United Technologies

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Technologies

 

Type	Public
Traded as	NYSE: UTX DJIA Component S&P 100 Component S&P 500 Component
ISIN	US9130171096
Industry	Conglomerate
Predecessor	United Aircraft Corporation
Founded	1934; (as United Aircraft Corporation) 1975; (as United Technologies Corporation)
Founder	Frederick Rentschler
Headquarters	Farmington, Connecticut , United States
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	Gregory J. Hayes (President, Chairman and CEO)
Revenue	US$66.501 billion (2018)
Operating income	US$8.553 billion (2018)
Net income	US$5.269 billion (2018)
Total assets	US$134.211 billion (2018)
Total equity	US$38.446 billion (2018)
Number of employees	240,000 (2018)
Website	www.utc.com

United Technologies Corporation (UTC) is an American multinational conglomerate headquartered in Farmington, Connecticut. It researches, develops, and manufactures products in numerous areas, including aircraft engines, aerospace systems, HVAC, elevators and escalators, fire and security, building systems, and industrial products, among others. UTC is also a large military contractor, getting about 10% of its revenue from the U.S. government. Gregory J. Hayes is the CEO and chairman. On June 9, 2019, UTC announced the intent to merge its aerospace business with Raytheon. UTC is incorporated in Connecticut.

History

Pre-1970s

1970s and 1980s

In 1974, Harry Gray left Litton Industries to become the CEO of United Aircraft. He pursued a strategy of growth and diversification, changing the parent corporation's name to United Technologies Corporation (UTC) in 1975 to reflect the intent to diversify into numerous high tech fields beyond aerospace. (The change became official on May 1, 1975.) The diversification was partially to balance civilian business against any overreliance on military business. UTC became a mergers and acquisitions (M&A)–focused organization, with various forced takeovers of unwilling smaller corporations. The next year (1976), UTC forcibly acquired Otis Elevator. In 1979, Carrier Refrigeration and Mostek were acquired; the Carrier deal was forcible, while the Mostek deal was a white knight move against hostile takeover designs by Gould.

At one point the military portion of UTC's business, whose sensitivity to "excess profits" and boom/bust demand drove UTC to diversify away from it, actually carried the weight of losses incurred by the commercial M&A side of the business. Although M&A activity was not new to United Aircraft, the M&A activity of the 1970s and 1980s was higher-stakes and arguably unfocused. Rather than aviation being the central theme of UTC businesses, high tech (of any type) was the new theme. Some Wall Street watchers questioned the true value of M&A at almost any price, seemingly for its own sake.

Mostek was sold in 1985 to the French electronics company Thomson. 

1990s

UTC acquired Sundstrand Corporation in 1999, and merged it into UTC's Hamilton Standard unit to form Hamilton Sundstrand. 

2000s

In 2003, UTC entered the fire and security business by purchasing Chubb Security.

In 2004, UTC acquired the Schweizer Aircraft Corporation which planned to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary under their Sikorsky Aircraft division.

In 2005, UTC further pursued its stake in the fire and security business by purchasing Kidde. Also in 2005, UTC acquired Boeing's Rocketdyne division, which was merged into the Pratt & Whitney business unit and renamed Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne (later sold to Aerojet and merged into Aerojet Rocketdyne.

In 2007, UTC opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center (RPMDCC) located west of the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in Big Flats, New York.

In March 2008, UTC made a $2.63 billion bid to acquire Diebold, a Canton, Ohio based manufacturer of banking and voting machines. Diebold rejected the buyout bid as inadequate.

In November 2008, UTC's Carrier Corporation acquired NORESCO, an energy service company.

In December 2009, it was announced that UTC would acquire a 49.5% stake in Clipper Windpower for $206 million.

2010s

In April 2010, UTC announced that it was investing €15 million ($20 million) to set up the United Technologies Research Centre Ireland at University College Cork’s Tyndall National Institute which will carry out research on energy and security systems.

In October 2010, UTC agreed with Clipper to acquire the rest of the company.

In September 2011, UTC acquired a $18.4 billion deal (including $1.9 billion in net debt assumed) for aircraft components maker Goodrich Corporation.

In June 2012, it was discovered that UTC sold military technology to the Chinese. For pleading guilty to violating the Arms Export Control Act and making false statements, United Technologies and its subsidiaries were fined $75 million.

In July 2012, United Technologies acquired Goodrich and merged it with Hamilton Sundstrand; the resulting organization is UTC Aerospace Systems. 

In February 2013, UTC Power was sold to ClearEdge Power.

In October 2014, Toshiba and United Technologies made a deal to expand their joint venture outside Japan.

In January 2015, UTC Building & Industrial Systems completed the acquisition of CIAT Group, a leading HVAC manufacturing company in France. In November, Lockheed Martin completed its $9.0 billion acquisition of Sikorsky Aircraft.

In February 2016, UTC subsidiary Carrier Air Conditioner announced to employees at its Indianapolis plant that Carrier is moving manufacturing to Mexico: “The best way to stay competitive and protect the business for long-term is to move production from our facility in Indianapolis to Monterrey, Mexico.” In December, Carrier agreed to keep the Indianapolis plant open, keeping 1,100 jobs in Indianapolis.

On September 4, 2017, UTC proposed to acquire Rockwell Collins in cash and stock for $23 billion, $30 billion including Rockwell Collins' net debt, for $500+ million of synergies expected by year four.

On November 26, 2018, the company announced the Rockwell Collins deal had closed, and that it will split into three independent companies. Pratt and Whitney and the newly-formed Collins Aerospace will remain under United Technologies, while Otis Elevator and UTC Climate, Controls & Security (doing business as Carrier) will be spun off as two independent companies.

In June 2019, United Technologies announced the intention to merge with defense contractor Raytheon to form Raytheon Technologies Corporation. The combined company, valued at more than $100 billion after planned spinoffs, would be the world's second-largest aerospace-and-defense company by sales behind Boeing. Although UTC will be the nominal survivor, the merged company will be headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, where Raytheon is based.

Finances

For the fiscal year 2017, United Technologies reported earnings of US$4.552 billion, with an annual revenue of US$59.837 billion, an increase of 4.5% over the previous fiscal cycle. United Technologies shares traded at over $114 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US$98.6 billion in October 2018. UTC ranked No. 51 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.

Year	Revenue in mil. USD$	Net income in mil. USD$	Total Assets in mil. USD$	Price per Share in USD$	Employees
2005	42,725	3,069	45,925	38.42
2006	47,829	3,732	47,141	46.56
2007	55,716	4,224	54,575	54.94
2008	59,119	4,689	56,837	49.91
2009	52,425	3,829	55,762	44.36
2010	52,275	4,373	58,493	58.86
2011	55,754	4,979	61,452	67.41
2012	57,708	5,130	89,409	67.87
2013	56,600	5,721	90,594	87.83	212,000
2014	57,900	6,220	91,206	101.42	211,000
2015	56,098	7,608	87,484	99.09	197,000
2016	57,244	5,055	89,706	96.15	202,000
2017	59,837	4,552	96,920	114.01	205,000

Business units

Hartford's Gold Building served as UTC's headquarters from 1975 to 2015

 

Otis Elevator's former headquarters serve as UTC's headquarters since 2015

• Otis Elevator Company: Manufacturer, installer, and servicer of elevators, escalators, and moving walkways.
• Pratt & Whitney: Designs and builds aircraft engines and gas turbines.
  • Pratt & Whitney Canada
• Collins Aerospace: Designs and manufactures aerospace systems for commercial, regional, corporate and military aircraft; a major supplier for international space programs. Provides industrial products for the hydrocarbon, chemical, and food processing industries, construction and mining companies. Collins Aerospace was formed following UTC's acquisition of Rockwell Collins in 2018, by combining the newly-acquired business with UTC Aerospace Systems, which itself was the result of a 2012 merger of Hamilton Sundstrand and the Goodrich Corporation.
• UTC Climate, Controls & Security: Makes fire detection and suppression systems, access control systems, and security alarm systems; provides security system integration and monitoring services.
  • Carrier: A global manufacturer of heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration systems.
    • NORESCO
  • Kidde: a leading manufacturer of residential smoke alarms, carbon monoxide (CO) alarms and fire extinguishers.
  • Chubb: a fire and security systems manufacturer.
• United Technologies Research Center (UTRC): A centralized research facility that supports all UTC business units in developing new technologies and processes.

 

Former businesses

• Clipper Windpower: A maker of wind turbines. In December 2010 Clipper Windpower was acquired by United Technologies Corporation. It was sold in 2012 to Platinum Equity LLC.
• Hamilton Standard: which became part of Hamilton Sundstrand, now part of UTC Aerospace Systems.
• Hamilton Test Systems, an Arizona-based developer of vehicle emission test equipment, which was sold to Georgetown Partners in December 1990, which renamed it Envirotest Systems Corp. It is now part of Environmental Systems Products Holdings (ESPH).
• Inmont: paint and resins, which was later sold to BASF
• Mostek semiconductor: from 1979 to 1985
• Norden Systems: a corporation that manufactures electronics systems for military use, now a part of Northrop Grumman.
• Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne: sold in June 2013 and now part of GenCorp
• Sikorsky Aircraft: maker of helicopters for commercial, industrial, institutional, government, and military use, now a part of Lockheed Martin
  • PZL Mielec
• Turbo Power and Marine Systems, Inc: a manufacturer of simple-cycle electrical power generation units of 25 MW and 50 MW. Renamed Pratt & Whitney Power Systems in 2000, sold to Mitsubishi Heavy Industry in May 2013 and is now a MHI group company named PW Power Systems, Inc.
• UT Automotive: now a division of Lear Corporation
• UT Communications: bought Lexar and Stromberg Carlson, makers of telephone equipment, which were later sold to Memorex in 1985.
• UTC Power: a manufacturer of distributed power generation systems and fuel cells for commercial, transportation, and space and defense applications. It was sold to ClearEdge Power in February 2013.

Political contributions

During the 2004 election cycle, UTC was the sixth largest defense industry donor to political campaigns, contributing a total of $789,561. Sixty-four percent of UTC's 2004 contributions went to Republicans. UTC was also the sixth largest donor to federal candidates and political parties in the 2006 election cycle. Thirty-five percent of those contributions went to Democrats; 53% of the funds were contributed to Republicans.

In 2005, United Technologies was among 53 entities that contributed the maximum of $250,000 to the second inauguration of President George W. Bush.

Philanthropy

In 1981, a contribution from UTC made possible the exhibition "Paris/Magnum: Photographs 1935–1981", featuring photographs of Paris taken by photographers of Magnum Photos, the agency founded in 1947 by Robert Capa, George Rodger, Henri Cartier-Bresson, William Vandivert, and David Seymour. A volume of the same title, with text by Irwin Shaw and an introduction by Inge Morath, was also published in 1981.

UTC is the sponsor of the exhibition "Aphrodite and the Gods of Love" at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts that opened in fall 2011.

UTC and its subsidiaries are major contributors to museums such as the New England Air Museum.

Environmental record

Researchers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst have identified UTC as the 38th-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States as of 2008. UTC released roughly 110,000 pounds of toxic chemicals annually into the atmosphere including manganese, nickel, chromium and related compounds.

In the 2016 University of Massachusetts Amherst Toxic 100 Air Polluters Index, UTC was ranked 9th by a toxicity population exposure score. It was also reported they release 60,000 pounds of toxins into the air.

SpaceLiner

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceLiner

 

SpaceLiner
Artist's impression of the SpaceLiner 7 during ascent
Country	Germany
Status	under study
Crew members	2 crew 50 passengers

SpaceLiner is a concept for a suborbital, hypersonic, winged passenger supersonic transport, conceived at the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, or DLR) in 2005. In its second role the SpaceLiner is intended as a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) capable of delivering heavy payloads into orbit.

The SpaceLiner is a very long-term project, and does not currently have funding lined up to initiate system development as of 2017. Projections in 2015 were that if adequate funding was eventually secured, the SpaceLiner concept might become an operational spaceplane in the 2040s.

Concept

The SpaceLiner concept consists of a two-stage, vertical takeoff, horizontal landing configuration with a large uncrewed booster and a crewed stage designed for 50 passengers and 2 crew members. The fully reusable system is accelerated by a total of eleven liquid rocket engines (9 for the booster stage, 2 for the passenger stage), which are to be operated using cryogenic liquid oxygen (LOX) and hydrogen (LH2). After engine cut-off, the passenger stage will enter a high-speed gliding flight phase and shall be capable of travelling long intercontinental distances within a very short time. Altitudes of 80 kilometers and speed beyond Mach 20 are projected, depending on the mission and the associated trajectory flown. SpaceLiner flight times from Australia to Europe, the chosen reference mission, should take 90 minutes. Shorter distances, such as Europe to California for example, would then be achievable in no more than 60 minutes. Acceleration loads for the passengers, and only during the propelled section of the flight, are designed to remain below 2.5 g, and well below those experienced by the Space Shuttle astronauts. 

The concept design also foresees the passenger cabin to function as an autonomous rescue capsule which can be separated from the vehicle in case of an emergency, thus allowing the passengers to return safely to Earth.

A key aspect of the SpaceLiner concept is its full reusability and vehicle mass-production, which would closely resemble production rates of the aviation industry. Serial production is expected to deliver a significant increase in cost effectiveness compared to conventional space transportation systems of the early 2000s. A major challenge lies in improving the safety standards and especially the robustness and reliability of space components such as rocket engines, so that they will become suitable for the daily operation of a passenger transporter like the SpaceLiner, while also meeting the required reusability criteria.

As of 2013, the concept study was funded by DLR's internal resources, as well as in the context of EU-FP7 funded projects such as FAST20XX and CHATT. In addition to DLR, various partners from the European aerospace sector are involved.

History of SpaceLiner development up to version 7

 

Concept development

At the end of 2012 investigations and ongoing studies conducted within context of the FAST20XX framework led to the refinement and definition of the SpaceLiner 7 version. Based on the results of previous studies, development has been progressing continuously with increasingly detailed and in-depth considerations, modelling and simulations of the various subsystems, and their design and integration being performed. Selected variants to the baseline configuration given different requirements and specifications were studied with associated results influencing and redirecting the entire configuration process.

SpaceLiner 1 was the first version, conceived in 2005.

SpaceLiner 2 refers to the first version, which featured the integration of an innovative active cooling system for the areas of particularly high thermal stresses during atmospheric, re-entry, being the nose and wing leading edge sections.

The SpaceLiner 4 concept is a 2015 evolution of version 2 with improved aerodynamic and flight dynamic characteristics. Based on this configuration, various technologies necessary for the SpaceLiner were experimentally and numerically examined, research that was funded by the EU research project FAST20XX.

As of 2015, the latest configuration under study at the DLR is the SpaceLiner 7. Based on results obtained from application of numerical optimisation methods which achieved an improvement of the aerodynamic, thermal and structural-mechanical properties in hypersonic flight, the initial double delta wing of previous versions has been modified and replaced by a single delta wing. Presently, subsystems such as the passenger cabin, the cryogenic tanks, the propellant feed system and the vehicle thermal protection have been preliminarily defined and integrated. Studies have also been carried out on the economic and logistical aspects of the concept, with preliminary calculations of expected program development and production costs given necessary assumptions.

Classification of possible routes for the SpaceLiner

 

Possible routes, which have then formed the basis of trajectory analyses for SpaceLiner, have been identified. These are classified and grouped in terms of their distances, with Class 1 representing the longest route, and Class 3 describing the shortest yet still economically interesting and relevant distance. In line with this, a modified version of the SpaceLiner 7 capable of flying medium long-haul distances while carrying 100 passengers has been examined. Given the name SL7-100, this concept variant is suitable for Class 2 and Class 3 distance flights. To accommodate for the different SpaceLiner configurations, a long and short version of the booster stage have therefore been considered to accordingly fulfill the mission requirements depending on the required range, either in combination with the 50 or 100-passenger stage version. In addition, research into possible spaceport variants has been performed, determining mainland, offshore platform and artificial island possibilities, as well as the required infrastructure for a potential SpaceLiner spaceport.

Technical data

SpaceLiner7 drawings

The specifications of the SpaceLiner 7 passenger version are:

Parameters	Passenger stage (50 passenger version)	Booster (long version)	Total (Australia–Europe mission)
Overall length:	65.6 m	82.3 m
Wing span:	33.0 m	36.0 m
Overall height:	12.1 m	8.7 m	21.5 m
Cabin length:	15.3 m	-
Max. fuselage diameter:	6.4 m	8.6 m
Empty mass:	130 t	198 t	328 t
Total mass:	366 t	1467 t	1832 t
Propellant mass:	220 t	1272 t	1502 t
Main engines cut-off mass:	151 t	213 t
Max. altitude:	approx. 80 km	approx. 75 km
Max. speed:	7 km/s (25,200 km/h)	3.7 km/s (13,300 km/h)
Max. Mach number:	24	14
Max. range:	up to about. 18,000 km
Number of engines:	2	9	11

Propulsion

The SpaceLiner concept intends to use a single type of reusable liquid rocket engine, which operates in the full-flow staged combustion cycle mode. Having a common engine design for both SpaceLiner stages is in line with system commonality and is projected to support cost optimisation in both the development and production phases. The nozzle expansion ratio is adapted to the different missions of the booster and passenger stages. Furthermore, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen will be used as the propellants, a combination which is both very powerful while still remaining eco-friendly.

Characteristics	Passenger Stage	Booster
Mixture ratio:	6.0
Combustion chamber pressure:	16.0 MPa
Mass flow rate (per engine):	515 kg/s
Expansion ratio:	59.0	33.0
Specific impulse (vacuum):	449 s	437 s
Specific impulse (sea level):	363 s	389 s
Thrust per engine (vacuum):	2268 kN	2206 kN
Thrust per engine (sea level):	1830 kN	1961 kN

Space logistics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_logistics

According to the AIAA Space Logistics Technical Committee, space logistics is

... the theory and practice of driving space system design for operability, and of managing the flow of material, services, and information needed throughout a space system lifecycle.

However, this definition in its larger sense includes terrestrial logistics in support of space travel, including any additional "design and development, acquisition, storage, movement, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of space materiel", movement of people in space (both routine and for medical and other emergencies), and contracting and supplying any required support services for maintaining space travel.

History

Wernher von Braun spoke of the necessity (and the underdevelopment) of space logistics as early as 1960:

"We have a logistics problem coming up in space ... that will challenge the thinking of the most visionary logistics engineers. As you know, we are currently investigating three regions of space: near-Earth, the lunar region, and the planets. While it is safe to say that all of us have undoubtedly been aware of many or most of the logistics requirements and problems in the discussion, at least in a general way, I think it is also safe to state that many of us have not realized the enormous scope of the tasks performed in the logistics area. I hope the discussions bring about a better understanding of the fact that logistics support is a major portion of most large development projects. Logistics support, in fact, is a major cause of the success or failure of many undertakings."

 

Background

James D. Baker and Frank Eichstadt of SPACEHAB wrote, in 2005:

The United States space exploration goals expressed in January 2004 call for the retirement of the Space Shuttle program following completion of International Space Station (ISS) construction. Since the Shuttle is instrumental in transporting large quantities of cargo to and from the ISS, this functional capability must be preserved to ensure ongoing station operations in a post-Shuttle era. Fulfilling ongoing cargo transport requirements to the ISS is a prime opportunity for NASA to reduce costs and preserve and repurpose the unique and limited Shuttle resource by acquiring cargo transportation services commercially. Further, implementing such a service prior to retirement of the Shuttle reduces risk to the vehicle and her crews by eliminating their use for routine cargo transport missions while accelerating the readiness for alternative ISS-support transportation.

In January 2004, President Bush directed NASA to begin an initiative that focuses on exploration of the Moon, Mars, and beyond. This initiative calls for the completion of International Space Station (ISS) assembly by the end of the decade coincident with retirement of the Space Shuttle. Retirement of the Shuttle while ISS operations are still being conducted results in reduced capability to supply ISS logistics requirements. An examination of existing and planned logistics carriers shows that there are deficiencies in both capacity and capability to support ISS needs. SPACEHAB's history of space station logistics delivery and existing ground infrastructure coupled with NASA's mandate and documented intent to acquire commercial space systems and services when possible has led SPACEHAB to develop a versatile and affordable cargo transport service for ISS.

 

Current activities

According to Manufacturing Business Technology,

NASA has awarded $3.8 million to two MIT engineering professors to pursue an interdisciplinary study for adapting supply chain logistics to support interplanetary material transport and transfer. Professors David Simchi-Levi and Olivier de Weck of the MIT Engineering Systems Division will spearhead the project in partnership with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Payload Systems, and United Space Alliance.

Sustainable space exploration is impossible without appropriate supply chain management and unlike Apollo, future exploration will have to rely on a complex supply network on the ground and in space. The primary goal of this project is to develop a comprehensive supply chain management framework and planning tool for space logistics. The eventual integrated space logistics framework will encompass terrestrial movement of material and information, transfer to launch sites, integration of payload onto launch vehicles and launch to Low Earth Orbit, in-space and planetary transfer, and planetary surface logistics. The MIT-led interplanetary supply chain management model will take a four-phase development approach:

 

1. Review of supply chain management lessons learned from Earth-based commercial and military projects, including naval submarine and arctic logistics

 

2. Space logistics network analyses based on modeling Earth-Moon-Mars orbits and expected landing-exploration sites

 

3. Demand/supply modeling that embraces uncertainty in demand, cargo mix, costs, and supply chain disruptions

 

4. Development of an interplanetary supply chain architecture.

 

Examples of supply classes

Among the supply classes identified by the MIT Space Logistics Center:

• Propellants and Fuels
• Crew Provisions and Operations
• Maintenance and Upkeep
• Stowage and Restraint
• Waste and Disposal
• Habitation and Infrastructure
• Transportation and Carriers
• Miscellaneous

In the category of space transportation for ISS Support, one might list:

• Space Shuttle (now retired)
• Progress spacecraft, Russian expendable unmanned resupply spacecraft
• Automated Transfer Vehicle, expendable unmanned resupply spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency
• H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) expendable unmanned resupply spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
• Dragon spacecraft, reusable cargo carrier developed by SpaceX – (currently only unmanned flights performed but a crew-capable version is under development)

State of the ISS logistics capability in 2005

A snapshot of the logistics of a single space facility, the International Space Station, was provided in 2005 via a comprehensive study done by James Baker and Frank Eichstadt. This article section makes extensive reference to that study.

ISS cargo requirements

As of 2004, the United States Space Shuttle, the Russian Progress, and to a very limited extent, the Russian Soyuz vehicles were the only space transport systems capable of transporting ISS cargo.

However, in 2004, it was already anticipated that the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) and Japanese H-IIA Transfer Vehicle (HTV) would be introduced into service before the end of ISS Assembly. As of 2004, the US Shuttle transported the majority of the pressurized and unpressurized cargo and provides virtually all of the recoverable down mass capability (the capability of non-destructive reentry of cargo).

Cargo vehicle capabilities

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

An understanding of the future ISS cargo requirements is necessary to size a commercial cargo vehicle designed to replace the Shuttle's capabilities and capacities and augment currently planned alternative vehicles. Accurate estimates of ISS cargo transfer requirements are difficult to establish due to ongoing changes in logistics requirements, crew tending levels, vehicle availabilities, and the evolving role the ISS will play in NASA's space exploration and research goals.

An increased unpressurized cargo delivery requirement is shown during the years 2007–2010. This increased rate is a result of a current plan to preposition unpressurized spares on the ISS prior to Shuttle retirement. Provision of a commercial cargo carrier capable of transporting unpressurized spares to supplement the Shuttle eliminates the prepositioning requirement and aligns the estimated averages during 2007–2010 to approximately 24,000 kg for pressurized cargo and 6800 kg for unpressurized cargo. Considering the delivery capability of the remaining systems after the Shuttle is retired yields.

Retirement of the Shuttle and reliance on the Progress, ATV, and HTV for ISS logistics will result in no significant recoverable down-mass capability. Further, no evidence suggests that any of these cargo transport systems can increase production and launch rates to cover the cargo delivery deficiency.

 

Commercial opportunity

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

In addition to ISS support deficiencies, alternative opportunities for a commercial cargo transport system exist. The retirement of the Shuttle will also result in an inability to conduct Low Earth Orbit (LEO) research independent of the ISS. A commercial payload service could serve as a free-flying research platform to fulfill this need. As logistics support requirements for NASA's space exploration initiative emerge, existing commercial system can be employed.

Finally, nascent interest in the development of non-government commercial space stations must take resupply issues into consideration. Such considerations will undoubtedly be subjected to a make/buy analysis. Existing systems which have amortized their development costs across multiple government and non-government programs should favor a “buy” decision by commercial space station operators. As these markets arise, commercial companies will be in a position to provide logistics services at a fraction of the cost of government-developed systems. The resulting economies of scale will benefit both markets. This conclusion was reached by a Price-Waterhouse study chartered by NASA in 1991. The study concluded that the value of SPACEHAB's flight-asset-based commercial module service with an estimated net-present-value of $160 million would have cost the US government over $1 billion to develop and operate using standard cost plus contracting. SPACEHAB's commercial operations and developments (such as the Integrated Cargo Carrier) since 1991 represent further cost savings over government-owned and operated systems.

Commercial companies are more likely to efficiently invest private capital in service enhancements, assured continued availability, and enhanced service capability. This tendency, commonplace in non-aerospace applications, has been demonstrated by SPACEHAB in the commercial space systems market via continued module enhancements and introduction of new logistics carriers.

Shortfalls in ISS cargo transport capacity, emerging opportunities, and experience gained from SPACEHAB's existing ground and flight operations have encouraged development of Commercial Payload Service (CPS). As a commercially developed system, SPACEHAB recognizes that to optimize its capability and affordability requires that certain approaches in system development and operations be taken.

The first approach levies moderate requirements on the system. Introducing fundamental capabilities on the front end and scarring for enhanced capabilities later reduces cost to launch and shortens development time.

The second one is the utilization of existing technology and capabilities, where appropriate. A typical feature of NASA programs is the continual reach for newly developed technologies. While attractive from a technical advancement perspective, this quest is expensive and often fails to create operational capabilities. A commercially developed cargo module will maximize the use of existing technologies (off the shelf where possible) and seek technical advances only where system requirements or market conditions drive the need for such advances. Additionally, costs associated with the development of spacecraft are not limited to those associated with the vehicle systems. Significant costs associated with the infrastructure must also be considered. SPACEHAB's existing logistics and vehicle processing facilities co-located with the Eastern launch range and at the Sea Launch facilities enable avoidance of significant system development costs.

Finally, SPACEHAB has realized cost and schedule reductions by employing commercial processes instead of Government processes. As a result, SPACEHAB's mission integration template for a Shuttle-based carrier is 14 months, compared to 22 months for a similar Shuttle-based Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM).

 

Rack transfer capability

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

The ISS utilizes the International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) as the primary payload and experiment accommodations structure in all US operated modules. Transferring ISPRs onto and off the ISS requires passage through the hatch only found at the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) berthing locations. The diameter of the CBM combined with ISPR proportions typically drives cargo vehicle diameters to sizes only accommodated by 5 m payload fairings launched on Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles (EELV).

 

Recoverable reentry–pressurized payloads

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

The Russian Progress vehicle has long served as a cargo vehicle which, upon departing a space station, destructively reenters the atmosphere destroying all “cargo” on board. This approach works very effectively for removing unwanted mass from a space station. However, NASA has indicated that the return of payloads from the ISS is highly desirable [5]. Therefore, a commercial system must examine the implications of including a pressurized payload return capability either in the initial design or as an enhanced feature of the service to be introduced in the future. Providing such capability requires the incorporation of thermal protection subsystem, deorbit targeting subsystems, landing recovery subsystems, ground recovery infrastructure, and FAA licensure. The recovery of unpressurized payloads presents unique challenges associated with the exposed nature of unpressurized carriers. To implement a recoverable reentry system for unpressurized payloads requires the development of an encapsulation system. Encapsulation activities must either occur autonomously prior to reentry or as a part of the operations associated with loading the unpressurized cargo carrier with return cargo. In either case, additional cost associated with spacecraft systems or increased operational requirements will be higher than simply loading and departing a pressurized carrier for a destructive reentry.

 

Mixed manifest capability

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

Typically, the avoidance of point solutions provides flexibility for a given system to provide variable capabilities. Designing a cargo carrier that mixes pressurized and unpressurized systems can lead to increased cost if all associated cargo accommodations must be flown on every flight. To avoid unnecessary costs associated with designing and flying structure that accommodates fixed relative capacities of all types of payloads, a modular approach is taken for CPS. Anticipated cargo transport requirements for ISS after the Shuttle is retired indicate that dedicated pressurized and unpressurized missions can support the ISS up-mass requirements. Utilizing common base features (i.e. service module, docking system, etc.) and modularizing the pressurized and unpressurized carrier elements of the spacecraft assures flexibility while avoiding point solutions.

 

Propellant transfer

Baker and Eichstadt also wrote, in 2005:

The Russian Segment of the ISS (RSOS) has the capability via the probe and cone docking mechanisms to support propellant transfer. Incorporation of propellant transfer capability introduces international issues requiring the coordination of multiple corporate and governmental organizations. Since ISS propellant requirements are adequately provided for by the Russian Progress and ESA ATV, costs associated with incorporating these features can be avoided. However, the CPS’ modular nature coupled with the inherent capability of selected subsystems enables economical alternatives to propellant transfer should ISS needs require.

Indirect costs considered in developing the CPS architecture include licensing requirements associated with International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) commercial launch and entry licensing requirements. ITAR licensing drives careful selection of the vehicle subsystem suppliers. Any utilization or manufacturing of spacecraft subsystems by non-US entities can only be implemented once the appropriate Department of State and/or Commerce approvals are in place. FAA licensing requirements necessitate careful selection of the launch and landing sites. Vehicles developed by a US organized corporation, even if launched in another country, require review of the vehicle system, operations, and safety program by the FAA to ensure that risks to people and property are within acceptable limits.

 

Downmass

While significant focus of space logistics is on upmass, or payload mass carried up to orbit from Earth, space station operations also have significant downmass requirements. Returning cargo from low-Earth orbit to Earth is known as transporting downmass, the total logistics payload mass that is returned from space to the surface of the Earth for subsequent use or analysis. Downmass logistics are important aspects of research and manufacturing work that occurs in orbital space facilities.

For the International Space Station, there have been periods of time when downmass capability was severely restricted. For example, for approximately ten months from the time of the retirement of the Space Shuttle following the STS-135 mission in July 2011—and the resultant loss of the Space Shuttle's ability to return payload mass—an increasing concern became returning downmass cargo from low-Earth orbit to Earth for subsequent use or analysis. During this period of time, of the four space vehicles capable of reaching and delivering cargo to the International Space Station, only the Russian Soyuz vehicle could return even a very small cargo payload to Earth. The Soyuz cargo downmass capability was limited as the entire space capsule was filled to capacity with the three ISS crew members who return on each Soyuz return. At the time none of the remaining cargo resupply vehicles — the Russian Space Agency Progress, the European Space Agency (ESA) ATV, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) HTV — could return any downmass cargo for terrestrial use or examination.

After 2012, with the successful berthing of the commercially contracted SpaceX Dragon during the Dragon C2+ mission in May 2012, and the initiation of operational cargo flights in October 2012,^[12] downmass capability from the ISS is now 3,000 kilograms (6,600 lb) per Dragon flight, a service that is provided by the Dragon cargo capsule routinely. An return capsule tested in 2018 called the HTV Small Re-entry Capsule (HSRC) could be used in future HTV flights. The HSRC has a maximum downmass capability of 20 kilograms (44 lb).

Nine additional Dragon cargo resupply flights are scheduled to depart the ISS with downmass in the next several years.