From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The energy efficiency in transport is the useful travelled distance, of passengers, goods or any type of load; divided by the total energy put into the transport propulsion
means. The energy input might be rendered in several different types
depending on the type of propulsion, and normally such energy is
presented in liquid fuels, electrical energy or food energy. The energy efficiency is also occasionally known as energy intensity. The inverse of the energy efficiency in transport, is the energy consumption in transport.
Energy efficiency in transport is often described in terms of fuel consumption, fuel consumption being the reciprocal of fuel economy. Nonetheless, fuel consumption is linked with a means of propulsion which uses liquid fuels,
whilst energy efficiency is applicable to any sort of propulsion. To
avoid said confusion, and to be able to compare the energy efficiency in
any type of vehicle, experts tend to measure the energy in the International System of Units, i.e., joules.
Therefore, in the International System of Units, the energy efficiency in transport is measured in terms of metre per joule, or m/J, whilst the energy consumption in transport is measured in terms of joules per metre, or J/m.
The more efficient the vehicle, the more metres it covers with one
joule (more efficiency), or the fewer joules it uses to travel over one
metre (less consumption). The energy efficiency in transport largely varies by means of transport. Different types of transport range from some hundred kilojoules per kilometre (kJ/km) for a bicycle to tens of megajoules per kilometre (MJ/km) for a helicopter.
Via type of fuel used and rate of fuel consumption, energy
efficiency is also often related to operating cost ($/km) and
environmental emissions (e.g. CO2/km).
Units of measurement
In the International System of Units, the energy efficiency in transport is measured in terms of metre per joule, or m/J. Nonetheless, several conversions are applicable, depending on the unit of distance and on the unit of energy. For liquid fuels,
normally the quantity of energy input is measured in terms of the
liquid's volume, such as litres or gallons. For propulsion which runs on
electricity, normally kW·h is used, while for any type of human-propelled vehicle, the energy input is measured in terms of Calories. It is typical to convert between different types of energy and units.
For passenger transport,
the energy efficiency is normally measured in terms of passengers times
distance per unit of energy, in the SI, passengers metres per joule (pax.m/J); while for cargo transport
the energy efficiency is normally measured in terms of mass of
transported cargo times distance per unit of energy, in the SI,
kilograms metres per joule (kg.m/J). Volumetric efficiency with respect to vehicle capacity may also be reported, such as passenger-mile per gallon (PMPG), obtained by multiplying the miles per gallon of fuel by either the passenger capacity or the average occupancy. The occupancy of personal vehicles is typically lower than capacity by a considerable degree and thus the values computed based on capacity and on occupancy will often be quite different.
Typical conversions into SI unit
|
Joules
|
| litre of petrol
|
0.3x108
|
| US gallon of petrol (gasoline)
|
1.3x108
|
| Imp. gallon of petrol (gasoline)
|
1.6x108
|
| kilocalorie
|
4.2x103
|
| kW·h
|
3.6x106
|
| BTU
|
1.1x103
|
Liquid fuels
Energy efficiency is expressed in terms of fuel economy:
Energy consumption (reciprocal efficiency) is expressed terms of fuel consumption:
- volume of fuel (or total energy) consumed per unit distance per vehicle; e.g. l/100 km or MJ/100 km.
- volume of fuel (or total energy) consumed per unit distance per passenger; e.g., l/(100 passenger·km).
- volume of fuel (or total energy) consumed per unit distance per unit mass of cargo transported; e.g., l/100 kg·km or MJ/t·km.
Electricity
Electricity consumption:
- electrical energy used per vehicle per unit distance; e.g., kW·h/100 km.
Producing electricity from fuel requires much more primary energy than the amount of electricity produced.
Food energy
Energy consumption:
- calories burnt by the body's metabolism per kilometre; e.g., Cal/km.
- calories burnt by the body's metabolism per mile; e.g., Cal/miles.
Land Passenger Transport
Walking
A 68 kg (150 lb) person walking
at 4 km/h (2.5 mph) requires approximately 210 kilocalories (880 kJ) of
food energy per hour, which is equivalent to 4.55 km/MJ. 1 US gal (3.8 L) of petrol contains about 114,000 British thermal units (120 MJ) of energy, so this is approximately equivalent to 360 miles per US gallon (0.65 L/100 km).
Velomobile
Velomobiles (enclosed recumbent bicycles) have the highest energy
efficiency of any known mode of personal transport because of their
small frontal area and aerodynamic shape. At a speed of 50 km/h
(31 mph), the velomobile manufacturer WAW claims that only 0.5 kW·h (1.8
MJ) of energy per 100 km is needed to transport the passenger (= 18
J/m). This is around 1⁄5 (20%) of what is needed to power a standard upright bicycle without aerodynamic cladding at same speed, and 1⁄50
(2%) of that which is consumed by an average fossil fuel or electric
car (the velomobile efficiency corresponds to 4700 miles per US gallon,
2000 km/L, or 0.05 L/100 km). Real energy from food used by human is 4–5 times more.
Unfortunately their energy efficiency advantage over bicycles becomes
smaller with decreasing speed and disappears at around 10 km/h where
power needed for velomobiles and triathlon bikes are almost the same.
Bicycle
A standard lightweight, moderate-speed bicycle is one of the most
energy-efficient forms of transport. Compared with walking, a 64 kg
(140 lb) cyclist riding at 16 km/h (10 mph) requires about half the food
energy per unit distance: 27 kcal/km, 3.1 kW⋅h (11 MJ) per 100 km, or
43 kcal/mi. This converts to about 732 mpg‑US (0.321 L/100 km; 879 mpg‑imp).
This means that a bicycle will use between 10 and 25 times less energy
per distance travelled than a personal car, depending on fuel source and
size of the car. This figure does depend on the speed and mass of the
rider: greater speeds give higher air drag
and heavier riders consume more energy per unit distance. In addition,
because bicycles are very lightweight (usually between 7–15 kg) this
means they consume very low amounts of materials and energy to
manufacture. In comparison to an automobile weighing 1500 kg or more, a
bicycle typically requires 100–200 times less energy to produce than an
automobile. In addition, bicycles require less space both to park and to
operate and they damage road surfaces less, adding an infrastructural
factor of efficiency.
Motorised bicycle
A motorised bicycle allows human power and the assistance of a 49 cm3 (3.0 cu in) engine, giving a range of 160 to 200 mpg‑US (1.5–1.2 L/100 km; 190–240 mpg‑imp). Electric pedal-assisted bikes run on as little as 1.0 kW⋅h (3.6 MJ) per 100 km, while maintaining speeds in excess of 30 km/h (19 mph).
These best-case figures rely on a human doing 70% of the work, with
around 3.6 MJ (1.0 kW⋅h) per 100 km coming from the motor. This makes an
electric bicycle one of the most efficient possible motorised vehicles,
behind only a motorised velomobile and an electric unicycle (EUC).
Electric kick scooter
Electric kick scooters, such as those used by scooter-sharing systems like Bird or Lime, typically have a maximum range of under 30 km (19 mi) and a maximum speed of roughly 15.5 mph (24.9 km/h). Intended to fit into a last mile
niche and be ridden in bike lanes, they require little skill from the
rider. Because of their light weight and small motors, they are
extremely energy-efficient with a typical energy efficiency of 1.1 kW⋅h
(4.0 MJ) per 100 km
(1904 MPGe 810 km/L 0.124 L/100 km), even more efficient than bicycles
and walking. However, as they must be recharged frequently, they are
often collected overnight with motor vehicles, somewhat negating this
efficiency. The lifecycle of electric scooters is also notably shorter
than that of bicycles, often reaching only a single digit number of
years.
Electric Unicycle
An electric unicycle (EUC) cross electric skateboard variant called the Onewheel
Pint can carry a 50 kg person 21.5 km at an average speed of 20 km/h.
The battery holds 148Wh. Without taking energy lost to heat in the
charging stage into account, this equates to an efficiency of 6.88Wh/km
or 0.688kWh/100 km.
Additionally, with regenerative braking as a standard design feature,
hilly terrain would have less impact on an EUC compared to a vehicle
with friction brakes such as a push bike. This combined with the single
wheel ground interaction may make the EUC the most efficient known
vehicle at low speeds (below 25 km/h), with the velomobile overtaking
the position as most efficient at higher speeds due to superior
aerodynamics.
Automobiles
The automobile is an inefficient vehicle compared to other modes of
transport.
This is because the ratio between the mass of the vehicle and the mass
of the passengers is much higher when compared to other modes of
transport.
Automobile fuel efficiency
is most commonly expressed in terms of the volume of fuel consumed per
one hundred kilometres (l/100 km), but in some countries (including the
United States, the United Kingdom and India) it is more commonly
expressed in terms of the distance per volume fuel consumed (km/l or miles per gallon).
This is complicated by the different energy content of fuels such as petrol and diesel.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) states that the energy content of unleaded petrol is 115,000
British thermal unit (BTU) per US gallon (32 MJ/l) compared to 130,500
BTU per US gallon (36.4 MJ/l) for diesel.
Electric cars use 38 megajoules (38 000 kJ) per 100 km in comparison to 142 megajoules per 100 km for combustion powered cars.
A second important consideration is the energy costs of producing energy.
Bio-fuels, electricity and hydrogen, for instance, have significant energy inputs in their production.
Hydrogen production efficiency are 50–70% when produced from natural gas, and 10–15% from electricity.
The efficiency of hydrogen production, as well as the energy required to
store and transport hydrogen, must to be combined with the vehicle
efficiency to yield net efficiency.
Because of this, hydrogen automobiles are one of the least efficient
means of passenger transport, generally around 50 times as much energy
must be put into the production of hydrogen compared to how much is used
to move the car.
A third consideration to take into account when calculating
energy efficiency of automobiles is the occupancy rate of the vehicle.
Although the consumption per unit distance per vehicle increases with
increasing number of passengers, this increase is slight compared to the
reduction in consumption per unit distance per passenger.
This means that higher occupancy yields higher energy efficiency per
passenger.
Automobile occupancy varies across regions. For example, the estimated
average occupancy rate is about 1.3 passengers per car in the San
Francisco Bay Area, while the 2006 UK estimated average is 1.58.
Fourth, the energy needed to build and maintain roads is an important consideration, as is the energy returned on energy invested
(EROEI).
Between these two factors, roughly 20% must be added to the energy of
the fuel consumed, to accurately account for the total energy used.
Finally, vehicle energy efficiency calculations would be
misleading without factoring the energy cost of producing the vehicle
itself.
This initial energy cost can of course be depreciated over the life of
the vehicle to calculate an average energy efficiency over its effective
life span. In other words, vehicles that take a lot of energy to
produce and are used for relatively short periods will require a great
deal more energy over their effective lifespan than those that do not,
and are therefore much less energy efficient than they may otherwise
seem. Hybrid and electric cars use less energy in their operation than
comparable petroleum-fuelled cars but more energy is used to manufacture
them, so the overall difference would be less than immediately
apparent. Compare, for example, walking, which requires no special
equipment at all, and an automobile, produced in and shipped from
another country, and made from parts manufactured around the world from
raw materials and minerals mined and processed elsewhere again, and used
for a limited number of years.
According to the French energy and environment agency ADEME,
an average motor car has an embodied energy content of 20,800 kWh and
an average electric vehicle amounts to 34,700 kWh. The electric car
requires nearly twice as much energy to produce, primarily due to the
large amount of mining and purification necessary for the rare earth
metals and other materials used in lithium-ion batteries and in the
electric drive motors. This represents a significant portion of the
energy used over the life of the car (in some cases nearly as much as
energy that is used through the fuel that is consumed, effectively
doubling the car's per-distance energy consumption), and cannot be
ignored when comparing automobiles to other transport modes. As these
are average numbers for French automobiles and they are likely to be
significantly larger in more auto-centric countries like the United
States and Canada, where much larger and heavier cars are more common.
Driving practices and vehicles can be modified to improve their energy efficiency by about 15%.
On a percentage basis, if there is one occupant in an automobile,
between 0.4 and 0.6% of the total energy used is used to move the
person in the car, while 99.4–99.6% (about 165 to 250 times more) is
used to move the car.
Example consumption figures
Two American solar cars in Canada
- Solar cars
are electric vehicles that use little or no externally supplied energy
other than from sunlight, charging the batteries from built-in solar
panels, and typically use less than 3 kW·h per 100 miles (67 kJ/km or
1.86 kW·h/100 km). Most of these cars are race cars designed for
competition and not for passenger or utility use. However several companies are designing solar cars for public use. As of December 2021, none have yet been released.
- The four passenger GEM NER uses 169 Wh/mi (203 mpg‑e; 10.5 kW⋅h/100 km), which equates to 2.6 kW·h/100 km per person when fully occupied, albeit at only 24 mph (39 km/h).
- The General Motors EV1 was rated in a test with a charging efficiency of 373 Wh-AC/mile or 23 kWh/100 km approximately equivalent to 2.6 L/100 km (110 mpg‑imp; 90 mpg‑US) for petroleum-fuelled vehicles.
- Chevrolet Volt in full electric mode uses 36 kilowatt-hours per 100
miles (810 kJ/km; 96 mpg‑e), meaning it may approach or exceed the
energy efficiency of walking if the car is fully occupied with 4 or more
passengers, although the relative emissions produced may not follow the
same trends if analysing environmental impacts.
- The Daihatsu Charade 993cc turbo diesel (1987–1993) won the most
fuel efficient vehicle award for going round the United Kingdom
consuming an average of 2.82 l/100 km (100 mpg‑imp). It was surpassed only recently by the VW Lupo 3 L which consumes about 2.77 l/100 km (102 mpg‑imp).
Both cars are rare to find on the popular market. The Daihatsu had
major problems with rust and structural safety which contributes to its
rarity and the quite short production run.
- The Volkswagen Polo 1.4 TDI Bluemotion and the SEAT Ibiza 1.4 TDI Ecomotion, both rated at 3.8 l/100 km (74 mpg‑imp; 62 mpg‑US) (combined) were the most fuel efficient petroleum-fuelled cars on sale in the UK as of 22 March 2008.
- Honda Insight – achieves 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp) under real-world conditions.
- Honda Civic Hybrid- regularly averages around 45 mpg‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg‑imp).
- 2012 Cadillac CTS-V Wagon 6.2 L Supercharged, 14 mpg‑US (17 L/100 km; 17 mpg‑imp).
- 2012 Bugatti Veyron, 10 mpg‑US (24 L/100 km; 12 mpg‑imp).
- 2018 Honda Civic: 36 mpg‑US (6.5 L/100 km; 43 mpg‑imp).
- 2017 Mitsubishi Mirage: 39 mpg‑US (6.0 L/100 km; 47 mpg‑imp).
- 2017 Hyundai Ioniq hybrid: 55 mpg‑US (4.3 L/100 km; 66 mpg‑imp).
- 2017 Toyota Prius: 56 mpg‑US (4.2 L/100 km; 67 mpg‑imp) (Eco trim).
- 2018 Nissan Leaf: 30 kWh (110 MJ)/100 mi (671 kJ/km) or 112 MPGe.
- 2017 Hyundai Ioniq EV: 25 kWh (90 MJ)/100 mi (560 kJ/km) or 136 MPGe.
- 2020 Tesla model 3: 24 kWh (86.4 MJ)/100 mi (540 kJ/km) or 141 MPGe.
Trains
Trains are in general one of the most efficient means of transport for freight and passengers.
An inherent efficiency advantage is the low friction of steel wheels on
steel rails compared especially to rubber tires on asphalt. Efficiency
varies significantly with passenger loads, and losses incurred in
electricity generation and supply (for electrified systems), and, importantly, end-to-end delivery, where stations are not the originating final destinations of a journey. While electric engines are more efficient than internal combustion engines, power generation in thermal power plants is limited to (at best) Carnot efficiency and there are transmission losses on the way from the power plant to the train. Switzerland, which has electrified virtually its entire railway network (heritage railways like the Dampfbahn Furka-Bergstrecke being notable exceptions), derives much of the electricity used by trains from hydropower, including pumped hydro storage.
While the mechanical efficiency of the turbines involved is
comparatively high, pumped hydro involves energy losses and is only cost
effective as it can consume energy during times of excess production
(leading to low or even negative spot prices) and release the energy again during high-demand times. with some sources claiming up to 87%.
Actual consumption depends on gradients, maximum speeds, and
loading and stopping patterns. Data produced for the European MEET
project (Methodologies for Estimating Air Pollutant Emissions)
illustrate the different consumption patterns over several track
sections. The results show the consumption for a German ICE high-speed train varied from around 19 to 33 kW⋅h/km (68–119 MJ/km; 31–53 kW⋅h/mi). The Siemens Velaro D type ICE trains seat 460 (16 of which in the restaurant car) in their 200-meter length edition of which two can be coupled together. Per Deutsche Bahn
calculations, the energy used per 100 seat-km is the equivalent of 0.33
litres (12 imp fl oz) of gasoline (0.33 litres per 100 kilometres
(860 mpg‑imp; 710 mpg‑US)). The data also reflects the weight of the train per passenger. For example, TGV
double-deck Duplex trains use lightweight materials, which keep axle
loads down and reduce damage to track and also save energy. The TGV mostly runs on French nuclear fission power plants which are again limited – as all thermal power plants – to Carnot efficiency. Due to nuclear reprocessing
being standard operating procedure, a higher share of the energy
contained in the original Uranium is used in France than in e.g. the
United States with its once thru fuel cycle.
The specific energy consumption of the trains worldwide amounts
to about 150 kJ/pkm (kilojoule per passenger kilometre) and 150 kJ/tkm
(kilojoule per tonne kilometre) (ca. 4.2 kWh/100 pkm and 4.2 kWh/100
tkm) in terms of final energy. Passenger transportation by rail systems
requires less energy than by car or plane (one seventh of the energy
needed to move a person by car in an urban context).
This is the reason why, although accounting for 9% of world passenger
transportation activity (expressed in pkm) in 2015, rail passenger
services represented only 1% of final energy demand in passenger
transportation.
Freight
Energy
consumption estimates for rail freight vary widely, and many are
provided by interested parties. Some are tabulated below.
| USA
|
2007 |
185.363 km/L (1 short ton) |
energy/mass-distance
|
| USA
|
2018 |
473 miles/gallon (1 ton) |
energy/mass-distance
|
| UK
|
— |
87 t·km/L |
0.41 MJ/t·km (LHV)
|
Passenger
| China
|
2018
|
9.7 MJ (2.7 kWh) /car-km
|
137 kJ/passenger-km (at 100% load)
|
CR400AF@350 km/h
Beijing-Shanghai PDL 1302 km average
|
| Japan
|
2004 |
17.9 MJ (5.0 kWh)/car-km |
350 kJ/passenger-km
|
JR East average
|
| Japan
|
2017 |
1.49 kWh/car-km |
≈92 kJ/passenger-km
|
JR East Conventional Rail
|
| EC
|
1997 |
18 kW⋅h/km (65 MJ/km) |
|
|
| USA
|
|
1.125 mpg‑US (209.1 L/100 km; 1.351 mpg‑imp) |
468 passenger-miles/US gallon (0.503 L/100 passenger-km)
|
|
| Switzerland
|
2011 |
2300 GWhr/yr |
470 kJ/passenger-km
|
|
| Basel, Switzerland
|
|
1.53 kWh/vehicle-km (5.51 MJ/vehicle-km) |
85 kJ/passenger-km (150 kJ/passenger-km at 80% average load)
|
|
| USA
|
2009 |
|
2,435 BTU/mi (1.60 MJ/km)
|
|
| Portugal
|
2011 |
8.5 kW⋅h/km (31 MJ/km; 13.7 kW⋅h/mi) |
|
|
Braking losses
Stopping is a considerable source of inefficiency. Modern electric trains like the Shinkansen (the Bullet Train) use regenerative braking to return current into the catenary
while they brake. A Siemens study indicated that regenerative braking
might recover 41.6% of the total energy consumed. The Passenger Rail
(Urban and Intercity) and Scheduled Intercity and All Charter Bus
Industries Technological and Operational Improvements – FINAL REPORT
states that "Commuter operations can dissipate more than half of their
total traction energy in braking for stops." and that "We estimate head-end power to be 35 percent (but it could possibly be as high as 45 percent) of total energy consumed by commuter railways."
Having to accelerate and decelerate a heavy train load of people at
every stop is inefficient despite regenerative braking which can recover
typically around 20% of the energy wasted in braking. Weight is a determinant of braking losses.
Buses
- In July 2005, the average occupancy for buses in the UK was stated to be 9 passengers per vehicle.
- The fleet of 244 40-foot (12 m) 1982 New Flyer trolley buses in local service with BC Transit
in Vancouver, Canada, in 1994/95 used 35,454,170 kWh for 12,966,285
vehicle km, or 9.84 MJ/vehicle km. Exact ridership on trolleybuses is
not known, but with all 34 seats filled this equates to 0.32
MJ/passenger km. It is quite common to see people standing on Vancouver
trolleybuses. This is a service with many stops per kilometre; part of
the reason for the efficiency is the use of regenerative braking.
- A commuter service in Santa Barbara, California, USA, found average diesel bus efficiency of 6.0 mpg‑US (39 L/100 km; 7.2 mpg‑imp) (using MCI 102DL3 buses). With all 55 seats filled this equates to 330 passenger mpg; with 70% filled, 231 passenger mpg.
- In 2011 the fleet of 752 buses in the city of Lisbon had an average speed of 14.4 km/h and an average occupancy of 20.1 passengers per vehicle.
- Battery electric buses
combine the electric motive power of a trolleybus, the drawbacks of
battery manufacture, weight and lifespan with the routing flexibility of
a bus with any onboard power. Major manufacturers include BYD and
Proterra.
Other
- NASA's Crawler-Transporter was used to move the Space Shuttle
from storage to the launch pad. It uses diesel and has one of the
highest fuel consumption rates on record, 150 US gallons per mile
(350 l/km; 120 imp gal/mi).
Air transport means
Aircraft
A principal determinant of energy consumption in aircraft is drag, which must be in the opposite direction of motion to the craft.
- Drag is proportional to the lift required for flight,
which is equal to the weight of the aircraft. As induced drag increases
with weight, mass reduction, with improvements in engine efficiency and
reductions in aerodynamic drag,
has been a principal source of efficiency gains in aircraft, with a
rule-of-thumb being that a 1% weight reduction corresponds to around a
0.75% reduction in fuel consumption.
- Flight altitude affects engine efficiency. Jet-engine efficiency increases at altitude up to the tropopause, the temperature minimum of the atmosphere; at lower temperatures, the Carnot efficiency is higher.
Jet engine efficiency is also increased at high speeds, but above about
Mach 0.85 the airframe aerodynamic losses increase faster.
- Compressibility effects: beginning at transonic speeds of around Mach 0.85, shockwaves form increasing drag.
- For supersonic flight, it is difficult to achieve a lift to drag ratio greater than 5, and fuel consumption is increased in proportion.
Concorde fuel efficiency comparison (assuming jets are filled to capacity)
| Aircraft
|
Concorde
|
Boeing 747-400
|
| Passenger-miles/imperial gallon
|
17 |
109
|
| Passenger-miles/US gallon
|
14 |
91
|
| Litres/100 passenger-km
|
16.6 |
3.1
|
Passenger airplanes averaged 4.8 L/100 km per passenger (1.4 MJ/passenger-km) (49 passenger-miles per gallon) in 1998.
On average 20% of seats are left unoccupied. Jet aircraft efficiencies
are improving: Between 1960 and 2000 there was a 55% overall fuel
efficiency gain (if one were to exclude the inefficient and limited
fleet of the DH Comet 4 and to consider the Boeing 707 as the base
case).
Most of the improvements in efficiency were gained in the first decade
when jet craft first came into widespread commercial use. Compared to
advanced piston engine airliners of the 1950s, current jet airliners are
only marginally more efficient per passenger-mile. Between 1971 and 1998 the fleet-average annual improvement per available seat-kilometre was estimated at 2.4%. Concorde the supersonic transport
managed about 17 passenger-miles to the Imperial gallon; similar to a
business jet, but much worse than a subsonic turbofan aircraft. Airbus puts the fuel rate consumption of their A380 at less than 3 L/100 km per passenger (78 passenger-miles per US gallon).
Air France Airbus A380-800
The mass of an aircraft can be reduced by using light-weight materials such as titanium, carbon fibre
and other composite plastics. Expensive materials may be used, if the
reduction of mass justifies the price of materials through improved fuel
efficiency. The improvements achieved in fuel efficiency by mass
reduction, reduces the amount of fuel that needs to be carried. This
further reduces the mass of the aircraft and therefore enables further
gains in fuel efficiency. For example, the Airbus A380 design includes
multiple light-weight materials.
Airbus has showcased wingtip devices (sharklets or winglets) that can achieve 3.5 percent reduction in fuel consumption.
There are wingtip devices on the Airbus A380. Further developed Minix
winglets have been said to offer 6 percent reduction in fuel
consumption.
Winglets at the tip of an aircraft wing smooth out the wing-tip vortex
(reducing the aircraft's wing drag) and can be retrofitted to any
airplane.
NASA and Boeing are conducting tests on a 500 lb (230 kg) "blended wing" aircraft. This design allows for greater fuel efficiency since the whole craft produces lift, not just the wings.
The blended wing body (BWB) concept offers advantages in structural,
aerodynamic and operating efficiencies over today's more conventional
fuselage-and-wing designs. These features translate into greater range,
fuel economy, reliability and life cycle savings, as well as lower
manufacturing costs. NASA has created a cruise efficient STOL (CESTOL) concept.
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied Materials Research (IFAM) have researched a shark skin imitating paint that would reduce drag through a riblet effect. Aircraft are a major potential application for new technologies such as aluminium metal foam and nanotechnology such as the shark skin imitating paint.
Propeller systems, such as turboprops and propfans are a more fuel efficient technology than jets. But turboprops have an optimum speed below about 450 mph (700 km/h). This speed is less than used with jets by major airlines today. With the current high price for jet fuel
and the emphasis on engine/airframe efficiency to reduce emissions,
there is renewed interest in the propfan concept for jetliners that
might come into service beyond the Boeing 787 and Airbus A350XWB. For instance, Airbus has patented aircraft designs with twin rear-mounted counter-rotating propfans.
NASA has conducted an Advanced Turboprop Project (ATP), where they
researched a variable pitch propfan that produced less noise and
achieved high speeds.
Related to fuel efficiency is the impact of aviation emissions on climate.
Small aircraft
- Motor-gliders can reach an extremely low fuel consumption for
cross-country flights, if favourable thermal air currents and winds are
present.
- At 160 km/h, a diesel powered two-seater Dieselis burns 6 litres of fuel per hour, 1.9 litres per 100 passenger km.
- at 220 km/h, a four-seater 100 hp MCR-4S burns 20 litres of gas per hour, 2.2 litres per 100 passenger km.
- Under continuous motorised flight at 225 km/h, a Pipistrel Sinus
burns 11 litres of fuel per flight hour. Carrying 2 people aboard, it
operates at 2.4 litres per 100 passenger km.
- Ultralight aircraft Tecnam P92 Echo Classic at cruise speed of
185 km/h burns 17 litres of fuel per flight hour, 4.6 litres per 100
passenger km (2 people).
Other modern ultralight aircraft have increased efficiency; Tecnam
P2002 Sierra RG at cruise speed of 237 km/h burns 17 litres of fuel per
flight hour, 3.6 litres per 100 passenger km (2 people).
- Two-seater and four-seater flying at 250 km/h with old generation
engines can burn 25 to 40 litres per flight hour, 3 to 5 litres per 100
passenger km.
- The Sikorsky S-76C++ twin turbine helicopter gets about 1.65 mpg‑US (143 L/100 km; 1.98 mpg‑imp) at 140 knots (260 km/h; 160 mph) and carries 12 for about 19.8 passenger-miles per gallon (11.9 L per 100 passenger km).
Water transport means
Ships
Queen Elizabeth
Cunard
stated that Queen Elizabeth 2 travelled 49.5 feet per imperial gallon
of diesel oil (3.32 m/L or 41.2 ft/US gal), and that it had a passenger
capacity of 1777.
Thus carrying 1777 passengers we can calculate an efficiency of 16.7
passenger miles per imperial gallon (16.9 l/100 p·km or 13.9 p·mpg–US).
Cruise ships
MS Oasis of the Seas has a capacity of 6,296 passengers and a fuel efficiency of 14.4 passenger miles per US gallon. Voyager-class cruise ships have a capacity of 3,114 passengers and a fuel efficiency of 12.8 passenger miles per US gallon.
Emma Maersk
Emma Maersk uses a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C,
which consumes 163 g/kW·h and 13,000 kg/h. If it carries 13,000
containers then 1 kg fuel transports one container for one hour over a
distance of 45 km. The ship takes 18 days from Tanjung (Singapore) to
Rotterdam (Netherlands), 11 from Tanjung to Suez, and 7 from Suez to
Rotterdam,
which is roughly 430 hours, and has 80 MW, +30 MW. 18 days at a mean
speed of 25 knots (46 km/h) gives a total distance of 10,800 nautical
miles (20,000 km).
Assuming the Emma Maersk consumes diesel (as opposed to fuel oil
which would be the more precise fuel) then 1 kg diesel = 1.202 litres =
0.317 US gallons. This corresponds to 46,525 kJ. Assuming a standard 14
tonnes per container (per teu) this yields 74 kJ per tonne-km at a speed
of 45 km/h (24 knots).
Boats
A sailboat, much like a solar car, can locomote without consuming any fuel. A sail boat such as a dinghy
using just wind power requires no input energy in terms of fuel.
However some manual energy is required by the crew to steer the boat and
adjust the sails using lines. In addition energy will be needed for
demands other than propulsion, such as cooking, heating or lighting. The
fuel efficiency of a single-occupancy boat is highly dependent on the
size of its engine, the speed at which it travels, and its displacement.
With a single passenger, the equivalent energy efficiency will be lower
than in a car, train, or plane.
International transport comparisons
European Public transport
Rail
and bus are generally required to serve 'off peak' and rural services,
which by their nature have lower loads than city bus routes and inter
city train lines. Moreover, due to their 'walk on' ticketing it is much
harder to match daily demand and passenger numbers. As a consequence,
the overall load factor on UK railways is 35% or 90 people per train:
Conversely, airline services generally work on point-to-point
networks between large population centres and are 'pre-book' in nature.
Using yield management,
overall load factors can be raised to around 70–90%. Intercity train
operators have begun to use similar techniques, with loads reaching
typically 71% overall for TGV services in France and a similar figure for the UK's Virgin Rail Group services.
For emissions, the electricity generating source needs to be taken into account.
US Passenger transport
The
US Transport Energy Data Book states the following figures for
passenger transport in 2018. These are based on actual consumption of
energy, at whatever occupancy rates there were. For modes using
electricity, losses during generation and distribution are included.
Values are not directly comparable due to differences in types of
services, routes, etc.
| Rail (transit light & heavy)
|
23.5
|
1,813
|
1.189
|
| Rail (intercity Amtrak)
|
23.3
|
1,963
|
1.287
|
| Motorcycles
|
1.2
|
2,369
|
1.553
|
| Air
|
118.7
|
2,341
|
1.535
|
| Rail (commuter)
|
33.6
|
2,398
|
1.572
|
| Cars
|
1.5
|
2,847
|
1.866
|
| Personal trucks
|
1.8
|
3,276
|
2.148
|
| Buses (transit)
|
7.7
|
4,578
|
3.001
|
| Demand response
|
1.1
|
14,660
|
9.61
|
US Freight transport
The US Transport Energy book states the following figures for freight transport in 2010:
| transport mode
|
Fuel consumption
|
| BTU per short ton-mile
|
kJ per tonne-kilometre
|
| Domestic waterborne
|
217
|
160
|
| Class 1 railroads
|
289
|
209
|
| Heavy trucks
|
3,357
|
2,426
|
| Air freight (approx.)
|
9,600
|
6,900
|
From 1960 to 2010 the efficiency of air freight has increased 75%, mostly due to more efficient jet engines.
1 gal-US (3.785 l, 0.833 gal-imp) of fuel can move a ton of cargo 857 km or 462 nmi by barge, or 337 km (209 mi) by rail, or 98 km (61 mi) by lorry.
Compare:
- Space Shuttle used to transport freight to the other side of the Earth (see above): 40 megajoules per tonne-kilometre.
- Net energy for lifting: 10 megajoules per tonne-kilometre.
Canadian transport
Natural
Resources Canada's Office of Energy Efficiency publishes annual
statistics regarding the efficiency of the entire Canadian fleet. For
researchers, these fuel consumption estimates are more realistic than
the fuel consumption ratings of new vehicles, as they represent the real
world driving conditions, including extreme weather and traffic. The
annual report is called Energy Efficiency Trends Analysis. There are
dozens of tables illustrating trends in energy consumption expressed in
energy per passenger km (passengers) or energy per tonne km (freight).
French environmental calculator
The environmental calculator of the French environment and energy agency (ADEME) published in 2007 using data from 2005 enables one to compare the different means of transport as regards the CO2 emissions (in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent) as well as the consumption of primary energy. In the case of an electric vehicle, the ADEME makes the assumption that 2.58 toe as primary energy are necessary for producing one toe of electricity as end energy in France (see Embodied energy: In the energy field).
This computer tool devised by the ADEME shows the importance of
public transport from an environmental point of view. It highlights the
primary energy consumption as well as the CO2 emissions due to transport. Due to the relatively low environmental impact of radioactive waste, compared to that of fossil fuel combustion emissions, this is not a factor in the tool. Moreover, intermodal passenger transport is probably a key to sustainable transport, by allowing people to use less polluting means of transport.
German environmental costs
Deutsche Bahn calculates the energy consumption of their various means of transportation.
| Regional rail passenger transport (MJ/pkm) |
0.85
|
| Long-distance rail passenger transport (MJ/pkm) |
0.25
|
| Bus service (MJ/pkm) |
1.14
|
| Rail freight transport (MJ/tkm) |
0.33
|
| Road freight transport (MJ/tkm) |
1.21
|
| Air freight (MJ/tkm) |
9.77
|
| Ocean freight (MJ/tkm) |
0.09
|
Note - External costs not included above
To include all the energy used in transport, we would need to
also include the external energy costs of producing, transporting and
packaging of fuel (food or fossil fuel or electricity), the energy
incurred in disposing of exhaust waste, and the energy costs of
manufacturing the vehicle. For example, a human walking requires little
or no special equipment while automobiles require a great deal of energy
to produce and have relatively short product lifespans.
However, these external costs are independent of the energy cost
per distance travelled, and can vary greatly for a particular vehicle
depending on its lifetime, how often it is used and how it is energized
over its lifetime. Thus this article's numbers include none of these
external factors.
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