion word-for-word into the premises ... Rather,
an arguer might use phraseology that conceals the fact that the
conclusion is masquerading as a premise. The conclusion is rephrased to
look different and is then placed in the premises.
— Paul Herrick
For example, one can obscure the fallacy by first making a statement
in concrete terms, then attempting to pass off an identical statement,
delivered in abstract terms, as evidence for the original. One could also "bring forth a proposition expressed in words of Saxon origin, and give us a reason for it the very same proposition stated in words of Norman origin", as here:
"To allow every man an unbounded freedom of speech must always
be, on the whole, advantageous to the State, for it is highly conducive
to the interests of the community that each individual should enjoy a
liberty perfectly unlimited of expressing his sentiments."
When the fallacy of begging the question is committed in more than one step, some authors dub it circulus in probando (reasoning in a circle) or, more commonly, circular reasoning.
Begging the question is not considered a formal fallacy (an argument that is defective because it uses an incorrect deductive step). Rather, it is a type of informal fallacy that is logically valid but unpersuasive, in that it fails to prove anything other than what is already assumed.
Closely connected with begging the question is the fallacy of circular reasoning (circulus in probando), a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with the conclusion. The individual components of a circular argument can be logically valid
because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and does
not lack relevance. However, circular reasoning is not persuasive
because a listener who doubts the conclusion also doubts the premise
that leads to it.
Begging the question is similar to the complex question (also known as trick question or fallacy of many questions):
a question that, to be valid, requires the truth of another question
that has not been established. For example, "Which color dress is Mary
wearing?" may be fallacious because it presupposes that Mary is wearing a
dress. Unless it has previously been established that her outfit is a
dress, the question is fallacious because she could be wearing pants
instead.
Another related fallacy is ignoratio elenchi or irrelevant conclusion:
an argument that fails to address the issue in question, but appears to
do so. An example might be a situation where A and B are debating
whether the law permits A to do something. If A attempts to support his
position with an argument that the law ought to allow him to do the thing in question, then he is guilty of ignoratio elenchi.
Contemporary usage
Some contemporary English speakers use begs the question (or equivalent rephrasings thereof) to mean "raises the question", "invites the question", "suggests the question", etc. Such preface is then followed with the question, as in:
"[...] personal letter delivery is at an all-time low... Which
begs the question: are open letters the only kind the future will know?"
"Hopewell's success begs the question: why aren't more companies doing the same?"
"Spending the summer traveling around India is a great idea, but it does beg the question of how we can afford it."
Prescriptivist
grammarians and people versed in philosophy, logic, and law object to
such usage as incorrect or, at best, unclear. This is because the
classical sense of Aristotelian logic is the original and, they hold,
the correct one.
Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period (春秋) and Warring States period (戰國時期), during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought",which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments.
Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period,
elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years.
Some can be found in the I Ching (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE. It was during the Warring States era that what Sima Tan termed the major philosophical schools of China—Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism—arose, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism, Mohism, Chinese Naturalism, and the Logicians. Even in modern society, Confucianism is still the creed of etiquette for Chinese society.
The debate over whether the thought of ancient Chinese masters
should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction
of this academic discipline into China. See Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy for details.
Early beliefs
Early Shang dynasty
thought was based upon cycles. This notion stems from what the people
of the Shang Dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycled,
the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and
waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant
throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, fate could be manipulated by great deities, commonly translated as gods.[vague]Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized. There was also human and animal sacrifice.
When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "Mandate of Heaven".
This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their
position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this
period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a
partial shift away from the faith placed in Shangdi (the Supreme Being in traditional Chinese religion), with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.
Overview
Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius
(551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of Zhou values.
His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing
personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships,
justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the
importance of ritual, but also the importance of 'ren', which loosely
translates as 'human-heartedness', Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world's first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by education and character rather than ancestry, wealth, or friendship. Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of East Asia.
Before the Han dynasty the largest rivals to Confucianism were Chinese Legalism, and Mohism. Confucianism largely became the dominant philosophical school of China during the early Han dynasty following the replacement of its contemporary, the more Taoistic Huang-Lao. Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang,
however, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence
Chinese philosophy until the end of Imperial rule during the Xinhai Revolution.
Mohism, though initially popular due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh Qin Legalism, fell out of favour during the Han Dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in establishing their views as political orthodoxy. The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered China from India during the Late Han Dynasties. By the time of the Tang dynasty
five-hundred years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had
transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by
the school of Zen Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism became highly popular during the Song dynasty and Ming Dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination of Confucian and Zen Philosophy.
Although the People's Republic of China has been historically
hostile to the philosophy of ancient China, the influences of past are
still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. In the post-Chinese economic reform era, modern Chinese philosophy has reappeared in forms such as the New Confucianism. As in Japan,
philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new
concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. Chinese
philosophy still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia.
Around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved into the Spring and Autumn period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began. This is known as the Hundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家; zhūzǐ bǎijiā;
"various scholars, hundred schools"). This period is considered the
golden age of Chinese philosophy. Of the many schools founded at this
time and during the subsequent Warring States period, the four most influential ones were Confucianism, Daoism (often spelled "Taoism"), Mohism and Legalism.
Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings
of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in The Analects, and in the Warring States period, Mencius in The Mencius and Xunzi in The Xunzi. It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious
thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought,
and culture down to the 20th century. Some Westerners have considered it
to have been the "state religion" of imperial China
because of its lasting influence on Asian culture. Its influence also
spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and many other Asian countries.
Confucianism reached its peak of influence during the Tang and Song Dynasties under a rebranded Confucianism called Neo-Confucianism.
Confucius expanded on the already present ideas of Chinese religion and
culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos
during the Warring States period.
Because Confucius embedded the Chinese culture so heavily into his
philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of China. This high
approval of Confucianism can be seen through the reverence of Confucius
in modern-day China.
The major Confucian concepts include rén仁 (humanity or humaneness), zhèngmíng正名 (rectification of names; e.g. a ruler who rules unjustly is no longer a ruler and may be dethroned), zhōng忠 (loyalty), xiào孝 (filial piety), and li禮 (ritual). Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the Golden Rule. The concepts Yin and Yang
represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with
each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian
idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent
of the idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", often attributed to Hegel,
which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground
combining the best of both. Confucius heavily emphasized the idea of
microcosms in society (subunits of family and community) success's were
the foundations for a successful state or country. Confucius believed in
the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics,
societal behavior, and reverence in other humans. With the combination
of education, successful family, and his ethical teachings he believed
he could govern a well established society in China.
Taoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the Tao Te Ching (道德經; Dào Dé Jīng; ascribed to Lao Tzu) and the Zhuangzi (莊子; partly ascribed to Chuang Tzu). The character Dao道
literally means 'path' or 'way'. However, in Taoism it refers more
often to a meta-physical force that encompasses the entire universe but
which cannot be described nor felt. All major Chinese philosophical
schools have investigated the correct Way to go about a moral
life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this
school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (wu wei),
the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it
serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this
rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practice
Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside."
Most of Taoism's focus is on the notion that human attempts to
make the world better actually make the world worse. Therefore, it is
better to strive for harmony, minimising potentially harmful
interference with nature or in human affairs.
Philosopher Han Fei synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors, which famous historian Sima Tan posthumously termed Legalism. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", late pre-Han Dynasty reformers emphasized rule by law.
In Han Fei's philosophy, a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
Fa (法 fǎ): law or principle.
Shu (術 shù): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.
Shi (勢 shì): legitimacy, power, or charisma.
What has been termed by some as the intrastate Realpolitik of the
Warring States period was highly progressive, and extremely critical of
the Confucian and Mohist schools. But that of the Qin dynasty would be blamed for creating a totalitarian
society, thereby experiencing decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear
strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment". In Han Fei's philosophy the
ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through
law. Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law,
regardless of the circumstances or the person. Ministers were only to be
rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their
proposals. Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation,
could encourage the state to be a militaristicautarky.
The School of Naturalists or the School of Yin-yang (Chinese: 陰陽家; pinyin: Yīnyángjiā; Wade–Giles: Yin-yang-chia; lit. 'School of Yin-Yang') was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Wu Xing; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.
His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces
in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female,
negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or
Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its early days,
this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi.
In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold
significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was
absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into
the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this
are in the Ma Wang Dui texts and Huang Di Nei Jing.
Mohism (Moism), founded by Mozi (墨子), promotes universal love
with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally
and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against
Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming, fortification, and statecraft.
Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional
guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must
then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general
benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the Will of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism.
The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes,
names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The
logician Hui Shi was a friendly rival to Zhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, Gongsun Long, originated the famous When a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue. This school did not thrive because the Chinese regarded sophistry and dialectic as impractical.
Agriculturalism was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasant utopiancommunalism and egalitarianism. The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of agriculture, and societies are based upon "people's natural prospensity to farm."
The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of Shennong,
is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in
tilling the fields. The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the
government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the
profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership. Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour, arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency. The Agriculturalists supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.
The short founder Qin dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential during the early Han Dynasty under the Taoist-Realist ideology Huang-Lao until Emperor Wu of Han
adopted Confucianism as official doctrine. Confucianism and Taoism
became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction
of Buddhism.
Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu,
who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School
and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New
Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a
spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the
world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text
school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient
language (from this comes the denomination Old Text) that were so
much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of
Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage,
but simply a human and mortal
Six Dynasties
The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the Xuanxue (mysterious learning), also called Neo-Taoism.
Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang
dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At
the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.
In the mid-Tang Buddhism reached its peak, and reportedly there
were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages and 260,500 monks and nuns.
The power of the Buddhist clergy was so great and the wealth of the
monasteries so impressive, that it instigated criticism from Confucian
scholars, who considered Buddhism as a foreign religion. In 845 Emperor Wuzong ordered the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, confiscating the riches and returning monks and nuns to lay life. From then on, Buddhism lost much of its influence.
Xuanxue was a philosophical school that combined elements of Confucianism and Taoism to reinterpret the I Ching,Tao Te Ching, and Zhuangzi. The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ming and wuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of feng liu (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.
Buddhism until the 4th century AD had little impact on China but
in the 4th century its teachings hybridized with those of Taoism.
Buddhism brought to China the idea of many hells, where sinners went,
but the deceased sinners souls could be saved by pious acts. Since Chinese traditional thought focused more on ethics rather than metaphysics,
the merging of Buddhist and Taoist concepts developed several schools
distinct from the originating Indian schools. The most prominent
examples with philosophical merit are Sanlun, Tiantai, Huayan, and Chán (a.k.a. Zen). They investigate consciousness, levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how enlightenment is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that complements the action of Neo-Confucianism, with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation.
Mid to Late Imperial era philosophy
History
Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. The first philosophers, such as Shao Yong, Zhou Dunyi and Chang Zai, were cosmologists and worked on the Yi Jing. The Cheng brothers, Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao, are considered the founders of the two main schools of thought of Neo-Confucianism: the School of Principle the first, the School of Mind the latter. The School of Principle gained supremacy during the Song dynasty with the philosophical system elaborated by Zhu Xi, which became mainstream and officially adopted by the government for the Imperial examinations under the Yuan dynasty. The School of Mind was developed by Lu Jiuyuan, Zhu Xi's main rival, but was soon forgotten. Only during the Ming dynasty was the School of Mind revived by Wang Shouren, whose influence is equal to that of Zhu Xi. This school was particularly important in Japan.
During the Qing dynasty
many philosophers objected against Neo-Confucianism and there was a
return to the Han Dynasty Confucianism, and also the reprise of the
controversy between Old Text and New Text. In this period also started
the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the
Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that
China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.
Wang Yangming also an important figure in Neo-Confucianism
Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a more metaphysical framework. Its concepts include li (principle, akin to Plato's forms), qi (vital or material force), tai-chi (the Great Ultimate), and xin (mind). Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi
(1017–1073) is seen commonly seen as the first true "pioneer" of
Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his
ethical philosophy.
Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional
Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and
religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist
metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology
and concepts.
Neo-Confucianist philosophers like Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming are seen as the most important figures of Neo-Confucianism.
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also
begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward
modernization. Chinese philosophy never developed the concept of human rights, so that classical Chinese lacked words for them. In 1864, W.A.P. Martin had to invent the word quanli (Chinese: 權利) to translate the Western concept of "rights" in the process of translating Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law into classical Chinese.
Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the
Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of
traditional beliefs. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China
guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions.
Spiritual and philosophical institutions have been allowed to be
established or re-established, as long they are not perceived to be a
threat to the power of the CPC.
Moreover, those organizations are heavily monitored. The influences of
the past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture.
太極The Tai-chi (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity of the two complementary polarities, Yin and Yang. The word Yin
originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun.
Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle;
whereas Yang (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright,
active, masculine principle. Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they
alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of
a wave.
Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are:
The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
Questions about the nature and existence of a monotheistic deity,
which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy, have not been
important in Chinese philosophies or a source of great conflict in Chinese traditional religion.
The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.
Taoism (/ˈtaʊ-/), or Daoism (/ˈdaʊɪzəm/), is a philosophical and spiritual tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: Dào; lit. 'Way', or Dao). In Taoism, the Tao is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.
Taoism teaches about the various disciplines for achieving "perfection"
by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the all, called "the
way" or "Tao". Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize wu wei (action without intention), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity and the Three Treasures: 慈, "compassion", 儉, "frugality" and 不敢為天下先, "humility".
The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang (Naturalists) and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the I Ching (Yi Jing), which expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behaviour in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The "Legalist" Shen Buhai (c. 400 – c. 337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a realpolitik of wu wei. The Tao Te Ching (Dao De Jing), a compact book containing teachings attributed to Lao Tzu (老子; Lǎozǐ; Lao³ Tzŭ³), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi.
Birth places of notable Chinese philosophers from Hundred Schools of Thought in Zhou Dynasty. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.
Spelling and pronunciation
Since the introduction of the Pinyin system for romanizing Mandarin Chinese, there have been those who have felt that "Taoism" would be more appropriately spelled as "Daoism". The Mandarin Chinese pronunciation for the word 道 ("way, path") is spelled as tao4 in the older Wade–Giles romanization system (from which the spelling 'Taoism' is derived), while it is spelled as dào in the newer Pinyin romanization system (from which the spelling "Daoism" is derived). Both the Wade–Giles tao4 and the Pinyin dào
are intended to be pronounced identically in Mandarin Chinese (like the
unaspirated 't' in 'stop'), but despite this fact, "Taoism" and
"Daoism" can be pronounced differently in English vernacular.
Categorization
The word Taoism is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field:
"Taoist religion" (道敎; Dàojiào; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect – A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy"; the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school.
"Taoist philosophy" (道家; Dàojiā; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" (道學; dàoxué; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect – The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the Yi Jing, the Tao Te Ching (or Dao De Jing, 道德經; dàodéjīng) and the Zhuangzi (莊子; zhuāngzi). These texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching, and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death.
However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars. It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements. Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion,
as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk
religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.
The sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has
never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a
combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."
The philosopher Chung-ying Cheng
views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history
and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Taoism, or later Chinese Buddhism,
they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this
sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they
also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."
Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of heaven flows mainly
from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (Tao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".
In Chinese history, the three religions of Buddhism, Taoism and
Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and yet are "involved
in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among
themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious
teachings' (三敎合一; Sānjiào Héyī).
The term "Taoist" and "Taoism" as a "liturgical framework"
Traditionally,
the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering
to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the
field of folk religion. "Taoist", in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate Taoshih (道士,
"master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism,
ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture
on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore
can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a
community.
This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a
"liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other
words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the
scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshih are comparable to the non-Taoist fashi (法師, "ritual masters") of vernacular traditions (the so-called "Faism") within Chinese religion.
The term dàojiàotú (道敎徒; 'follower
of Taoism'), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of
Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the
Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century,
but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism
continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion.
Lao Tzu
is traditionally regarded as one of the founders of Taoism and is
closely associated in this context with "original" or "primordial"
Taoism. Whether he actually existed is disputed; however, the work attributed to him—the Tao Te Ching—is dated to the late 4th century BCE.
Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the shamanic culture of northern China) and the fangshi
(which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity,
one of whom supposedly was Lao Tzu himself"), even though later Taoists
insisted that this was not the case.
Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic,
medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic
wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation. The fangshi
were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied
much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory
activities.
A part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han Dynasty, unearthed from Mawangdui tomb 3rd.
The first organized form of Taoism, the Way of the Celestial Masters's school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice
movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded
by Zhang Taoling, who said that Lao Tzu appeared to him in the year 142. The Way of the Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Lao Tzu received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.
By the Han dynasty
(206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a
coherent tradition of religious organizations and orders of ritualists
in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan).
In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or
recluses who did not participate in political life. Zhuangzi was the
best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south,
where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions.
Female shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu.
Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to
shamanism but absorbed basic shamanic elements. Shamans revealed basic
texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century.
Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in more
recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches: Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Lao Tzu and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Tao Tsang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor.
Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Lao Tzu as their relative.
The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th
century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to
a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370.
Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school, which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Taotsang.
Qiu Chuji (1503) by Guo Xu
In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan
in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting
more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the
school also was exempt from taxation.
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–1644).
During the Qing dynasty
(1644–1912), however, due to discouragements of the government, many
people favored Confucian and Buddhist classics over Taoist works.
During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism went through many
catastrophic events. (As a result, only one complete copy of the Tao Tsang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).
Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the
People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities
through the Chinese Taoist Association. However, Taoism is practiced without government involvement in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.
Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.
Tao (道; dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.
In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal,
nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things
and the way in which all things pursue their course." It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe", a "conceptually necessary ontological ground", or a demonstration of nature. The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.
The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled—and pronounced—De, or even Teh; often translated with Virtue or Power; 德; dé), in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.
The ambiguous term wu-wei (無爲; wú wéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu
carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common
translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without
intent". The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".
In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching,
proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own
ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that
is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that
harmony and unintended consequences
may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Taoism does not
identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one
must place their will in harmony with the natural universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."
Ziran (自然; zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-such", "self-organization") is regarded as a central value in Taoism. It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao, and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity. To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao; this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.
An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (樸; pǔ, pú; p'u;
lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the
"original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one returns to.
The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (三寶; sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (慈; cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (儉; jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢爲天下先; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility).
As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley
translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital
punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert
active authority".
The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (精氣神; jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated as essence, qi as life force, and shen as spirit). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation—Yinyangism or the Naturalists—with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist Inner Alchemy").
Taoist cosmology is cyclic—the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself. Evolution and 'extremes meet' are main characters. Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the School of Naturalists (Yinyang) which was headed by Zou Yan (305–240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Elements) and yin and yang.
In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of
re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential". Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state. These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang, two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and one cannot exist without the other.
Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe, and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the zang-fu organs. As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.
Taoist theology can be defined as apophatic,
given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable
nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than
anthropomorphic concepts of God. This is one of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.
Taoist orders usually present the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities, visualizing the hierarchy emanating from the Tao. Lao Tzu is considered the incarnation of one of the Three Purities and worshiped as the ancestor of the philosophical doctrine.
Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of
lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of
cosmology. Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity. Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the Jade Emperor, derived from the main of the Three Purities, as a representation of the most high God.
Persons from the history of Taoism, and people who are considered to have become immortals (xian), are venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.
Despite these hierarchies of deities, traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western theism. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense.
The Tao Te Ching or Taodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text. According to legend, it was written by Lao Tzu,
and often the book is simply referred to as the "Lao Tzu." However,
authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still
subject of debate, and will probably never be known with certainty. The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE. Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text.
The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:
道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào)
"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" 名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng)
"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."
There is significant, at times acrimonious, debate regarding which
English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which
particular translation methodology is best. The Tao Te Ching
is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are
repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a
slight difference.
The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to
attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things
through small means. Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE. Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er.
The Zhuangzi (莊子), named after its traditional author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings from various sources, and is generally considered the most important of all Taoist writings. The commentator Guo Xiang
(c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist
thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first
seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related
thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and
"miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and
dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to
the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.
The eight trigrams of the I Ching, known as pa-kua
The I Ching was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 BCE.
Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organized system
of philosophy and religious practice, this text later became of
philosophical importance to Taoism and Confucianism.
The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of
64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally
chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea
of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines",
some idea of what is developing.
The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the IChing can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BCE). More recently as recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist master Liu Yiming continued to advocate this usage.
The Taoist Canon (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taotsang. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The extant version was published during the Ming Dynasty. The Ming Taotsang includes almost 1500 texts. Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":
The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.
Taoist generally do not consult published versions of the
Taotsang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the
Taotsang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher
to student.
The Shangqing School
has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is
believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be
rewarded with immortality.
Other texts
While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.
It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful
lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened
lives.
Symbols and images
Basic depiction of the taijitu symbol without trigrams
The taijitu (太極圖; tàijítú; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") and the Ba-gua八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") have importance in Taoist symbolism.
In this cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos
of material energy, organized into the cycles of Yin and Yang and formed
into objects and lives. Yin is the receptive and Yang is the active
principle, seen in all forms of change and difference such as the annual
season cycles, the natural landscape, the formation of both men and
women as characters, and sociopolitical history.
While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, its principles
have influenced Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese theory. One can
see this symbol as a decorative element on Taoist organization flags and
logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to
Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE. Previously, a tiger and a dragon had symbolized yin and yang.
Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically
feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill
various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the
dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc. Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.
A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.
Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons and phoenixes
made from multicolored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony
of yin and yang (with the phoenix representing yin). A related symbol is
the flaming pearl, which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons,
as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.
In ancient times, before the Taoism religion was founded, food would sometimes be set out as a sacrifice
to the spirits of the deceased or the gods. This could include
slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. The Taoist Celestial MasterZhang Taoling rejected food and animal sacrifices
to the Gods. He tore apart temples which demanded animal sacrifice and
drove away its priests. This rejection of sacrifices has continued into
the modern day, as Taoism Temples are not allowed to use animal
sacrifices (with the exception of folk temples or local tradition.) Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of joss paper, or hell money,
on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will
reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit
world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved
ones. The joss paper is mostly used when memorializing ancestors, such
as done during the Qingming festival.
Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are
lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered
floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"), Kungfu-practicing and palanquins
carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered
performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.
Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship
is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and
social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.
Chinese woodblock illustration of a waidan alchemical refining furnace, 1856 Waike tushuo (外科圖説, Illustrated Manual of External Medicine)
A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises
and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic
forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving
physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point
of immortality. Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian.
A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in very early Taoist scriptures—like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi—alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.
A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Pa Kwa Chang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in the year 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese). Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices.
Furthermore, 12 million people claim to be "Taoists", a term
traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests and experts of
Taoist rituals and methods.
Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some
way by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's Republic of
China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in
codified settings. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association
was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist
orders, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during
the Cultural Revolution under Mao Zedong, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.
Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or
rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy ordination has been resumed.
Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists. Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong and Singapore show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.
Followers of Taoism are also present in Chinese émigré
communities outside Asia. In addition, it has attracted followers with
no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in
São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Taoist
Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of
non-Chinese ancestry.
Art and poetry
Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, Mu Qi.
Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art
being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by
Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.
Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans
that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was
commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts
also directly engaged in the art themselves.
Taoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao's positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,
the "primitivists" (like in the chapters 8-11 of the Zhuangzi) argued
strongly for a radical anarchism. A more moderate position is presented
in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.
The syncretist position in texts like the Huainanzi and some Outer
Chapters of the Zhuangzi blended some Taoist positions with Confucian
ones.
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song dynasty.
Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism. The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucian and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.
Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".
On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty.
Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism,
prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting
scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Lao Tzu (and the I Ching), was a Confucian. The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist
philosophy emphasizing moral behaviour and human perfection. In time,
most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions
simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school.
Some authors have undertaken comparative studies between Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of history of religion such as J. J. M. de Groot, among others. The comparison of the teachings of Lao Tzu and Jesus of Nazareth has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson, and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they have parallels that should not be ignored. In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Taoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang, have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar. In neighboring Vietnam, Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism.
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