From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Information and communication technologies for development (
ICT4D) refers to the application of
information and communication technologies
(ICT) toward social, economic, and political development, with a
particular emphasis on helping poor and marginalized people and
communities. It aims to help in international development by bridging
the
digital divide
and providing equitable access to technologies. ICT4D is grounded in
the notions of "development", "growth", "progress" and "globalization"
and is often interpreted as the use of technology to deliver a greater
good.
[1] Another similar term used in the literature is "digital development".
[2]
ICT4D draws on theories and frameworks from many disciplines, including
sociology, economics, development studies, library, information
science, and communication studies.
[3]
History
ICT4D grew out of the attempts to use emerging computing technologies
to improve conditions in the developing countries. According to a paper
by Crysta Highfield,
([https://mdp.berkeley.edu/social-media-and-development/ 1]) “as
internet connectivity spreads, and cell phone usage spreads even
further, there are millions of new potential content creators gaining
access to social media each year.”
It formalized through a series of reports, conferences, and funding initiatives that acted as key policy-making avenues:
[4] the 1998 World Development Report from the World Bank,
[5] highlighting the role of knowledge and ICTs in development; a report
[6] from the
G8 Digital Opportunities Task Force, concluding that ICTs play a key role in modern human development, the
World Summits on the Information Society held in Geneva in 2003 and Tunis in 2005.
At least three phases can be identified in ICT4D evolution:
[7]
- ICT4D 0.0: mid-1950s to late-1990s. The focus of this
earliest phase was on the use of IT (not ICT) in government and private
sector organizations in developing countries. One of the earliest
computers used in a developing country was a HEC machine installed in 1956 to undertake numerical calculations in the Indian Institute of Statistics in Kolkata.[8]
- ICT4D 1.0: late-1990s to late-2000s. The advent of the Millennium Development Goals
combined with the rise and spread of the Internet in industrialized
countries led to a rapid increase in investments in ICT infrastructure
and projects in developing countries. The most typical application was
the telecentre,
used to bring information on development issues such as health,
education, and agricultural extension, into poor communities. Later,
telecentres were also used to deliver government services[citation needed].
- ICT4D 2.0: late-2000s onwards. There is no clear boundary
between phases 1.0 and 2.0. The focus in phase 2.0 increasingly shifts
toward technologies in use, such as the mobile phone and SMS technologies. There is less concern with e-readiness
and more interest in the impact of ICTs on development. Additionally,
there is more focus on the poor as producers and innovators with ICTs
(as opposed to being consumers of ICT-based information). ICT4D 2.0 is
about reframing the poor. Where ICT4D 1.0 marginalized them, allowing a
supply-driven focus, ICT4D 2.0 centralizes them, creating a
demand-driven focus. Where ICT4D 1.0 – fortified by the "bottom of the
pyramid" concept – characterized them largely as passive consumers,
ICT4D 2.0 sees the poor as active producers and active innovators.[9]
The table below summarizes the ICT4D evolution:
[9]
Issue // Phase |
ICT4D 0.0 |
ICT4D 1.0 |
ICT4D 2.0 |
Iconic technology |
PC database |
Telecentre |
Mobile phone, convergence |
Key application |
Data processing |
Content (and iteration) |
Services and production |
The poor |
Who? |
Consumers |
Innovators and producers |
Key goal |
Organizational efficiency |
MDGs |
Growth and development |
Key issue |
Technology's potential |
Readiness and availability |
Uptake and impact |
Key actor |
Government |
Donors and NGOs |
All sectors |
Attitude |
Ignore → Isolate |
Idolise → Integrate |
Integrate → Innovate |
Innovation model |
Northern |
Pro-poor → Para-poor |
Para-poor → Per-poor |
Dominant discipline |
Information Systems |
Informatics/Development Studies |
Tribrid of CS, IS, and DS |
Development paradigm |
Modernisation |
Human development |
Development 2.0 |
Proponents of ICT4D proposed four arguments focused on: first, ICT’s
role to national and global advancements; second, information and
communication technology as an integral part of economic development;
third, it can and it should influence to end exploitive regimes and
dismantle asymmetrical structures; lastly, it is argued that
communication through new media are extensions of mankind. They are
believed to provide the infrastructure for an evolving world brain.
(Flor, A.G., 2009)
As
information and communication technologies evolve, so does ICT4D: more recently it has been suggested that
big data can be used as an important
ICT tool for development and that it represents a natural evolution of the ICT4D paradigm.
[10]
Theoretical background
ICT4D cube: an interplay between technology (horizontal: green), society (vertical: blue), policy (diagonal: yellow/red)
Source
According to
Carlota Perez:
"this quantum jump in productivity can be seen as a technological
revolution, which is made possible by the appearance in the general cost
structure of a particular input that we could call the 'key factor',
fulfilling the following conditions: (1) clearly perceived low-and
descending-relative cost; (2) unlimited supply for all practical
purposes; (3) potential all-pervasiveness; (4) a capacity to reduce the
costs of capital, labour and products as well as to change them
qualitatively".
[11]
Information and Communication Technology is expected to fulfill these
requirements and bring socio-economic and political transformation which
result in a modern and developed society. This type of society is often
referred to as the
post-industrial society, the fifth
Kondratiev,
Information society,
digital age and
network society.
The major goal of ICT for Development is to utilize the benefits of technology for social transformation for good.
[12]
Previously when such social transformations took place (e.g. industrial
revolution), the result was derived from a combined effect of a
powerful technology and effective policy and strategy.
[13] In the case of ICT4D, this three-dimensional interplay has been depicted as a cube.
[14]
In line with the Schumpeterian school of thought, the first enabling
factor for the associated socio-economic transformations is the
existence of technological infrastructure: hardware infrastructure and
generic software services. Additionally, capacity and knowledge are the
human requirements to make use of these technologies. These foundations
(horizontal green dimension in Figure) are the basis for the
digitization of information flows and communication mechanisms in
different sectors of society. When part of the information flows and
communication processes in these sectors are carried out in e-lectronic
networks, the
prefix "e-" is often added to the sector's name, resulting in
e-government,
e-business and
e-commerce,
e-health, and
e-learning,
etc. (vertical blue dimension in Figure). This process of
transformation represent the basic requirements and building blocks, but
they are not sufficient for development. The mere existence of
technology is not enough to achieve positive outcomes (no
technological determinism).
ICT4D strategies and policies focus on accelerating development works,
minimizing drawbacks and removing bottlenecks with the use of technology
to meet goals. Generally, interventions are of two kinds: Positive
Assessment (e.g. incentives, projects, financing etc.) that make
existing opportunities more prominent and Negative Assessment (e.g.
regulation and legislation, etc.) that controls and suppress negative
developments(diagonal yellow-red dimension in Figure).
[14]
ICT access and use
Mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants growth in developed and developing world between 1997 and 2007
ICT development includes many types of infrastructure and services,
ranging from telecommunications, such as voice, data, and media
services, to specific applications, such as banking, education, or
health, to the implementation of electronic government (e-government).
Each of these types has its own trends that vary across countries and
regions.
One of the most positive trends has been observed in voice
communications. Thus, the proportion of mobile phone subscriptions in
developing countries increased from about 30 percent of the world total
in 2000 to more than 50 percent in 2004 and to almost 70 percent in
2007.
[15]
In India, the total number of mobile phone subscriptions reached 851.70
million in June 2011, among which 289.57 million came from rural areas,
with a higher percentage of increase than that in urban areas.
[16]
Only about 35 percent of the population in developing countries has
access to the Internet (versus about 80 percent in advanced economies).
[17]
Access to ICTs in the developing world has been framed through the concepts of
digital divide
and use / non-use. Market liberalization and competition as well as
various regulatory and technical solutions are believed to be useful in
closing the digital divide and ensuring the universal access to ICTs.
[18] The general perception is that people who have access to ICT will benefit from it, and those who don't would not
[citation needed]. Benefits include boundless information sharing, connectivity, participation in the global economy. The use of
mobile phones as part of ICT4D initiatives shows some positive effects in improving access to information and services.
[19]
For example, the arrival of mobiles brought reduction in the
variability of price and the amount of waste in the fishing system along
the Kerala coast, India.
[20] A study in Kenya identified innovation in mobile technologies for development,
[21] in particular the success of
M-PESA
mobile banking through the partnerships between private and public
sectors. Another analysis of mobile phone use in developing countries
shows that the use of mobile phones improves access to information,
helps to address market inefficiencies, and can be used in disaster
relief.
[22]
In contrast, studies from rural regions in Ethiopia, India, and
Indonesia suggest that farmers use mobile phones to connect to those who
are already in their social network, which limits the usability of
mobile phones for wider information sharing and change in practices.
[23][24][25][26]
Furthermore, it has been suggested that those who don't have access
to technology run the risk of being marginalized and bypassed.
The users and non-users of ICTs can be categorized into Non-Users, Indirect Users, Shared Users, and Owner-Use.
[27]
- Non-Users: individuals with no access to either ICTs or
ICT-based information and services. Such individuals may still benefit
from ICT4D via the spillover effect - situations when other users of ICT
increase benefit for the whole community, including the non-users.
- Indirect Users: individuals who do not have hands-on access
themselves, but can gain access to digital information and services via
direct users.
- Shared Users: individuals who do not own the technology, but
who can directly use ICTs owned by someone else (e.g., by friend,
workplace, ICT business, community, etc.).
- Owner-Users: individuals who own and use the technology.
One of the goals of ICT4D is to employ robust low-cost technologies
that can be available for poor and low income communities around the
world.
Short- and long-term negative effects of ICTs also need to be studied.
[28]
Examples of specific technologies used in developing countries include:
ICTD hit for six
According to
David Edelstein,
the interim president and CEO of the Grameen Foundation (May 2015 to
May 2016), this is how transformational change may be achieved with
ICTD.
[33][34]
- Understand Local Needs
- Use Appropriate Technology
- Create Business Models
- Measure Social Impact
- Engage with private sector
- Innovate Constantly
Applications
Agriculture
Agriculture
is considered to be the most vital sector for ICT intervention. It is
considered as the primary economic sector. It produces the most basic of
human needs - food, clothing, shelter.
Farmers in the developing countries use ICTs to access price
information from national and international markets as well as connect
to policy makers and other farmers.
[35][36]
There are also smartphone apps that can show the user information about
the status of their crops and irrigation system remotely. In livestock
farming, cattle-breeding now includes scientific crossbreeding
techniques that produce cattle with greatly improved fertility. Having a
local radio/TV show will be a great help in informing the community on
updates from the agricultural sector. ICTs can also be used for training
purposes
[citation needed].
For an experimental assessment of the role of mobile phones for
farmers' access to agricultural information from extension agents and
from other farmers see a recent article.
[23]
ICT4D initiatives in agriculture can be generally classified into
direct interventions, when farmers are connected to information and
opportunities that can directly improve their income or well-being, and
indirect interventions – supportive, long-term programs that can improve
established agricultural services over time through capacity building,
research, and training.
[37]
ICT4D not only strengthens agricultural production but also helps in
market development. Thus it supports creating future opportunities for
agricultural sector and the development of rural livelihoods.
[38]
A document released by the
World Bank's eTransform Africa project presents a summary of ICT application in agriculture in the
African continent.
The report includes a roadmap on ICT's application in farming, a list
of African eAgriculture accomplishments called the Africa Scan, and
agricultural case studies performed in countries such as
Namibia and
Egypt, which focuses on livestock production and irrigation efficiency, respectively.
[39]
The Open Agriculture (OpenAG) project by MIT is an ICT-enabled
project with an Agriculture development focus. In this project, users
have a controlled environment agriculture device where "every time users
grow and harvest, they will contribute to a library of Climate Recipes
that can be borrowed and scaled so that users around the world can gain
access to the best and freshest foods".
[40]
Rice is the main food of half of the population. In the Philippines, the
FutureRice program by the
Philippine Rice Research Institute
(PhilRice) is close to completing its vision of Philippine farms of the
future as of 2015. The goal is to have farms that are automated,
connected to apps for the people to save on water, harness green energy,
and make use of natural fertilizers and pesticides.
[41]
The demo farms aim to prepare farmers for two probable future
scenarios: natural farming for a world where fuel has become expensive
and scarce due to high demand, and high-tech, mechanized farming to make
Philippine rice competitive in the world market.
With farming equipment, farmers can significantly save time, money,
and labor. For instance, a mechanical rice transplanter – a machine used
to transfer rice seedlings onto a rice paddy – can finish one hectare
in one hour compared to an entire day with 8 to 10 laborers without a
transplanter. Organic, farm-sourced waste like carabao poop and rice
straw are turned into fertilizer through the action of microbacteria and
earthworms. It is a process called
vermicompost.
[41]
Today, there are apps customized to the needs of farmers. Rice Crop
Manager, a web and mobile-based app developed by the International Rice
Research Institute together with PhilRice, presents farmers with a set
of questions about their farm. Once all the questions are answered, the
app will generate recommendations on how the farmer can improve his
yield (e.g. the app will tell him when, how much, and how often to apply
fertilizer). Rice Crop Manager can be viewed and downloaded from Google
Play as "RCM PH".
[41]
"Rice Doctor Tagalog" is a Filipino version of the mobile
application. It aims to aid in the identification and management of the
rice crop issues here in the country. Leading authorities from
International Rice Research Institute,
Philippine Rice Research Institute, the Indonesian Research Institute
for Rice, and the Lucid team at the University of Queensland in
Australia developed the application. IRRI said that workers, farmers,
researchers, and students using Rice Doctor can identify more than 80
pests, diseases and other disorders affecting rice with text and images.
Experts from PhilRice and students taking up development communication
from the University of the Philippines aided in the reviewing, editing
and finalizing of the Filipino translation of the summary of the signs,
symptoms and management options. IRRI stated that this recent meeting at
in Laguna was the next step of the Filipino translation held by the
project, Improving Technology Promotion and Delivery through Capability
Enhancement of Next-Gen Rice Extension Professionals and Other
Intermediaries, under the Food Staples Sufficiency Program. Last year,
the first part of the workshop was primarily for the terms and
translation of the diagnostic questions. IRRI claims that the Filipino
translated Rice Doctor is the stepping stone for the translation and
localization of a diagnostic tool for the country-specific crop
problems. Currently, these are also being done in other countries such
as Bangladesh and India.
[42]
Climate change and environment
The
use of ICT in weather forecasting is broad. Weather forecasting offices
use mass media to inform the public on weather updates. After
tropical storm Ondoy
in the Philippines, the Filipino people are more curious and aware
about the weather hazards. Meteorological offices are also using
advanced tools to monitor the weather and the weather systems that may
affect a certain area.
Monitoring devices include:
[43]
In Africa, flood is one of the major concerns of farmers. The
International Water Management Institute
launched the mobile services for flood management, specifically in East
Sudan. These mobile services are considered as a next-generation ICT
for weather and water information. The tool converts complex satellite
sensor information to simple text messages which are sent to farmers
informing them about the optimum use of flood water for crop production.
The text messages would also warn the farmers about the flood events
which would help them prepare their fields and advise on how to mitigate
flood damage in estimating the risk of future flood events.
[44]
Climate change
is a global phenomenon affecting the lives of mankind. In times of
calamities, information and communication technology is needed for
disaster management.
Various organisations, government agencies and small and large-scale
research projects have been exploring the use of ICT for relief
operations, providing early warnings and monitoring extreme weather
events.
[45]
A review of new ICTs and climate change in developing countries
highlighted that ICT can be used for (1) Monitoring: observing,
detecting and predicting, and informing science and decision making; (2)
Disaster management: supporting emergency response through
communications and information sharing, and providing early warning
systems; and (3) Adaptation: supporting environmental, health and
resource management activities, up-scaling technologies and building
resilience.
[45] In the Philippines, institutions like the
National Disaster and Risk Reduction and Management Council help the public in monitoring the weather and advisory for any possible risks due to hazardous weather.
NetHope
is another global organization which contributes disaster management
and awareness through information technology. According to
ICTandclimatechange.com ICT companies can be victims, villains or heroes of climate change.
In 2014 when
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines, the
CDAC network
utilized different technologies to coordinate and communicate efforts
between the affected communities and the different network's volunteer
organizations. CDAC saw the value of communication in responding to the
disaster. They emphasized getting accurate and timely information as
being crucial to saving lives. One of the organizations and tools that
they tapped was the Digital Humanitarian Network. The
Digital Humanitarian Network
is a group of organizations with various tools that contribute to
crisis mapping. These tools were used to manage information that are
received about the disaster. The tools they use allow them to monitor
media—including social media, create live crisis maps, analyze the data
they have, etc.
[46]
In 2015, the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) launched a website called
Be Prepared Metro Manila.
The website collates information regarding earthquake preparedness.
This was created in response to a predicted earthquake, expected to hit
Metro Manila with a 7.2 intensity and it contains different
info-graphics containing precautionary measures that can be used to
monitor and prepare for earthquakes.
[47]
Be Prepared Metro Manila explains how to respond in the event of an
earthquake, illustrates the valley fault system, lists down details of
emergency contacts, and opens a sign-up process for people interested to
be volunteers.
[48]
In addition to the campaign launched by the Metro Manila Development
Authority (MMDA), the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) has
also utilized ICT through the use of both web application and mobile
application for the DOST –
Project Noah.
According to DOST, NOAH's mission is to undertake disaster science
research and development, advance the use of cutting edge technologies,
and recommend innovative information services in government's disaster
prevention and mitigation efforts. Through the use of science and
technology and in partnership with the academe and other stakeholders,
the DOST through Project NOAH is taking a multi-disciplinary approach in
developing systems, tools, and other technologies that could be
operationalized by government to help prevent and mitigate disasters.
[49] Project NOAH can be accessed
here
Geographic information systems (GIS) are also used in several ICT4D applications, such as the
Open Risk Data Initiative (OpenRDI)[permanent dead link].
OpenRDI aims to minimize the effect of disaster in developing countries
by encouraging them to open their disaster risk data. GIS technologies
such as
satellite imagery, thematic maps, and geospatial data play a big part in disaster risk management. One example is the
HaitiData,
where maps of Haiti containing layers of geospatial data (earthquake
intensity, flooding likelihood, landslide and tsunami hazards, overall
damage, etc.) are made available which can then be used by decision
makers and policy makers for rehabilitation and reconstruction of the
country.
[50][51]
The areas which are receiving priority attention include natural
resources information assessment, monitoring and management, water shed
development, environmental planning, urban services and land use
planning.
[52]
Government, non-government and other organizations are encouraged to
use ICT as a tool for protecting environment and developing sustainable
systems that save natural resources, to implement green computing and to
establish surveillance systems to forecast and monitor natural and
man-made disasters.
According to a research by OECD, ICTs can be tools for dealing with environmental issues as follows:
- Environment surveillance: Terrestrial (earth, land, soil,
water), ocean, climate and atmospheric surveillance, data collection,
storage and record technologies, remote sensing, telemetric systems,
geographic information systems (GIS) etc.
- Environment analysis: Different computational and processing
tools are required to analyze the data collected from environment. Some
of these tools are land, soil, water and atmospheric quality assessment
tools, Tool for analyzing atmospheric conditions like GHG emissions and
pollutants etc.
- Environment planning: Environment planning and policy formulation require analyzed data, information and decision support systems.
- Environment management and protection: Information and
communication technologies for management and protection of environment
include resource and energy conservation and management systems, GHG
emission management and reduction systems and controls, pollution
control and management systems etc. ICT can reduce its own environmental
impacts by increasing system efficiency which ultimately reduce the
overall negative impact on environment.
- Impact and mitigating effects of ICT utilization: ICT use can
mitigate the environmental impacts directly by increasing process
efficiency and as a result of dematerialization, and indirectly by
virtue of the secondary and tertiary effects resulting from ICT use on
human activities, which in turn reduce the impact of humans on the
environment.
- Environmental capacity building: ICT is used as a media to
increase public awareness, development of environment professionals, and
integrating environmental issues into formal education.
Examples: The Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring Network,
Atlas of Our Changing Environment, Climate Change in Our World,
- Integrated ecosystem monitoring, sensing and modelling.[53]
Education
The
use of ICTs in the educational system that would not be able to solve
the current problems in the educational system, but rather provide
alternative solutions to the obstacles encountered in the conventional
educational system. ICTs would be able to provide education and
knowledge in a wider reach, even with a limited amount of resources,
unlike conventional systems of education.
[54]
ICT has been employed in many education projects and research over the world. The Hole in the Wall (also known as
minimally invasive education)
is one of the projects which focuses on the development of computer
literacy and the improvement of learning. Other projects included the
utilization of mobile phone technology to improve educational outcomes.
[55]
In the Philippines, there are key notes that have been forwarded to
expand the definition of ICT4E from an exclusive high-end technology to
include low-end technology; that is, both digital and analog.
[56]
As a leading mobile technology user, the Philippines can take advantage
of this for student learning. One project that serves as an example is
Project Mind,
[57] a collaboration of the Molave Development Foundation, Health Sciences University of Mongolia, ESP Foundation, and the
University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) which focuses on the viability of
Short Message System
(SMS) for distance learning. Pedagogy, Teacher Training, and Personnel
Management are some of the subgroups of ICT4E. UPOU is one of the best
examples of education transformation that empowers the potential of ICT
in the Philippines' education system. By maximizing the use of
technology to create a wide range of learning, UPOU promotes lifelong
learning in a more convenient way.
[58]
Furthermore, ICTs allow learning to become student-centered rather
than teacher-dominated, such as in the case of distance-learning
programs. It has multiple impacts on student achievements and
motivations, including but not limited to: confidence in computer usage,
increased autonomy when learning, improved development in language and
communication skills. However, it is not without its flaws – ICTs can
easily become the focus of a program, in which the technology is given
and provided before much thought is given to the application of it.
[59]
As education is a key factor of socio-economic development, the
education system of developing countries must be aligned with modern
technology. ICT can improve the quality of education and bring better
outcomes by making information easily accessible to students, helping to
gain knowledge and skill easily and making trainings more available for
teachers.
[38]
Literacy
Many
current initiatives to improve global, regional and national literacy
rates use ICT, particularly mobile phones and SMS. For example, in India
a project titled "Mobile Learning Games for English as Second Language
Literacy" (2004-2012) aimed to enhance the literacy sub-skills of boys
and girls in low-income rural areas (and in urban slums) via mobile
game-based learning of English in non-formal, formal and informal education contexts.
[60]
A project in Niger titled "Alphabetisation de Base par Cellulaire
(ABC)" (2009-2011) was based on the observation that ‘illiterate traders
in Niger were teaching themselves how to read and write in order to be
able to benefit from the lower prices that sending SMS offered compared
with calling. If mobile phones could encourage illiterate traders to
become partially literate, how useful would it be to incorporate mobile
phones in adult literacy classes?’
[61]
In consequence, this project provided mobile phones and instruction to
adults (including participants from producers’ associations) on how to
use mobiles in literacy programmes (including ‘functional literacy
topics’).
[60]
In Senegal, "The Jokko Initiative" (2009-2010) provided participants
the opportunity to practice basic literacy skills via SMS messaging
during an ongoing non-formal literacy component offered as part of an
overall
Community Empowerment Program
(CEP). Participants also made use of digital and visual literacy skills
linking mobile phone menu features with visual symbols and signs
related to
mango
picking–a common community livelihood practice. The mobile phone
literacy component was created as a response to an identified drop in
participants’ attendance and motivation during the third phase of the
CEP, and the low retention of literacy skills among participants.
[60]
In Somali, the "Dab IYO DAHAB Initiative" (2008-2011) used mobile
phone technology to ‘build basic money management skills (financial
skills) among youth and women so that they could make informed decisions
about their personal, households and/or small businesses’ and was used
‘as a tool to empower Somali youth, particularly young Somali women, and
more generally, to enhance existing grassroots education, financial
literacy, and poverty-reduction initiatives’. The overall Somali
community empowerment programme has been documented as boosting job
training and placement for 8,000 young people (women and men). Tests
before and after showed statistically significant improvement in skills,
with the youth livelihoods programme being linked to job placements.
[62][60]
Health
ICTs can
be a supportive tool to develop and serve with reliable, timely,
high-quality and affordable health care and health information systems
and to provide health education, training and improve health research.
[63]
According to the
World Health Organization
(WHO), 15% of the world's total population have disabilities. This is
approximately 600 million people wherein three out of every four are
living in developing countries, half are of working age, half are women
and the highest incidence and prevalence of disabilities occurs in poor
areas.
[64]
With ICT, lives of people with disabilities can be improved, allowing
them to have a better interaction in society by widening their scope of
activities.
Goals of ICT and disability work
- Give disabled people a powerful tool in their battle to gain employment
- Increase disabled people's skills, confidence, and self-esteem
- Integrate disabled people socially and economically into their communities;
- Reduce physical or functional barriers and enlarge scope of activities available to disabled persons
- Develop a web content that can be accessed by persons with disabilities especially the visually impaired and hearing impaired
At the international level, there are numerous guiding documents impacting on the education of people with disabilities such as
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), moving to the
Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960), the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), the
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005).
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
includes policies about accessibility, non-discrimination, equal
opportunity, full and effective participation and other issues. The key
statement within the CRPD (2006) relevant for ICT and people with
disabilities is within Article 9:
- "To enable persons with disabilities to live independently and
participate fully in all aspects of life, States Parties shall take
appropriate measures to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on
equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation,
to information and communications, including information and
communications technologies and systems, and other facilities and
services open or provided to the public, both in urban and rural areas.
(p. 9)"
Another international policy that has indirect implications for the
use of ICT by people with disabilities are the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). Although these do not specifically mention the right to
access ICT for people with disabilities, two key elements within the
MDGs are to reduce the number of people in poverty and to reach out to
the marginalised groups without access to ICT.
[65]
E-government and civic engagement
New
forms of technology, such as social media platforms, provide spaces
where individuals can participate in expressions of civic engagement.
Researchers are now realizing that activity such as Twitter use "...that
could easily be dismissed as leisure or mundane should be considered
under a broader conceptualization of development research."
[66]
Social Networking Sites (SNS) are indispensable for it provides a
venue for civic engagement for its users to call attention to issues
that needs action because of the nature of social media platforms as an
effective tool in disseminating information to all its users. Social
media can also be used as a support venue for solving problems and also a
means for reporting criminal activity or calamity issues that affects
the well being of communities. Social media is also used for inciting
volunteerism by letting others know of situations in places that
requires civic intervention and organize activities to make it happen.
Civic engagement plays a large part in e-government, particularly in
the area of Transparency and Accountability. ICTs are used to promote
openness in the government as well as a platform for citizens to report
on anomalous government activities for the purpose of reducing
corruption and in promoting efficiency.
Even before the advent or popularity of social media platforms,
internet forums were already present. Here, people could share their
concerns about pertinent topics to seek solutions.
In third-world countries like the Philippines, the text brigade is an
easy method for informing and gathering people for whatever purpose. It
usually starts with an individual sending an SMS to his/her direct
contacts about a civic engagement. Then he/she requests the recipients
to send the same message to their own contacts as well until the number
of people involved gets bigger and bigger.
The e-government action plan includes applications and services for
ensuring transparency, improving efficiency, strengthening citizen
relations, making need-based initiatives, allocating public resources
efficiently and enhancing international cooperation.
Writing about ICTs for government use in 1954, W. Howard Gammon can
be credited as writing the first e-government research paper. Though not
mentioning the word "e-government", his article "The Automatic Handling
of Office Paper Work" tackled tactics regarding government processes
and information systems or electronic machinery.
[67]
In the Philippines, the administration now uses
social media to converse more with its citizens for it makes people feel more in touch with the highest official in the land.
[68]
However, according to Mary Grace P. Mirandilla-Santos, it has been
suggested from research in the Philippines, that an average citizen does
not actively seek information about politics and government, even
during an election campaign.
[69] Another innovation is a
standard suite of city indicators
that enable mayors and citizens to monitor the performance of their
city with others, a valuable tool in obtaining consistent &
comparable city-level data.
Other
- Tourism: Tourism is the sector that has possibility of being
benefited from ICT. Roger Harris is the first person to show the
possible benefits the field can get utilizing ICT.[70][71]
His work location was a remote place in Malaysia and he showed how a
small tourism operation can be run there using internet. ICT can be an
important medium for developing tourism market and improving local
livelihoods.[72][73]
Tourism industry takes advantage of the beneficial use of information
and communication technology to cater their market through e-commerce. A
journal entitled, "E-Tourism: The role of ICT in tourism industry",
enumerated several ways how e-commerce is expected to benefit economic
development in tourism industry. These are:
- Through allowing local business access to global markets.
- By providing new opportunities to export a wider range of goods and services.
- By improving the internal efficiency within the firms.[74]
- Reducing Gender Gap: According to the ITU, which is the
United Nations specialized agency for information and communication
technologies, one of their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is focused on gender equality.
In 2013, Broadband Commission Working Group on Broadband and Gender
released their global report which contained their estimation that there
are currently 200 million fewer women online[75]
compared to men. The ITU claims that ICT will play an important role in
delivering both gender equality to narrow the growing gender gap. Based
on their studies, evidence on the benefits that women can gain through
ICT, especially with being empowered with information are increasing. "Access to ICTs can enable women to gain a stronger voice in their communities, their government and at the global level." "There
is a growing body of evidence on the benefits of ICTs for women's
empowerment, through increasing their access to health, nutrition,
education and other human development opportunities, such as political
participation."[76]
ICT can also provide women new opportunities that involve sustainable
livelihood (including ICT-based jobs) and economic empowerment once they
get to fully utilize what ICT has to offer. One of ITU's projects that
is related to this goal is the Women's Digital Literacy Campaign.
ITU partnered up with non-government organization Telecentre.org
Foundation for the campaign. They have trained over one million
unskilled women to use computers and ICT applications to open more
opportunities in education and employment. In the hopes that newly
developed skills and knowledge related to ICT will improve their
livelihoods. According to ITU's case study... "The Campaign has
demonstrated the power of digital literacy training to open the door to
other essential skills needed to operate in a broadband environment,
including financial literacy skills, as well as ICT-enabled career
training. Such training enables women to set up online businesses, or to
use broadband services, such as social networking sites, to enhance
their ongoing livelihood and economic activity."
The ITU commitment to close the digital gender gap is installed in
the 2030 Agenda, the Addis Ababa Action plan 2015: develop
gender-responsive strategies and policies, ensure access and mitigate
online threats, build content and services that meet women's needs,
promote women in the technology sector in decision-making positions, and
establish multi-stakeholder partnerships.
[77]
- Indigenous populations: According to UNESCO, indigenous
people have low computer ownership, low computer literacy, low
connectivity to the Internet and low access to other digital
technologies such as cameras, film-making equipment, editing equipment,
etc.[citation needed].
Exacerbating factors are the remoteness of many indigenous communities –
often located in regions where connectivity is difficult – and poor
levels of literacy, particularly in English, the main computer language.
There is a lack of trained Indigenous ICT technicians to provide
maintenance locally.[78] The goals of the UNESCO ICT4D Project
for the Indigenous People are to preserve and manage cultural
resources, to enable recovery of their cultural self-worth and dignity,
and to train stakeholders to acquire greater mastery of ICT.[79]
- Social Media: Social networking sites receive lots of attention in the Philippines, having over 30 million Filipino users on Facebook alone.[80]
Sites like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram see use in more than just
socializing as the users tend to use the sites as a place of political
discussion, protests, and several other social movements. The usage of
social media tools to communicate with people across the world dominates
the old school coffee table talk. Businessmen tend to opt for a brief
Skype conference to investors abroad than to set personal meetings to
save time and money. Social media is becoming part of the daily lives of
so many people around the world that it allows businesses to reach
people they haven't been able to reach before. Businesses need to make
their own presence felt in social media. Otherwise, they might lose out
on opportunities that competitors could capitalize on. In addition to
the traditional methods of campaign, political figures make different
social networking sites a part of their electoral campaigns to voice out
their platforms. The local government agencies and officials releases
announcements, statements and bulletins via their verified social media
accounts. Local transportation and transit agencies relay information
mainly through Twitter about traffic accidents, road closings and
emergencies such as floods or typhoons.
- Persons with Disability (PWD): There are plenty of barriers
to accessing electronic and information and communication technologies,
and one of them is the disability of the person. Over a billion all over
the world are hindered to access ICT because of their disability. Persons with Disability (PWDs) will be at a huge disadvantage without the access to the said technology in a world that is the age of information.[81]
Mr. Opeolu Akinola, the President of Nigerian Association of the
Blind, says "Accessibility is ensuring that all the people in the
society can access available resources irrespective of disability, which
means that persons with disability can participate and have the same
choice as non-disabled community members.
[81]
ICT is a great aid in improving the lives of PWDs by enlarging the
opportunities that will be available for them particularly in terms of
social, cultural, political and economic integration in certain
communities. The UNESCO advocates the concept of
knowledge societies
which includes the promotion of the rights and needs of PWDs and enrich
them with the effective use of ICTs which are accessible, adaptive and
affordable by raising global awareness on disability rights, developing
innovative ICT solutions, building inclusive or assistive technologies
for accessibility, designing proper frameworks and tools, and to
contribute to the implementation of UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities.
[82]
ICT improves the status of education in the world and it is now the most convenient tool for the said field.
Assistive technologies (AT)
open the students with sensory impairments such as visual, hearing,
physical, cognitive impairments, and speech-language and learning
impairments to the opportunity to participate and enjoy the educational
process with special techniques, treatment and equipment. In addition,
it helps the PWDs to further have employment opportunities. ICT and AT
gives a hope for PWDs to a barrier-free information society by bridging
the disability divide. An
information society
where everyone can access, utilize, create and share information and
knowledge that will aid the people to achieve their full potential and
will aid the society to progress.
[83]
Organizations
The expansion of ICT can have direct negative outcomes. Expenditure
on ICT has been known to cause intra-household conflict, foster male
dominance over resources and divert household resources away from food
and other essentials. Human right concerns such as
child labor have also been raised over the use of conflict materials in the production of ICT devices.
[84]
In many impoverished regions of the world, legislative and political
measures are required to facilitate or enable application of ICTs,
especially with respect to
monopolistic communications structures and censorship laws.
The literacy issue is one of the key factors why projects fail in
rural areas; as education in literacy sets the foundation for digital
and
information literacy,
proper education and training are needed to make the user at least
understand how to manipulate the applications to get the information
they need. Constant follow-up with the community is needed to monitor if
the project has been successfully implemented and is being used
meaningfully.
In the case of India, technological advancement has been more of
leapfrogging in nature: the affordability of mobile phones allowed more
people to acquire mobile phones before learning to use personal
computers and desktops. This unfamiliarity with computers could be seen
as problematic as it creates digital divide if technological devices
provided are computers; a disconnect between computing technology and
people causes difficulty for some of the ICT4D project initiatives to
take effect. For instance, in rural parts of India, the Ministry of
Education rejected OLPC initiative
[85]
due to lack of facilities and trained professionals for computer
teaching and maintenance. While closing the gap of digital divide
through training teachers so that technology may be used for teaching
process is challenging, there is yet another problem of failing to
recognize technology as a tool for learning process. Studying how
learners and/or students interact with technology is vital for
developing and designing technologies for them.
Projects in marginalised rural areas face the most significant
hurdles – but since people in marginalised rural areas are at the very
bottom of the pyramid, development efforts should make the most difference in this sector. ICTs have the potential to multiply development effects
[86] and are thus also meaningful in the rural arena.
[87]
However, introducing ICTs in these areas is also most costly, as the following barriers exist:
[88]
- Lack of infrastructure: no electrical power, no running water, bad roads, etc.
- Lack of health services: diseases like HIV, TB, malaria are more common.
- Lack of employment: there are practically no jobs in marginalised rural areas.
- Hunger: hungry users have problems concentrating.
- Illiteracy: Text user interfaces do not work very well, innovative Human Computer Interfaces (see Human Computer Interaction) are required.
- Lack of means to maintain the project: some projects may be left to
deteriorate in time because maintenance is sporadic and if a component
breaks it is costly to obtain skilled people and parts to make a repair.
- Lack of means to maintain the project due to short-terms grants
- Lack of support from the local government
- Social contexts: the potential users living in rural marginalised
areas often cannot easily see the point of ICTs because of social
context and also because of the impediments of hunger, disease and
illiteracy.
- Possibility of encouraging brain-drain.[89]
- Corruption is one of the factors that hampers the implementation of ICT projects in rural areas.
- Training and seminars must be conducted according to a suitable time
for farmers, to make sure that their daily routine is not affected.
- Many applications are not user friendly.
- Projects are sometimes not being needs-driven and not relevant to local context.[89]
Another significant problem can be the selection of software installed on technology
[90] – instructors trained in one set of software (for example
Ubuntu[91]) can be expected to have difficulty in navigating computers donated with different software.
A pressing problem is also the misuse of
electronic waste in dangerous ways. Burning technology to obtain the metals inside will release toxic fumes into the air.
[92]
Plastics, chips and circuit boards are destroyed to gather their raw
and sellable materials. These practices cost the health of communities,
affecting the respiratory and immune system. Presence of harmful
chemicals are stuck on soils like lead, mercury and cadmium.
[93]
Sadly electronic wastes are profound in developing countries where they
are dumped due to large recycling costs. Developing countries are
forced to labor on these waste to get money. (Certification of recyclers
to
e-stewards or
R2 Solutions standards is intended to preclude environmental pollution.)
Finally, while the training, support, hardware and software may all
be donated, it is rare for another vital component of technology,
Internet access, to be made available at a discounted rate. "In about
half the countries in Africa, one year of [dial-up] Internet supply will
cost more than the average annual income."
[94][95]
TechChange,
The Social Impact Lab and the World Bank have highlighted many of the
above issues and complexities around implementing ICT4D projects through
an animation short.
[96]
These negative impacts are observable but the platforms to identify,
measure, analyze, and address them are insufficient. This is exacerbated
by the idea that ICT only provides benefits to society. As new ICT
practices are introduced, new challenges tag after them. However,
conceiving policies to minimize the negative impacts requires time and
resources. Conceptualization of effective and definite measures to
counter these negative impacts is in the development stage as part of
future priorities.
[97]
Lessons learned
Crucial in making any ICT4D effort successful is effective partnership between four key stakeholders:
- Public sector (governments from developed nations, developing nations, international bodies and local governments)
- Private sector (companies belonging to members of the target
audience, multinational organizations wishing to expand their markets to
the 4 billion people under US$2/day, pro-poor or social companies)
- Informal sector (NGOs, advocacy groups, think tanks)
- Representation from the target audience
International Institute for Communication and Development video
InfoDev has published six lessons from an analysis of 17 of their
pilot programmes (see below). These lessons are backed by a variety of
examples as well as a list of recommendations:
[98]
- Lesson 1: Involve target groups in project design and monitoring.
- Lesson 2: When choosing the technology for a poverty intervention
project, pay particular attention to infrastructure requirements, local
availability, training requirements, and technical challenges. Simpler
technology often produces better results.
- Lesson 3: Existing technologies – particularly the telephone, radio,
and television—can often convey information less expensively, in local
languages, and to larger numbers of people than can newer technologies.
In some cases, the former can enhance the capacity of the latter.
- Lesson 4: ICT projects that reach out to rural areas might contribute more to the MDGs than projects based in urban areas.
- Lesson 5: Financial sustainability is a challenge for ICT-for-development initiatives.
- Lesson 6: Projects that focus on ICT training should include a job placement component.
Sustainability and Scalability
Currently, the main two perspectives coming out of this sector are to
emphasize the need for external aid to build infrastructure so that
projects can reach viability, and the need to develop and build on local
talent.
Establishing a clear and effective initial design serves as a
foundation of any development projects. Starting on existing community
assets and knowledge promotes collaboration and cooperation among
participants resulting to collective decision-making. Thus, involvement
of potential participants in the design, implementation, and monitoring
and evaluation is valuable. Adding a substantial effect on a project's
long-term sustainability is the implementation. The success of project
implementation is reflected in a comprehensive evaluation of the
expected net benefits. The interdependence between these project
components based on a holistic consideration of livelihood systems,
needs and opportunities, provides significant contribution to the
overall impact of the project on the community.
[99]
A growing perspective in the field is also the need to build projects
that are sustainable and scalable, rather than focusing on those which
must be propped up by huge amounts of external funding and cannot
survive for long without it. Sustaining the project's scalability is a
huge challenge of ICT for development; how the target user will continue
using the platform. ICT4D is not a one-shot implementation but rather
it is a complex process to be undertaken continuously, and the progress
of each project evolves around the local education for, and adaptability
of, the technology
Also, a number of developing countries have proven their skills in IT
(information technology). Using these skills to build on ICT4D projects
will tap local potential and a key indigenous partner in the growth of
this sector will be gained. The
balance of trade for these nations due to imports in both
hardware and
software might be an additional consideration.
Different countries have variety on these strengths some are better
in hardware production, both high end and low end. There are some who
are good in production of programs and other content. ICT is a US$3
trillion industry (2010)
[100] and is growing every year. Communication, media and IT present opportunities for further growth and expansion.
Sustainable Development Goals
In
2015, the UN Development Program and the UN Development group
postulated a set of 17 goals whose ultimate goal is to transform the
world into a better one with emphasis to developing countries. Some of
the goals included are aims to end extreme hunger, poverty and gender
inequality.
[101] While none of the
Sustainable Development Goals
are specifically meant for Information and Communication Technologies,
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development believes that it can help at
some extent in achieving the SDGs adding that "The spread of
information and communication technology and global interconnectedness
has great potential to accelerate human progress, to bridge the digital
divide and to develop knowledge societies".
[102]
The International Telecommunication Union also shares this sentiment
and considers that the ICTs can "fast forward progress on the SDGs"
which would fundamentally improve the lives of the people.
[103]
Goal Number 1: No Poverty
Currently,
there are over two billion people in the world who don't have a bank
account. Digital financial services through ICT helps these people
engage with digital economy. It has been proven that access to financial
services empowers people to get out of poverty.
Information services can also provide accurate and timely financial
information to the people which promulgates their rights to economic
resources and market perceptions which would ultimately benefit all
those who are concerned.
[104]
Goal Number 2: Zero Hunger
It
is evident that the skyrocketing number of the world's population
signals the need for new methods in order to improve crop yields.
Through ICT, farmers can gain access to information systems that provide
content such as weather forecasts, trading information and training
courses that are tailored to their needs.
[105]
Goal Number 3: Good Health & Well-being
ICTs
have the potential to bring the medical personnel and their patients
closer wherever they may be. Patients can remotely contact healthy care
services for help. Health care workers can run tests that would
otherwise be impossible without the help of ICTs such as conducting
remote diagnostic check-up of their patients and prescribing treatment
solutions.
Analyzing all of these data in a large scale would help in analyzing
trends, create forecasts about disease outbreaks, improving traditional
and ICT-based health services and more.
[106]
Goal Number 4: Quality Education
Education is where a citizen is prepared.
[107] E-learning systems serve as a leeway in educating learners through ICT.
[108]
With these technologies, it can contribute a worldwide spread of access
and quality in education for all, as well as excellent delivery.
[109]
Teachers have pointed out that with the implementation of ICT in their
school, it has helped enhance the students' attention and perception
skills.
[110]
Around the globe, there are programs that are self-paced, available
competitive college courses from known universities with certification,
online competitions and labs which in turn act as tools for livelihood
opportunities. There are also smart systems that analyze the learning
pattern of the student which it uses in constructing individual learning
plans as maximized pedagogy.
[108]
In Europe, it has been said the use of ICT is one of the big
fundamental factors in improving quality education. The implementation
of the use of ICT in education is highly encouraged by the European
Commission in their E-Learning Action Plan wherein one of their goals
are, "to improve the quality of learning by facilitating access to
resources and services as well as remote exchange and collaboration".
[110]
Goal Number 5: Gender Equality
Access
to ICT helps women in understanding the importance of their productive
and reproductive roles in the society at the local community, government
and global level. Women can be empowered as economic, social and
political actors by providing new space and opportunity where they can
contribute to the community. These opportunities can be in form of
advocacy, ICT-based entrepreneurship or other community development
activities through ICT.
[111]
Goal Number 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Contaminated
water and inadequate sanitation accounts to more than 800,000 deaths
annually. ICTs can provide ways for smarter water management such as
automated systems handling the measurement and observation of the water
supply and propose possible solutions and interventions based on the
data gathered. ICTs can also be used to provide data to practitioners in
the field enabling them to provide more water, sanitation and hygiene
(WASH) services.
[112]
Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
ICT-powered
solutions such as smart electrical grids, smart homes and buildings,
and automated industrial processes can be deployed to replace their
inefficient counterparts towards usability and energy efficiency.
ICTs are also being developed to create a lesser carbon-footprint so as to make them environmentally sound.
[113]
Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
ICTs
are paving way for interested entities to conduct business virtually
anywhere in the world. Some of examples of these businesses are online
education platforms, computing services and online boutiques. This
creates a plethora of new employment opportunities which ultimately
fosters market growth.
[114]
Goal Number 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
ICT
is a crucial tool in industrialization. In emerging information and
knowledge societies, open access to academic research, online
collaboration and optimization of ICT enable countries to provide
infrastructures well-suited for knowledge-based societies such as power
networks, transportation systems, water supplies and communication
networks.
[115]
Goal Number 10: Reduced Inequalities
ICTs
can help reduce inequality within and between countries by providing
knowledge to the disadvantaged section of the society such as those
living with disabilities and women. For example, to those who are
visually challenged, there are now accessibility solutions that accept
speech as input and output for computing operations. Interactive
lectures can also be used to engage people into learning and developing
their ICT skills with the goal of bridging the digital divide.
[116]
Goal Number 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
City
management can be done effectively with the help of ICTs. Innovative
concepts such as smart buildings, smart waterworks facilities and
intelligent transport systems not only provide increased work efficiency
but also boasts a reduced energy consumption and waste impact.
[117]
Goal Number 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
ICTs
application help participate in the dematerialization and
virtualization of materials such as the case of virtual receipts and
electronic books replacing their paper-based counterparts.
Innovative ICT applications can also stimulate a sustainable
consumption and production of resources. Some examples of these include
smart grids, cloud computing and ICT-based power plants.
[118]
Goal Number 13: Climate Action
ICTs
such as satellite monitoring are critical in monitoring the earth,
interacting with climate and weather information, generating forecasts
and using results gathered to enable early warning systems.
Besides monitoring the effects of climate change, ICTs also play a
role in alleviating the effects of climate change by providing timely
and accurate forecasting and early warning systems.
[119]
Goal Number 14: Life Below Water
Utilization
of ICTs can also pave the way to the conservation and responsible use
of oceans and the marine resources that they hold. Satellite-based
monitoring can improve overall monitoring and reporting efficiencies
which results to increased liability. On a smaller scale, local sensors
and other related systems can also deliver real-time updates to improve
the accuracy and efficiency of data gathered from satellite-based
monitoring.
Big data from the monitoring activities can be analyzed to look for
short and long-term trends in terms of pollution, weather patterns and
migration cycles.
[120]
Goal Number 15: Life on Land
ICTs
can play a major role in the conservation of terrestrial ecosystems and
prevention of biodiversity loss. Like on oceans and marine resources,
global monitoring systems such as satellite-based monitoring can improve
the monitoring efforts which would increase accountability. As a
result, several illegal activities such as poaching and illegal wildlife
trade can be alleviated through this way.
Data gathered from the monitoring activities can be used to analyze
trends in terms of biodiversity, changes in ecosystems as well as to
plan mitigation efforts.
The Environment Public Authority in Kuwait has created an
environmental portal, Beatona.net. The portal aims to share verified
environmental information to the public. One of the key feature of this
portal is the ability of the public to interact with it by reporting
environmental phenomena and illegal activities.
[121]
Goal Number 16: Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions
ICTs
can help in strengthening the accountability and reliability of
institutions. The emerging trend of governments opening their data to
the public increases transparency ratings, enables citizens and helps
stimulate financial growth. ICTs are also vital in areas such as
monitoring and tracking government data and public demographics.
ICTs are also important when natural or man-made disasters occur
because it is responsible for retrieving, communicating and sending
reliable and timely crisis information. This allows efficient and
correct solutions to be carried out. In the future, analysis of big data
can also pave way to accurate forecasting and early warning systems
which would be open to anyone.
[122]
Goal Number 17: Partnerships for the Goals
Ultimately,
ICT plays the biggest role in SDG, although not specifically mentioned.
But with the three pillars of sustainable development namely economic
growth, social inclusion and environmental sustainability, it is no
doubt needed in providing innovative and effective means of
implementation in a global scale. It helps in enhancing international
coordination, multi-stakeholder partnerships, data monitoring and
accountability.
[123]
The Sustainable Development Goals is an opportunity for the world to
work together to reach goals such as ending poverty, protecting the
earth and ensuring prosperity for the planet. Technology if used
effectively will accelerate the SDG's task of reaching its goals.
In order for SDGs to achieve their goals, changes are required of
each sector. Development sectors like livelihood, agriculture, health,
education, water, sanitation and power, infrastructure, disaster relief,
government and human rights, environmental protection and crosscutting
should achieve their goals of ending poverty by providing sustainable
agriculture to ensure food security and improved nutrition for people to
have healthy lives. Sustainable management of water, sanitation and
modern energy should be achieved as well as the construction of safe and
resilient infrastructure for communities. Laws promulgating equal
rights should also be achieved. Lastly, protection of the environment
should be undertaken.
ICT can address the needs and provide benefits to various
organizations and individuals. These organizations include consumers,
entrepreneurs or employees, businesses, government agencies and civil
society organizations.
[124]
Challenges
However,
there are a lot of challenges in implementing SDGs at it focuses on
many aspects. Suggestions have been made on how the goals can be
achieved at the desired timeline, such as decreasing cost in
implementing ICT and increasing public awareness about ICT. Another
hindrance is the hierarchy of organizations. There are reports that some
agencies are treated as higher than the other, thus, making the
development slower. Also, though there are a lot of talented leaders,
not all of them are exposed to the real situation. The most contributing
factor is that once they are pushed to do something, most individuals
and institutions focus on their own sectors, thus, not being able to
have a collective mind towards one goal. SDGs also have a huge
territory; they focus on too many fields, making it slower for the
development of ICT to happen. Though they focus on the most crucial
needs of the people, the progression is not at par with their previous
goals. SDGs have a long way to go with its goal to be reached by 2030.
Improvements are still on its way but there are challenges that needs to
be resolved to be able to move forward, by having a collective mind.
[125]
Moreover, during the 2000s, a pattern showed that ICTs had a strong
drop down the international development agenda. It may even fully
disappear from the international development agenda. This is all because
of some failures of ICT4D. These failures include: inability to become
engaged with the twin colossi of development goals going forward;
inability to grasp the meaning, concepts, and discourse in development;
and inability to create a role for itself in sustainable and inclusive
development.
[126]
ICT4D should be able to solve these failures and do its tasks
accordingly to be able to have a fitting place in the development
agenda.
[126]
Inclusive innovation
'Inclusive innovation'
refers to the knowledge creation, acquisition, absorption and
distribution efforts targeted directly at meeting the needs of the
low-income or the base-of-the-pyramid (BoP) population. The focus of
Inclusive Innovation is on delivering high performance products and
services or high experience at ultra-low cost to the people whose needs
are generally not addressed.[127]
There are 5 guiding principles:
[127]
- Affordable Access – Inclusive Innovation aims at 'extreme
reduction' in both the costs of production as well as the distribution.
This is to ensure that if there are any costs at all to be passed on to
developing communities, they are minimal, under the principle of getting
quality products and services for less while managing to distribute
them to more stakeholders. This principle also ties in with the next
principle, which is
- Sustainable Basis – In the long term, the access must not
depend on the government subsidies or generous government procurement
support systems but should work by working with the market principle, a
cornerstone of the private sector.
- Quality goods and services – Quality goods and services is
also a goal because even the people at the base of the pyramid still
have basic rights. That is to say, the objective is not to produce low
performance, cheap knock-off versions of technologies in order to sell
them to poor people. The point of Inclusive innovation is to harness
sophisticated science or technology or creative non-technological
innovation to invent, design, produce and distribute quality goods and
services that are also affordable for the majority of the people.
- Access to excluded population – Inclusive Innovations should
provide access of goods and services to the excluded population,
primarily at the base of the pyramid. The excluded population could
include the poor, the disabled, the elderly etc.
- Significant Outreach – The benefits of inclusive innovation
should reach a significant portion of the target population, and not
just a small section of the population.
There has been a rapid rise of interest in inclusive innovation and
its application to various spheres. In the past few years, the World
Bank, IDRC, GIZ, OECD and other development agencies have all launched
inclusive innovation actions. India, Thailand, China, South Africa,
Indonesia and other national governments have added inclusive innovation
elements into their policies. Many organizations and agencies like
World Bank, IDRC, GIZ, OECD and many more are still launching inclusive
actions – which many countries are increasingly using inclusive
innovation in various sectors and fields, like China, India, Indonesia,
South Africa, Thailand, and other national governments.
Here we can view the two key aspects of how inclusive innovation
plays: first, who are affected or included? And second, what way they
are included? First, the first part who are affected or included? The
first part of key aspect is defined as someone is being affected or
included in marginalized or poverty line. How these people are being
included in some way, which can be redirected to the second key aspect,
what way they are included? The most beneficial way to answer that is to
comprehend the different perspectives in the "ladder of inclusive
innovation", in a group of steps, which in every succeeding step
illustrates a higher idea of inclusivity as related to how innovation
works. Below are the detailing of the steps:
[128]
- Level 1 (intention): when this innovation is inclusive, it has the
intention of specific innovation that corresponds to the address of the
necessities, wants or problems of the excluded group. However, this does
not meant to report in any definite activity, but solely in the
abstraction of motivation behind that innovation.
- Level 2 (consumption): when this innovation is inclusive, it has to
be adopted and to be utilized by the excluded group. However, it
requires the innovation to be developed into definite goods or services;
in which case, these can be accessed and payable by the excluded group;
for that effect the group have the motivation and capabilities to
integrate the innovation. All of those levels, they could be viewed as
sub-elements for this level in the inclusive innovation ladder; in spite
of, all shall be needed for consumption, as consequently they are not
part of the hierarchical sub-steps (which will appear in later levels).
- Level 3 (impact): when this innovation is inclusive, it has the
favourable impact on the livelihoods of the excluded group. That
specific favourable impact may be comprehended in different views. It
could be more quantitative, where the economic perspectives could be
defined in the terms of higher productivity and/or higher
welfare/utility (e.g. greater ability to consume). Beyond than that,
many perspectives could be defined in the impact of innovation of
well-being, livelihood assets, personal capabilities, or other
foundational theories of what development is.
- Level 4 (process): when this innovation is inclusive, it has the
case of excluded group that is involved in the innovation development.
It is almost rare for the whole group to be involved, somehow the effect
of this could immediately diminish into "members of the excluded
group". This level must be de-synthesized as stated by the sub-processes
of innovation: invention, design, development, production, and
distribution. These could construct a set of sub-steps within, e.g., the
speculation of lower value of inclusion downstream elements than the
upstream elements. Furthermore, the scope of participation is being
identified with the different levels of inclusion. Repeatedly, there
could be sub-steps similar to those which are viewed when analysing
involvement in the development, with greater sub-steps depicting
extensive involvement. Borrowing additional ideas from Arnstein's[129]
in his ladder of participation, the sub-steps can be included as
follows: being informed, being consulted, collaborating, being
empowered, and controlling.
- Level 5 (structure): when this innovation is inclusive, it is
produced in enclosed structure that is in itself inclusively done. The
justification that can be found here in the inclusive processes that may
be for short-term or shallow in what they attain. Extensive inclusion
needs the proper fundamental institutions, organizations and relations
that constitute the innovation system that are inclusive.[130]
However, this might need the selection of serious structural
improvement of existing innovation systems, or the establishment of
alternative innovation systems.
- Level 6 (post-structure): when this innovation is inclusive, it is
generated in enclosed by the frame of knowledge and discourse, which is
in itself inclusively done. Any post-structuralists would assert the
idea that human's underlying frames of knowledge, as well as the
language, are the basis of power to which control the societal outcomes.
However, if the framings of main actors are included in the innovation
which allow for inclusion of the excluded; by then, the outcome of
innovation be truly inclusive.
Impact assessment
In
the field of ICT4D, an impact is said to occur when efforts are able to
reach outside the academia. Research alone is insufficient. Beyond
academic citations, the impact created by ICT4D research must extend to
policy and practice as well. An impact that is said to contribute to the
understanding or re-composition of policy issues and their debates is
described as
conceptual, while an impact that reforms the growth
of policy, provision of services, and practice, additionally guiding
legislation, is described as
instrumental. Furthermore, the
development of capacity in the ICT4D field could be considered as
another dimension of impact; one which is attained by interdisciplinary
sharing.
[131]
For ICT4D research to make an impact beyond theory, it must be treated as the following:
[132]
- As a Knowledge Product: As a knowledge product, the researchers
behind an ICT4D project must know and understand their target "market" -
that is, their audience. It is encouraged that research in ICT4D must
have intended beneficiaries, thereby looking into topics that are
in-demand to them.
- As a Solution: A defined problem, based on the in-demand issues of
the target audience is something that a research must aim to solve. This
gives the research a purpose, thus being treated as the problem's
solution.
- As Development: Research includes the cycle of diagnosis, action,
and evaluation, which makes it a way of improving current knowledge and
practices.
There are many initiatives and projects being done in line with
information, communication and technology for development. Government,
NGOs, public and private sectors have different projects lined up to
promote development in different communities. But these projects,
although have the objectives to help people in their everyday life,
there are little study on whether the technology applied is effective or
not.
Impact assessment is one way to determine the effectiveness of one technology.
For ICT4D, impact assessment can be based on these questions:
[133]
- Why? – this can include both the externally stated rationale, and
the internal purpose for the organisation(s) driving the impact
assessment. In most cases, the external rationale will be one or more
of: a) retrospective achievement – post-hoc assessment of what has been
achieved from investments to date; b) prospective priorities – pre-hoc
assessment of future development project investments; c) accountability –
enabling agencies to be held to account for their ICT4D spending.
- For whom? – typical audiences are a) ICT4D investment
decision-makers; b) ICT4D policy decision-makers; c) ICT4D project
decision-makers; d) ICT4D project users/beneficiaries; e) other ICT4D
stakeholders
- What? – a mixture of the indicators the key audience will best
consume, the indicators it is most feasible to measure, and the
indicators the assessment team is most familiar with. This may also
include identifying the conceptual framework guiding the impact
assessment;
- How 1? – alongside the specific measurement issues, a key element
here will be the extent of participation of project users in measurement
(and in more upstream processes such as selection of indicators).
- When? – the classic impact assessment failure has been to assess
ICT4D pilots rather than fully scaled-up projects; and to assess too
early in the project's history.
- How 2? – probably the most important and the most overlooked element
in the whole process, with some impact assessments being conducted but
having little impact. Includes questions on whether indicators are
reported "as is", or communicated via causal models, case sketches,
stories, etc.
Categorizing impact and its assessment
Heeks
and Molla described two different ways in categorizing impact
assessment of ICT4D projects. One is based on the attainment of the
ICT4D goals and the other is based on how to undertake such assessment.
[133]
Here is the classification of the impact of ICT4D
based on the attainment of goals:
- Total failure: the initiative was never implemented, was implemented
but immediately abandoned, or was implemented but achieved none of its
goals.
- Largely unsuccessful: some goals were attained but most stakeholder
groups did not attain their major goals and/or experienced significant
undesirable outcomes.
- Partial success/partial failure: some major goals for the initiative
were attained but some were not and/or there were some significant
undesirable outcomes
- Largely successful: most stakeholder groups attained their major goals and did not experience significant undesirable outcomes.
- Total success: all stakeholder groups attained their major goals and did not experience significant undesirable outcomes.
Another categorization of assessing the impacts of ICT4D projects is
based on "frameworks"
(understanding ICT4D projects and organizing knowledge about them)
which are: Generic: general frameworks usable in assessment of any
development project.
- Discipline-specific: assessment drawing from a particular academic discipline.
- Issue-specific: assessment focused on a particular development goal or issue.
- Application-specific: assessment focused on one particular ICT4D technology.
- Method-specific: assessment centred on a particular approach to data-gathering.
- Sector-specific: assessment centred on an individual development sector.
Mainstreaming and sidestreaming
Mainstreaming
ICTs means they should be understood as one among a number of tools
seeking to achieve other development goals such as poverty alleviation,
health, education of the MDG variety.
[134]
This tool pertains to the programmes crafted by ICT4D experts who have
spearheaded ICT4D, and some have undergone various academic training
from ICT4D recognized institutions (Chib&Harris Linking research to
practice). Programmes that are developed by these experts are determined
to have a social impact which are contributing to the development goals
of MDGs.
On what is described as mainstreaming ICT is an implementation of
various programmes by converging the techno-social activities that would
contribute to address development goals. In the Philippines, the Open
and Distance Education of the University of the Philippines Open
University is one among in Asia that has successfully developed academic
curriculum in information and communication science and has supported
various ICT4D programmes in different government sectors such as
agriculture and in local government units.
According to Richard Heeks, mainstreaming has its own dangers: losing
focus for learning about ICT4D and downplay technological innovation
are among them.
[134]
While these are theoretically true, the need of sidestreaming to
support the development ICT4D programmes should be placed. Retaining and
supporting specialist of ICT4D units or "sidestreaming" in variety of
organization that involves ICT4D together with the mainstreaming of
ICT4D resonates an effective structure towards development goals of
MDGs.
Vision of a compelling narrative
According
to Richard Heeks, ICT has a compelling narrative which drew attention,
money, and resources during the turn of the century.
[135]
It foresaw the creation of an information society within developing
countries from a variety of terms. Currently, there is no narrative in
ICT4D for post-2015 development because it struggles with the weight to
balance different innovations of the modern technology. The development
goals and sectors that ICT serves are considered sub-fragments within
the economic, social, political and environmental fragments. There is no
defined core of an information society, it's mostly far-reaching or
grasping for straws in the hope that they may amount to something.
It is quite understandable that the erosion of vision in ICT happened
because it was well ahead of its time in the early 2000s. It became
path dependent. Absorbing all that it came its way, which is why it is
harder to maintain. From casting visions, it now reflects realities. The
only solution is to throw the useless loads and start to reinvent a
single coherent core.
Heeks suggest that ICT could try to join another's army or try
grabbing someone else's flag so that they could push ahead and into the
post-2015 discussions. They could also try developing their own internal
narrative, one that can reintroduce a single core for its further
development. Either way, the future of ICT, its structure, and its
policy, depends on how far they are eager to develop and explore.
[136]
Criticisms and challenges
As it has grown in popularity, especially in the international development sector, ICT4D has also come under criticism.
Questions have been raised about whether projects that have been
implemented at enormous cost are actually designed to be scalable, or
whether these projects make enough of an impact to produce noticeable
change.
[138][139] For example, in Sri Lanka, journalist
Nalaka Gunawardene
argued that thousands of pilot projects had been seeded without regard
to generalisability, scalability, and sustainability, implying that
these projects will always require external funding to continue running
and that their impact is limited.
[140] This sentiment echoes a 2003 report by the World Bank.
[141]
Further criticism of ICT4D concerns the impact of ICTs on traditional cultures and the so-called
cultural imperialism
which might be spread with ICTs. It is emphasised that local language
content and software seem to be good ways to help soften the impact of
ICTs in developing areas.
[142]
Many fear of the potential of ICT to seriously widen the
Digital Divide and the gap between people with access to the
information economy and those without such access.
[139]
This issue was brought to the forefront of the international agenda and
was heavily discussed in some major international political meetings
such as the G8 meeting in Okinawa, Japan in July 2000.
[143] Anriette Esterhuysen, an advocate for ICT4D and human rights in South Africa,
[144]
pointed out that some ICT4D projects often give more emphasis to how
ICT can help its beneficiaries economically rather than helping them
create a society where social justice and equal rights prevail. She
believes that sustainable development can only be achieved if there are
human rights and people can speak freely.
[145]
Another point of criticism against ICT4D is that its projects are in
the long term seldom environmentally friendly. Beneficiary communities
are often given the responsibility to dispose of the toxic electronic
scrap when an equipment breaks down beyond repair. Since transporting
the equipment to a recycling facility is costly; the equipment is often
disposed of improperly, thus contributing to the pollution of the
environment.
More often than not, ICT programs are expected to be the solution for
all socioeconomic problems. However, disorganized implementation that
disregards factors such as cultural realities make ICT for development
efforts ineffective.
[146]
It is therefore important to pursue regionalized ICT programs first
before globalization. There's a need for ICT4D practitioners to seek out
ways in which to enable programs make their impact.
[147] Establishing regional and national ICT strategies that commit to action is the first step towards creating effective solutions.
[146]
A 2010 research report from the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre
[148]
found "Very few ICT4D activities have proved sustainable... Recent
research has stressed the need to shift from a technology-led approach,
where the emphasis is on technical innovation towards an approach that
emphasises innovative use of already established technology (mobiles,
radio, television)."
[149] However, of 27 applications of ICTs for development, E-government,
E-learnings and E-health were found to be possible of great success, as
well as the strengthening of social networks and boosting of security
(particularly of women).
Myths of ICT4D
According
to Kentaro Toyama, co-founder and assistant managing director of
Microsoft Research India, there are a number of myths that surround the
field of ICT4D. He argues that these myths can confuse our thinking
about the proper role for technology in addressing development problems.
[150]
Here are the ten myths of ICT4D that Toyama identified:
[151][152]
- Myth 1: Technology X will save the world – Technology X used
to refer to radio, landline, PC, or more specifically television. Now,
the burden of solving all social and political problems is being put on
mobile phones. Toyama stated that there are many poor communities that
only have a few phones and there are still some that do not have phones.
He mentions that ownership of mobile phones does not equate to its
sophisticated usage. Sophisticated usage also does not equate to
increase in welfare.
- Myth 2: Poor people have no alternatives – Technology has
often been thought to be the only way to access information. The truth
is, free and non-technological alternatives to get information and
certain services exist.
- Myth 3: "Needs" are more pressing than desires – Toyama
stated that ""Needs" are relative". The poor would rather spend majority
of their salary or income on items such as ringtones, music, movies,
weddings or funerals, and customized photos that Westerners (i.e. Bill
Gates, as mentioned in Toyama's presentation) would consider as
"luxurious" than "basic" things such as education and healthcare.
- Myth 4: "Needs" translate to business models – People don't
always pay for "needs" (e.g. education for children, water purifiers,
health insurance). Poor populations are harder to reach and are a
greater risk. They also have less disposable income. This is the reason
why "poverty premium" exists.
- Myth 5: If you build it, they will come – People don't always
do what is "best" for them. Let's take smoking, for example. Many
people would refuse to stop smoking even if they know and understand the
dangers brought about by smoking. Another example would be cataract
operations in India. There is an eye hospital that offers high quality
operations and it is free of charge. However, 10% of the people that are
offered with this particular service will still refuse to have the
operation.[150]
- Myth 6: ICT undoes "rich getting richer." – Technology tends to amplify the inequalities in literacy rather than reduce them.[150] "Everyone knows that the hard part is actually doing the work necessary to accomplish a goal, not providing the technology."
- Myth 7: Technology permits socio-economic leapfrogging –
There are things that do leapfrog. Things such as upper class capacity
and new technology over old technology (e.g. mobile phones over landline
phones). However, human capacity is developing slowly and the role of
technology in education is poorly understood. Education and human
capacity are said to be the critical things.
- Myth 8: Hardware and software are a one-time cost – Over 5
years, the amortization of the annual costs of a "$100 PC" per child
that covers breakage, connectivity, power, maintenance, and training
would be $250 per child per year.
- Myth 9: Automated is cheaper and better – Where labor is cheap and populations are illiterate, automated systems are not necessarily preferable.[150]
Here are some issues that go with full automation: barriers in
literacy, cost, and unfamiliarity; user preferences for voice and
human-mediated systems; and the question of whether the cost of human
system is actually less than the cost of technology.
- Myth 10: Information is the bottleneck – "Information is just one of many deficiencies in developing world" (Toyama, 2010).[152]
Kentaro Toyama mentioned some of the other deficiencies: human
capacity; infrastructure; institutional capacity; economics. He said
that information is not equal to education and communication is not
equal to commerce.
Toyama also mentioned the reasons why these myths persist.
- Desire for an easy solution[153]
- Desire for a one-time, catalytic investment
- Desire to see ingenuity triumph
- Seductive power of technology in the developed world
- Not enough insight into actual poor communities
- Misleading explanations of successful ICT4D projects – a variation of AI's "frame problem"
In his presentation, Toyama concluded that technology is just one
part of the solution. Part of his conclusion mentions that "Successful
ICT4D interventions work as a part of well-intentioned, competent
organizations." Toyama ended his presentation with the Key Lesson
saying, "Technology is a magnifier of human will, competence, and
institutions."
[152]
The 9 myths of ICT in education
Kentaro
Tayoma argued that the under-performing schools should try to adjust
the particular attention to other elements such as teaching improvement
skills and administration. He also recommended to use cost-effective
depart from traditional means of technology when venturing to other
educational resources. Myths below are the most heard praise about
technology in schools.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 1 – 21st-century skills require 21st-century technologies.[154]
This means that not every knowledge or skill that was developed during
the 21st-century needs to sophisticated and updated technologies.
Examples of such is critical thinking, problem solving, communication
and collaboration. In reality, the skills haven't changed; only the
proportion of people requiring them.[154]
Over the years, people have changed the way they work as well the
gadgets or tools to be used. Example of such is that over a decade ago,
typing is a required subject while as of today, everybody knows how to
type even without a course for it. As Tayoma pointed out, people
nowadays need to learn how to differentiate from acquiring knowledge of
critical thinking to make a person more inventive and creative from
wanting or demanding to learn up-to-date techniques, ideas, or
equipment.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 2 – Technology X allows interactive, adaptive, constructivist, student-centered learning.[154]
Tayoma explained that motivation is important for students to actually
sustain the learning. It is given that a good teacher should be
interactive, flexible to any environments and situation, artistic,
student-centered but if this are the only basis of good education then
technology will no longer be needed.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 3 – It's still easier for teachers to arouse interest with technology X than with textbooks.[154]
In reality, this is true but the technology changes very quickly and
should not be the basis how good a teacher is. Technology helps a
teacher to make an impact or influence the quality of education but
technology does not cure or fix a bad teacher.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 4 – Teachers are expensive. It's
exactly because teachers are absent or poorly trained that low-cost
technology is a good alternative.[154]
In reality, low-cost technology is not not low-cost at all for
low-income schools. On top of that, low-cost technology will also
deprecate and change over time so it will be obsolete. However, if
invested to proper training and development, teachers can fix the poorly
managed education system.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 5 – Textbooks are expensive. For the price of a couple of textbooks, you might as well get a low-cost PC.[154]
Obviously a printed book is cheaper than getting a low-cost PC.
Additionally, low-cost PC will need electricity to run which will not be
"low-cost" at all. Since textbooks can be used as one-is-to-one for
students, this is not the case for low-cost PC if we are talking about
low-budget schools.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 6: – We have been trying to improve education for many years without results. Thus, it's time for something new: Technology X![154]
Tayoma argued that other alternatives to fix the bad educational
system, it is time to rebuild the system from scratch as the Qatar did
with its education ministry. He pointed out that there are no shortcuts
to improve the teachers and administration as starting it from scratch
will take multiple years to rebuild.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 7 – Study Z shows that technology is helpful.[154]
The author agreed that technology is helpful and favorable in the
improvement of education. A study cannot be a basis that technology
alone (itself) is the main reason for development of education system.
The study also has other elements that make the technology look good or
have a positive results in studies. He pointed that technology is the
not the answer for poor performance of an education system as this will
also cost a lot since other than hardware, there are other additional
cost to consider such as maintenance, training and curriculum.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 8 – Computer games, simulations, and other state-of-the-art technologies are really changing things.[154]
In reality, there is no technology that has achieved or passed tests
such as lab trials, analysis and more that make a big difference in the
education system such with artificial intelligence that can motivate
students to study.
- Pro-Technology Rhetoric 9 – Technology is transformative-formative, revolutionary, and otherwise stupendous. Therefore, it must be good for education.[154]
Tayoma stated that education and learning is like parenting – it cannot
be replaced by any kind of technology. A good and guided education and
parenting can make righteous and honorable members of society as well as
developed students who are Einstein alike.
To summarize the myths in education above regarding technology, there
is no alternative or easiest way to achieve a good education system. He
has written more
articles about this the connection of technology and education.
Neoliberalization of education
Proponents
of ICT have always highlighted the benefits of technology when applied
in the different sectors of society especially in education. There is a
belief that using ICT will make the lives of the people better.
According to Flor (n.d.), education has benefited immensely from ICT for
it "offered an entire new range of possibilities to enhance
teaching-learning situation".
[147]
In the Philippines, pedagogic as well as social and economic benefits
are cited as reasons for the government's ICT for education policies and
programs.
[155]
The Philippine government believes that an ICT education will prepare
the youth to be able to meet the challenges and demands of the economic
market once they graduate. In short, the government wants to "produce a
critical mass of ICT professionals and ICT-literate manpower".
[155]
The need to supply an ICT-literate workforce is anchored on the
Information Age wherein the global economy's primary commodity is now
information. Labor-intensive production has become knowledge-intensive,
thus, the ever-growing need for information workers. Corporate
businesses who need information workers thrive on ICT. They do not only
own the technology, but they also exert power through it.
[156]
This results in a parasitic and predatory relationship between those
who own the technology and their labor and consumer market. ICT, in the
context of global capitalism, is therefore being used to advance private
corporate interests towards what Schiller (as cited in Waller, 2007)
calls a "corporate controlled information society".
[156]
This restructuring of the global economy through ICT has implications
that affect us immensely, even more so with the inclusion of ICT in
education. It reinforces the exploitative nature of capitalism for it
allows business interests to enter into and control our educational
system.
To exert its economic power in the global economy and "justify the
more aggressive drive of the Transnational Corporations in the global
order," capitalist-led WB and the World Trade Organization has put forth
the theories of the "global village" and the globalization of market.
[157] This global village, according to Lelliot
et al.
(as cited in Zemblyas and Vrasidas, 2005), is where "the educational
and political significance and desirability of ICT" is based on. ICT
therefore becomes a symbol and an aspect of globalization because
globalization builds on and drives from it.
[158]
Consequently, ICT as a symbol and aspect of globalization makes it a
central component in the neoliberalist agenda in education of
privatizing, deregulating and marketizing education and producing a
surplus of skilled information workers for transnational corporations.
Neoliberalism
dictates that universities and colleges must look for their own funding
in order to operate. This leads to increasing private and corporate
influence on schools through study and project grants and the state
abandonment of the education system. In line with market capitalism,
neoliberalism seeks to restructure the public orientation of education
by steering it away from state control towards the private sphere. With
corporate interests being allowed to gain control of schools, the
capitalist-led international development assistance agencies have been
actively pushing for ICT in the education system.
Furthermore, neoliberalism seeks to transform education into a
commodity that can be bought at a price. This new kind of set-up, Petten
explains, "stands in opposition to education as a social right" where
everyone has a right to education regardless of economic status.
[159]
With the introduction of ICT in education, education now comes with a
price tag. Thus, the democratic character of education is threatened.
Three key challenges
In
the 2007 Manila Workshop, the three key challenges of ICT4D (also
referred to as the three problem trees) were clustered. These are the
result of clustering the core problems that are seen in the field of
ICT4D. The participants of the workshop grouped the core problems or
challenges into lack of rigour problem tree, interdisciplinary research
problem tree and lack of collaboration problem tree.
[160] The problem trees investigates the cause and effect of the problem.
- Lack of rigour problem tree: Data gathering is the identified root
cause of this problem tree. This leads to an ineffective policy
decision. Another negative effect of this problem tree is the
information wastage wherein the generated information is not utilized
properly.[160][161]
- Interdisciplinary research problem tree: The research environment,
frameworks and methods, and terminologies are the identified roots of
this problem tree. Among the effects of this problem tree are the
quality of research output, and the rigour or precision and accuracy of
the information.[160]
- Lack of collaboration problem tree: Research collaboration among
researchers, institutions, government and the academe must be pursued.
The differences are the identified root cause of this challenge and
thus, results to limitations like lack of openness to failure and
perception that academic research is not useful.[160]
|
Lack of Rigor |
Interdisciplinary Research |
Lack of Collaboration |
Lacks |
Bad Policy
|
Wastage of Resources |
|
Output
|
Empathy/ Understanding
|
Rigor |
|
Lack of Openness to Failure
|
Perception that Academic Research is not Useful |
|
Core Problem |
Lack of Rigor |
Interdisciplinary Research |
Lack of Collaboration |
Causes |
Paucity of Data
|
Integrate old models into new lines of research
|
Lack of institutional commitment
|
Fear of independent research |
|
Shifting political agenda
|
Disciplinary provinciality
|
Shaping priorities |
|
Propriety of Data
|
Divergent needs, audiences and language
|
Journals have small audiences |
|
Roots |
Logistics of Data Collection
|
Poor Training/ Education of Researchers
|
Politics of Research Use |
|
Research Environment (political, structural, institutional)
|
Terminology (language use, jargon, assumptions)
|
Frameworks/ methods |
|
Different Incentives
|
Different Goals
|
Different Processes |
|
Post-2015 gaps – new development-oriented priorities
Shown
below is a list of the 16 largest ICT4D gaps (as of 2016) arranged in a
descending order according to the priority it receives. In an online
article, Heeks states that ICT4D analyses tend to underplay its negative
impacts.
[162] The "Dark Side of ICT's" is placed 15th in the list – just a place away from the least prioritized ICT4D gap.
[163]
These gaps, along with other key topics, are used to come up with a
list of post-2015 ICT4D priorities which in turn will be of valuable use
in ICT4D activities of policymakers, strategists and practitioners.
Again, this list is topics that are under-represented in post-2015,
but not a totality of ICT4D priorities. Works on ICT and education, ICT
and health, ICT infrastructure and few others which is not on the list
shall continue during this period.
- Environment – to develop Green IT for mitigation of climate
change, weather early warning systems, minimization of e-waste. Also,
noteworthy is climate change adaptation which is rather a major issue
among the global South. Concurrent is the need for ‘strategy.’ That more
than monitoring, mitigating, and being able to adapt to climate change
is by using ICTs as a guide in making policies and programs of action.
- Sustainability – composed of economic prosperity, social
infusion, and environmental sustainability, which are needed to be
balanced for it cannot be maximized all at the same time. With reference
to Brundtland Report definition of sustainable development (WCED
1987:43), there are two concepts contained: the need of the world and
the imposed limitations of the environment. Development that fulfills
the needs of the present without compromising the future resources.
- Poverty – focus more on poverty specifics such as policies,
poverty reduction/ eradication programs and projects rather than generic
ICT priorities. ICT4D should resolve its failures to practically engage
with poverty eradication and environmental sustainability, meaningfully
involve with discourses on theories of poverty and development
concepts, and determine its role in the emerging development.
- Development Finance – use of ICT to monitor aid flows and
debts, mainstream banking and finance, improve tax system and taxation
of ICT, ICT-enabled investments, e-remittances.
- Basic Needs – able to prioritize the usage if ICT based on basic needs of the people using on Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
In that way, it is not ignoring other aspects for the use of higher
levels of ICT but being able to address the essential needs of
especially the most needy citizens.
- Economic Development: Growth, Jobs and the Digital Economy –
intensifying an existing area of economic activity and extensive
application of ICT to extend the range of economic activity. The ICT
sector had spread widely through mobile-jobs it created and new business
models it prompted. It continues to thrive down into the poor
communities resulting to their growth and income.
- Development 2.0 – emphasis on 5 transformative shifts
(1. Leave no one behind, 2. Put sustainable development at the core, 3.
Transform economies, 4.Build peace, 5. Forge new global partnership). It
means ICT4D needs to do more on connecting ICTs to the transformation
of development. It is in a way transforming processes and structures of
development with understanding of its extent and content.
- Accountability and Transparency – Free and open information
must be monitored, evaluated and controlled in order to combat
corruption specifically with public officials. However, this improved
data flow is equally important to be applied among private sector firms
and markets especially openness and transparency with these development
stakeholders are the ones mostly neglected.
- Data Revolution – have 3 dominant aspects: Big development data, Open development data, Real Time development data. Data revolution is yet to unleash its full potential when able to thoroughly connect with ICT4D.
- Cross Border Flows – supports immigrant and emigrant
population, enable international trade, and investment. This will
increase even more global connections and economic ties.
- Peace and Security – uses of ICT in mainstream peace and
security, across the cycle from insecurity through conflict to
post-conflict reconstruction, reconciliation and peace building; from
the micro of violence within households to the macro of regional
warfare; and bringing in issues from application design and
implementation to strategic and policy matters.
- Urban Development – support the inexorable growth, creation
and implementation of urban strategies, facilitating urban planning,
improving urban governance and design, ecosystems services and
infrastructure.
- Resilience – need to form its own particular sub-domain of
ICT4D activity. It is to ensure to survive risks and external threats
which include anticipated social, economic and environmental shocks.
Resilience used to refer only to environmental aspect but it has grown
to be applied on systems as well, like in other development initiatives.
It is not to merely sustain but also aims to transform.
- Inclusive Development – to do more than just address digital
divides – and to engage with the breadth of inclusive development. This
alternative approach refers to different divides, different excluded
groups other than in terms of information access and availability. Those
who are at the rear end in terms of equality, vulnerability, social
justice. They are the ethnic minorities, the women and youth, the
disabled, among others. ICT4D agendas and mechanisms lead to developing
inclusive informatics innovation, inclusive business models and the
like.
- The Dark Side of ICT – costs and failures, development of a
Cluedo piece-shaped labor market, the loss of work/life balance and
growing stress, negative impacts of ICT use on health, learning and
cognitive development especially among children
- Changing the Language and Worldview of ICT4D – An informatics
label will allow WSIS, the UN Group on the Information Society (UNGIS)
and other ICT4D stakeholders to lay claim to the data revolution.
Without this, the data revolution will drag attention and resources down
its own potentially-isolated path.[164]
Other issues
The
other issues that affects the innovation are: legal and regulatory,
moral and ethical, social, economic, technology, language and script,
and security.
[165]
E-waste through improved design and recycling
In
the Development Goals, under Environmental and Sustainability is the
topic on waste which is an important aspect of the relation between ICTs
and environment. When ICT goes faulty and obsolete they become waste.
It's necessary to pay a particular attention on the impact of electrical
and electronic wastes. Assessing the side-effects of ICT waste or
electronic waste disposal – CRTs, busted fluorescent lamp, used
lead-acid batteries, ink toners and cartridges, used oil, contaminated
containers etc. The installation of standardized solutions on E-waste
management such as improved design example
The
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) approved new standards for
green ICT, including an environmentally friendly charger for laptops
and other portable devices (Recommendation ITU-T L.1002) and green
batteries for smartphones and handheld devices (Recommendation ITU-T
L.1010).
Initial problems
The
use of technology to exchange information is the main objective of
ICT4D. However, there are still a lot of people who cannot have access
nor are able to use these kinds of technology. According to the World
Bank(2014), only 85% of the world has electricity.
[166] And also as of 2014, almost 14% of the world population is still illiterate.
[167]
Most of the information are now being shared with the use of computers
or mobile devices. For the percentage of people who still do not have
electricity nor those who still don't know how to read, this shared
information would simply be rendered useless.
ICT4D cannot push forward with these hurdles on the way, so to address these first should be a priority.
Rebound environmental effects
Arguably, ICT's good effects are also being negated by its bad effects to the environment.
Negative impacts come mainly from energy consumption and the
materials used to the production and distribution of ICT equipment,
energy consumption in use directly and for cooling, short product life
cycles and e-waste and exploitative applications.
Also, E-commerce may not save energy if it encourages long distance
delivery. Tele-working can increase the home use of energy and demand
for electronic equipment such as routers and printers.
One concern on the rebound effects of Smart Grids is with lower
energy cost and thereby increased use, potential emissions reductions
from energy efficiency gains are lost to rebound effects.
[168]
The Dark Side of ICT4D
The
Darkside of ICT4D still needs research and analysis, because of the
perceived benefits of ICT, these outweigh the disbenefits that are
encountered and generated by it.
The following are disbenefits that are acknowledged in the two core review and vision documents (WSIS 2014a, WSIS 2014b)
- Failure of ICT - Mentioned twice, (only as a risk, not a reality)
- Pornography and Viruses - Mentioned once
- Hacking - not mentioned
- Work/Life Balance not mentioned
- Cyber-warfare not mentioned
What does this mean ? Two things need to happen.
- There should be greater priority and attention given to identifying,
measuring, analysing and addressing ICT4D’s disbenefits. - More
research and more data needs to be gathered to be able to resolve these
disbenefits and how they affect the development of ICT.
- There needs to be an expansion of the disbenefits covered: not just
the following - security/privacy/protection but also: The costs and
failures of ICT4D, The development of a Cluedo piece-shaped8 labour
market in which the bulk of jobs are low-paid; mid-level jobs are
squeezed out by ICT; and only a very few elite information society
workers benefit, The loss of work/life balance and growing stress
through use of ICTs, Short- and long-term negative impacts of ICT use on
health, learning and cognitive development especially among children.
All of these disbenefits will increase as ICTs penetrate more into
development. More resources need to be allocated to them and they will
need to be a part of future ICT4D policy and practice.
[169]
World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) + 10 Challenges
Many challenges emerged upon the implementation of
WSIS
+ 10 in Geneva in 2014. The following issues have been addressed to
proper implement future projects like Information Society beyond 2015
and the
Post-2015 Development Agenda.
[170]
- Human rights protection offline and online
- Women's empowerment and active participation in the society and its decision-making processes
- Youth engagement in the WSIS development agenda
- People with disabilities especially in developing countries and
marginalized communities involvement in the framework by providing
equity of access through human capacities and introduction of new ICT
innovations
- Potential use of WSIS development-related strategies to improve the
national economic status of a country by investing in ICTs,
infrastructure, entrepreneureship and innovation
- Small-Medium Enterprises (SMEs) benefits from the current developments in technology
- Aid the technological gap between developed and developing countries and the skills gap between the rich and poor
- Help in reducing electronic waste to help preserve the environment
WSIS + 10 Beyond 2015 Priorities
Sustainable
Development and Information Society are two factors considered as basis
in establishing the priorities for WSIS + 10 Vision beyond 2015.
[171]
- Protection of human rights as well as the address of gender issues, discrimination and violent actions
- Use of information and communication technology to promote WSIS development goals
- Include broadband and mobile services in the effort to enhance the
utilization and trust of the vulnerable and marginalized population in
the potentials of ICTs
- Provide assistive technologies and disability-inclusive development framework for people with disabilities
- Help in the countries’ economic growth by aiding the digital divide
- Promote online learning and the utilization of local communities such as libraries in accessing information
- Address security risks and promote cybersecurity and individual privacy
- Acknowledge the use of ICTs in business like e-commerce and address new issues in the digital economy
- Encourage WSIS stakeholders to be more responsible in their roles as well as to address and help in each other's weaknesses
- Promote Green IT and to help in spreading information about Climate Change
Country and region case studies
Philippines
The Philippines, one of
newly industrialized countries (NICs)
in Asia, is continuously boosting ICT4D in sectors like education,
agriculture, livelihood and even disaster preparedness. Directed by the
Philippine Digital Strategy 2011-2016,
[172] the government and the private sector have been harnessing ICT to achieve development agenda.
The Philippine's Commission of Information and Communications
Technology (CICT) drafted a Philippine ICT-Roadmap in 2006 to "establish
new policy directions for CICT as the lead government agency for ICT
development in the country". This roadmap is governed by seven guiding
principles that centers on the role of government in ICT development as
an enabling policy, legal and regulatory environment. CICT also
advocates for a "multi-stakeholder approach" which involves the private
sector, civil society, civic organizations, international organizations
and other partners to have an important role and responsibility in the
development of Philippine Information Society.
[173]
The Philippine Digital Strategy (PDS) calls upon the knowledge given
in the CICT's ICT-Roadmap and builds on it further. Of the four major
areas covered in the said roadmap, the PDS has given e-Government the
highest priority, stating "ease of access, ease of use, efficiency and
quality of services rendered, and establishment of privacy and security
standards" for the people of the country. The prioritization also
focuses on the aim of the government to fight corruption and poverty,
and for government services and information to be more transparent and
widely accessible to all citizens. This will also give the government an
opportunity to create an open, two-way interaction in order to receive
and acknowledge feedback and suggestions from the citizens.
[174]
Applications
(Based on excerpt from Mapping ICT4D by
Noriel Tiglao Erwin A. Alampay)
[175]
1. E-government / E-governance
In Philippines, most of the ICT4D works are done by the government and the e-governance projects are diverse.
The Department of Information and Communications Technology or DICT
foresee to build a technologically advanced, integrated, and digitally
empowered Philippines that constantly provides responsive and accessible
public services to Filipino citizens across the globe.
The main problems in the government services in the Philippines are
the long lines, slow action, and inadequate processes. Today many
government offices and organizations have already implemented different
e-government procedures for accessible services, which they call "
One stop shop". Below are different online procedures in the Philippines:
- The PAG-IBIG/Home Development Mutual Fund (HDMF) offers online services for membership registration process, payment facility, and short-term loan filing.
- The Social Security System (SSS) offers online application membership.
- The Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) has eReg System, where a person can register for a Tax Identification Number (TIN).
- The National Statistics Office eCensus is where a person can request for documents
(birth certificate, marriage certificate, and death certificate). They
can be paid through credit card, over-the-counter, or online banking.
The requested documents will be delivered within 3–9 days after payment.
- The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) has Balik-Manggagawa Online Processing System for Overseas Employment Certificate needed for OFW's verification and documentation.
Many e-governance projects are linked to other areas (i.e. health,
learning, business, science, etc.) and different types of technology are
used to implement them (e.g. web-based services, SMS, other forms of
Management Information Systems, Local Area Network etc.).
[176]
NCDA Board Resolution No. 13 Series 2008 on Web Accessibility
To promote equality when it comes to web accessibility, the National
Council on Disability Affairs granted the Philippine Web Accessibility
Group (PWAG) the right of becoming its deputy to assess the competency
of government organization and NGO websites when it comes to web
accessibility, especially for the disabled.
[177]
On one assessment conducted by PWAG, only 11 GO websites and 33 NGO
websites passed their criteria on web accessibility. This resolution was
released with the sign of the Deputy Executive Director of NCDA, Mateo
A. Lee Jr.
To address this issue, NCDA released Board Resolution No. 13 that
grants PWAG to conduct website assessments of NCDA's participating and
member agencies and to enforce upon them the minimum requirements for
the websites to become web accessible to the disabled.
The following actions were created to comply to the United Nations'
Article 9 regarding Accessibility, which states that people with
disability should experience equality when it comes to access to
information.
[178] A list of offices whose web accessible sites were evaluated by PWAG are listed on their
official site,
which includes but are not limited to the following: the House of
Representatives, the National Council on Disability Affairs, the
Department of Health, the Commission on Elections, and the Department of
Justice.
2. E-business / E-commerce
37 e-commerce applications running in Philippines are enlisted in different databases. Among them some notable applications are:
- e-ticketing/SMS ticketing service:This service allows
passengers to book and purchase tickets and allows ticketing agents to
issue accommodations for Super Ferry voyage online. It also provides
Easy Cards that is a pre-paid, re-loadable and refundable card for
passengers.
- Virtual Mall/Online Shop: There are many virtual malls that
sell local product online for foreign customers (e.g. adobomall.com,
unitop.com, weemall.com etc.) and some sites serve Filipinos living
abroad to purchase local products for friends living in the Philippines.
- Export/Import Portals: EXPERTRADE is a trade portal and
online community of Filipino exporters, local and international
importers and traders that aims to expand the Filipino export industry.[176]
3. E-science
TV White Space and Free Wi-Fi
In lieu with the drive for better Internet penetration as mandated by
the Philippine Digital Strategy, the DOST (Department of Science and
Technology) has begun experimenting on novel ways to further Internet
coverage.
One of this is the
TV White Space (TVWS) pilot testing that has been deemed to be the most extensive in the Asian region.
[179]
This project aims to address the connectivity deficiency in rural areas
by harnessing TVWS, the blank frequencies between broadcast TV
channels. This can be tapped to provide wireless data connectivity due
to its long-range propagation features (with signals traveling through
water and thick foliage).
The project is to be rolled out slowly, and the initial ideas
involved using TVWS as a means of connectivity for the eHealth
eEducation, and other eGovernment services. It can also help the
environmental sensor networks utilized by the DOST.
Another initiative to help increase the country's Internet connection
is the DOST's drive to provide free Wi-Fi hotspots in public places
across the Philippines.
[180]
These connectios are envisioned to be available 24/7, and uses NGH
(Next Generation Hotspot) technology. The project, which was originally
slated to culminate in 2016, will provide free Wi-Fi hotspots to the
following coverage areas (in order of priority):
- Public Plazas and ParksPublic Central Schools (Primary and Secondary)
- Public Libraries
- Government Hospitals and Rural Health Units
- State Colleges and Universities
- Train stations (Metro and Light Rail Transits)
- Seaports and Airports
- Municipal and City Halls
- National Government Offices
3. Cross Cutting Trade, Agriculture, and Health Philippine
integration into the ASEAN economic community (AEC) requires alignment
of standards, especially in safety of food and feed. One of the outputs
of the Philippines partnership with the European Union's Trade-Related
Technical Assistance Project 3 has resulted in the development of a
Philippine Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (PhilRASFF).
Relevant officials of the Departments of Trade and Industry,
Agriculture, and Health with the Food Administration Authority can share
information in real time, including measures taken, for food and feed
safety.
4. E-Health in the Philippines
The
Department of Health (DOH),
a sector in the Philippine local government, is in charge of overseeing
the nation's development. They develop health policies, guidelines,
regulate health services and products, and provide healthcare assistance
to local government units (LGUs).
The
World Health Organization defines eHealth as the use of information and communication technologies for health.
[181] eHealth in the Philippines grants Filipinos access to multiple health-related ICTs which promote efficiency and effectiveness.
The
Department of Health in cooperation with the Department of Science and Technology has created the
Philippine eHealth Strategic Framework and Plan (PeHSFP)[permanent dead link] for the years 2014-2020 to implement more projects and programs under the
National eHealth Program (NeHP) One of its goals is an ICT-enabled Philippine Health System.
[182]
Currently, a Filipino's health information is stored only in the
hospital where they are receiving treatment or consultation. The
Philippines still uses traditional methods of storing information such
as paper forms when storing records of patients. While more hospitals
have shifted to storing data on computers with backup servers, many are
yet to shift into this practice. This leads to inaccurate, lost, and
misinterpreted medical data.
[182]
The role of ICT has grown significantly and is inextricably linked
with eHealth in the Philippines. The following are some of the
achievements of these two local government departments:
- Health Topics – where DOH provide information about health,
diagnosis, prevention, treatment on their website through libraries,
resources, and publications linked on their homepage, (www.doh.gov.ph)
- Advisories – establishing an online presence and providing online health advisories through YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter.
- Collective and Contributory Environment – community-based internet
for locals and professionals alike to participate, facilitate learning,
and contribute knowledge related to health on (www.ehealth.ph)
- Online Payment – fast and convenient method of payment when paying
for health insurance, such as PhilHealth or the Philippine Health
Insurance Corporation, a tax-exempt government-owned and controlled
corporation (https://www.philhealth.gov.ph/services/epay/)
- Online Database – health research and resources for transparency
such as the Health Research and Development Information Network (HERDIN)
(http://www.herdin.ph/) and Philippine Health Research Registry (PHRR) (http://registry.healthresearch.ph/)
As the National eHealth states as their vision: "By 2020, eHealth
will enable widespread access to health care services, health
information, and securely share and exchange patients' information in
support to a safer, quality healthcare, more equitable and responsive
health system for all the Filipino people by transforming the way
information is used to plan, manage, deliver and monitor health
services."
[182]
5. E-agriculture and e-Learning in the Philippines
The
Department of Agriculture
is the executive department of the Philippine government that is
responsible for the promotion of agricultural and fisheries development
and growth.
[184][better source needed]
E-agriculture
or ICT in agriculture is an emerging field that is focused on the
improvement of rural and agricultural development through improved ICT
processes. Focusing on agriculture, it also includes the
conceptualization, design, development, evaluation, and application of
innovative ways to use ICts in rural areas.
[185]
ICT4D PROJECTS
- e-Learning for Agriculture and Fisheries
e-Learning for Agriculture and Fisheries, a project initiated by the
Department of Agriculture's e-Extension Program, with the help of
Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) as the head implementing agency is
offering certificate courses on farming and fishing technologies as
well as social technology courses related to extension and training.
This project is in partnership with other government agencies, state
universities and colleges and non-government organizations. And, is
provided online, offline and blended.
[186]
- Development of an Enhanced Production and Risk Management in Agriculture Integrated Decision Support System (EPRiMA)
The Philippines is one of the most high-risk countries from multiple
hazards, suffering from hundreds of natural occurrences every year.
These disasters include periodic typhoons (e.g., 2013 Typhoon Yolanda),
earthquakes (e.g., 1990 Luzon earthquake), tsunamis (e.g., Mindanao
Tsunami), volcanic eruptions (e.g., 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Eruption),
tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, landslides, forest fires, and
pandemics. The country is also facing agricultural and natural resource
risks including those associated with rapid urbanization, migration and
socio-economic changes.
So, the Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations
together with the Department of Agriculture developed the EPRiMA
(Enhanced Production and Risk Management in Agriculture) Integrated
Decision Support System. This project aims to increase resilience
against multiple-threats to the agriculture sector by facilitating the
development of an Integrated Decision Support System for EPRiMA. This
project will allow key actors in the Department of Agriculture to make
more effective and timely decisions through more comprehensive and
near-real-time access to crop production, and risk and damage assessment
information and tools. This project will run from January 2017 to June
2018.
[187]
ICT related bills
The
government of the Philippines have supports the modernization of the
society by promulgating the ICT4D in the country but then due to the
risks involved with this innovation the came up with several laws to be
implemented and mandated in the country.
House Bill No. 4115 "Data Privacy Act of 2011"
Senate Bill No. 2965 " Data Privacy Act of 2011"
House Bill No. 5808 " Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2011"
Senate Bill No. 2796 "Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2011"
House Bill No. 4667 "Department of Information and Communications Technology Act of 2010"
Senate Bill No.50 "Department of Information and Communications Technology Act of 2010"
Executive Order 893 "Promoting the Deployment and Use of Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)"
CICT MC No. 01 Implementing Rules and Regulations for E.O. No.
893–"Promoting the Deployment and Use of Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6)"
[188]
Africa
Over the
last decade, the ICT access in Africa has increased immensely. As access
increases, opportunities arise to leverage ICT to extend timely
information and services to previously underserved populations, and to
increase productivity and innovation in the public and private sectors.
Examples of this are the increase in the number of people who are able
to acquire mobile phone service, improved disease monitoring and
vaccination planning and m-banking services using the mobile to extend
access financial services to populations that never before had a bank
account. But despite of the dramatic ICT improvements made, significant
access gaps are still there.
[189]
infoDev, a global multi-donor program in the World Bank Group that
supports growth-oriented entrepreneurs through business incubators and
innovation hubs,
[190]
aims to help African countries leverage ICT to reach their development
goals by building local capacity. Along with the Global Information and
Communications Technology Department of the World Bank (GICT) as a
co-sponsor, a study entitled "Broadband for Africa: Policy for Promoting
the Development of Backbone Networks" was made to review the current of
backbone network infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa and investigate
the significance of this for the development of mass-market broadband
ICT services in the region. Through this study, the underlying reasons
for the current pattern of infrastructure development were examined.
Options for policy-makers to promote further development and use of
these networks were also set out.
[189]
Furthermore, infoDev has helped with innovation and entrepreneurship
as well as education. Small enterprises serve as one of the biggest
contributors of production and employment in Sub-Saharan Africa but
these enterprises are not able to reach their full potential due to
three reasons:
- capacity constraints
- limited market linkages
- lack of access to finance and unconducive regulations
Entrepreneurs who wishes to start and grow their businesses can seek
support from business incubators who provide shared facilities that
reduce the cost of setting up a business, business development services
and mentoring that strengthen the management capacity of the
entrepreneur, market linkages that result in more cost-effective
supplies and a larger customer base, and financial services that cater
to start-up enterprises. infoDev's Incubator Initiative, launched in
2002 with support from the Government of Japan, supports the incubation
and growth of competitive entrepreneurs and SMEs through a global
network of over 150 business incubators spanning 70 developing
countries.
[189]
When it comes to education, a series of ICT initiatives serves as a
representation of the enormous potential of ICTs in the region. Just
like small enterprises, education has an important role in the
development of the region. infoDev aids by sponsoring a series of
substantive cutting-edge research and analytical studies as well as
capacity-building activities designed to enhance policy-relevant
knowledge about what works, and what does not, in using ICT in education
in developing countries, especially as it relates to the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and to make this knowledge more accessible to
developing country policymakers and their colleagues in the donor
community.
[189]
These are elements that P. Clint Rogers observed in successful ICT4D projects in Africa:
[191]
- Augment existing economic activity, focus on the strong point and make it even better.
- Increase relevance by involving the end user from the very beginning of the project.
- Build on existing infrastructure (e.g., radio, TV, mobile phones), and/or let the end user see how simple the infrastructure is.
- Think what an African community has to offer to others and not what others can offer to an African community.
A cross-cutting study of Regional Trade and Integration was carried
out by ICT Development Associates, and includes case studies of
Botswana, Kenya and Senegal. Africa's trade performance is weak compared
with other world regions, particularly in trade within the continent,
and is undermined by inefficiencies and poor coordination between
national agencies along the supply chain. The study describes experience
and opportunities for using ICTs in trade facilitation –- especially in
improving the efficiency and coordination of trade and transport
logistics; port, customs and border management; and the availability to
trading businesses of information about markets and trade requirements.
Data sharing through national and regional "single windows" can reduce
costs and delays, improve reliability and enhance the profitability of
trade. ICTs should, however, form part of a broad approach to trade
promotion, and implementation needs careful planning and resources. Regional integration through Regional Economic Communities (RECs) can
play a crucial role. The RECs and International Financial Institutions
(IFIs) should work with other stakeholders to advance ICT-enabled trade
facilitation.
A second cross-cutting study on ICT Competitiveness was carried out
by Excelsior with TNO, with country case studies of Kenya, Morocco and
Nigeria. These countries are embracing the use of ICTs in novel ways to
improve the social and economic opportunities available to firms and
citizens. Provided the African ICT market continues its impressive
double-digit growth, the market could be worth more than US$150 billion
by 2016. The study highlights the need to build a competitive ICT
industry to promote innovation, job creation and the export potential of
African companies.
Of course, challenges remain. The continent largely lags behind the
rest of the world in terms of ICT readiness and Africa has made slower
progress in the past two years when compared to other regions. The Arab
Spring has caused a short-term decline in inward FDI in the north of the
continent. Pricing of ICT services, especially broadband, continues to
be higher than other regions. Furthermore, the growing trend towards
taxing incoming international calls suggests a worrying reversion to the
former view of the ICT sector as a cash cow. The challenge for the next
decade is to build on the mobile success story and complete the
transformation. This will require reducing the cost of access for mobile
broadband, supporting government private-sector collaboration,
improving the e-commerce environment, enhancing ICT labour market
skills, encouraging innovative business models that drive employment,
such as microwork and business process outsourcing, and creating spaces
that support ICT entrepreneurship, such as ICT incubators, and local ICT
development clusters.
[192]
Cambodia
Cambodia, one of the 6 countries comprising the
Greater Mekong Subregion
(GMS), has been actively participating in the development of the
telecommunication infrastructure of the subregion. The GMS Economic
Cooperation Program includes the Telecommunications Backbone as one of
its 11 flagship projects.
[193]
This project focuses on the development of optical fiber network of the
telecommunications systems of the GMS countries, and it is now largely
completed through the aid of Asian Development Bank (ADB) and bilateral
financing from Germany, the People's Republic of China, JICA and KOICA.
[194]
Together with Lao PDR and Vietnam and through the funding of ADB,
Cambodia participated in the Establishment of Backbone
Telecommunications Networks Project-Phase I (Phase-I Backbone Project). A
telecommunications sector policy study "GMS Telecommunications Sector
Policy Formulation and Capacity Building", through the funding of ADB,
preceded the project.
[195]
As the Telecommunications Backbone comes to completion, Cambodia now
focuses on another GMS project – the Information Superhighway Network
(ISN).
[195] The country is also taking part in development and poverty reduction programs through ICT applications.
[196]
One of the strengths of Cambodia when it comes to ICT is the
country's wireless connectivity. Theirs is the most developed compared
with Lao PDR and Vietnam. The number of cellular phone subscribers in
Cambodia is greater than the number of landline subscribers – the first
in the world to achieve it.
[194] As of May 2016, there are already 21.2 million mobile phone subscribers in the country.
[197]
However, among the three countries mentioned, the Cambodian backbone
is the least developed, which may be attributed to the low availability
of electricity and the high generation cost. There is also a very low
demand for eServices in the country.
[194]
A Report on the ICT Status of Cambodia by the General Department of Information and Communications Technology:[198]
No |
Type of Licenses |
Licenses in Operation |
1 |
International Telecommunication Gateway |
3 |
2 |
Mobile Phone Services (2G/3G/4G) |
8 |
3 |
Fixed Phone (Wire Line & WLL) |
6 |
4 |
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) |
22 |
5 |
Internet Service Provider |
28 |
6 |
Tower Sharing |
1 |
7 |
Submarine Optical Cable Infrastructure |
1 |
8 |
National Optical Cable Infrastructure |
3 |
9 |
Value Added Network |
1 |
|
Total: |
73 |
Subscribers:
- Mobile: 21.8M (as of June 2015)
- Fixed: 363K Subs.
- Internet: 5.9M (ASEAN rank: 8th)
DNS: 2563
Internet Cafe: 289 sites
Local TV Channels: 15
Local Radio Channels: 160
Total length of fiber optic backbone: 26,411 km
- TC (State Owned): 1,600 km
- CFOCN: 7,611 km
- Viettel Cambodia: 17,200 km
GDICT/MPTC (2003)
- GAIS : 165 km (UTP Cable)
- PAIS: 366 km
Lao PDR
ICT is
being adapted in Lao PDR as a possible means of reducing poverty in the
country. Being one of the poorest countries in Asia, its Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry is refining its strategies for agricultural
development to:
- achieve food security,
- assist communities in developing agricultural production for cash,
- stabilize shifting cultivation, and
- develop forests sustainably.
The challenge is in the level of their workforce and staff: they lack
the required breadth of knowledge and skills for them to become
effective and creative problem solvers. Their solution to this challenge
is the creation of the Bachelors in Poverty Reduction and Agriculture
Management (PRAM) degree program to provide broad skills at the
grassroots level. The United Nations University International Institute
for Software Technology (UNU-IIST), in partnership with the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry, is designing and building a software for
capacity building. It is designed with the help from district up to
national levels and the PRAM teachers and students themselves.
[199]
Thailand
Thailand
prioritizes ICT by establishing a National Information Technology
Committee (NITC) which is chaired by the Prime Minister. The committee
has four modules that cover agriculture, industry, finance and
government. The National Electronics and Computer Technology Center
(NECTEC) serves as support to the committee through R & D program
and initiatives. The committees' job is to develop ICT policies and to
promote ICT development and utilization in Thailand. The first ICT
policy created was the IT2000 which has three main goals, (1) the
development of a sound IT infrastructure (2) the development of people
in the area of IT to ensure growth of the IT sector (3) good governance
in delivery of public services and in government administration. Under
this new policy, several initiatives have been started. Here are some of
them:
[194]
School Net Thailand
It
seeks to improve and provide equal access to education to Thai youths
whether living in urban or rural areas by connecting schools through a
shared network using the internet. Also the network has a program that
allows teachers to create their content to add to the existing library
in the network.
Government information network
This
network provides a private network for government agencies but also
provides other services like government directory, e-Government Portal
and secure electronic mail using digital ID and public-key
infrastructure (PKI).
ICT laws
NICT has passed several laws, including data protection laws and computer crime laws, that have already been enacted.
IT 2010
This
framework was approved in 2002. For the first decade of the 21st
century. His Majesty recognized that to build a strong economy that can
compete internationally it must exploit the benefits of Information
Technology to move to a knowledge based economy which plans on investing
on technological infrastructure to build the information industry and
to promote innovation. Also to increase the amount of knowledge workers.
[200]
Malaysia
Malaysia
has a road map called the Eight Malaysia Plan (2001–2005). The plan
focuses on making Malaysia in to a major ICT hub by promoting e-commerce
and R&D activities on soft factors of ICT developments, upgrading
ICT infrastructure, supporting local-content developers and ICT-based
small to medium enterprises. The plan seeks to hit 21 development areas
because ICT's general purpose can be applied in to many areas. Malaysia
positions ICT as an important complement to support the 21 development
areas. The government takes an active role in initiating projects but
non-government organizations have also played a significant role in
initiating ICT projects. Here is a list of some of the development areas
and the initiatives that go with it. Note: Not all of the 21
development areas have ICT usage yet.
Population and human resource development (poverty eradication)
- Online Poverty Database (1998)
This database centralizes all information concerning the urban poor. It
simplifies the verification process so all types of assistance can be
recorded so the Ministry of Rural Development can take action.
- E-Learning for Life (Coca-Cola) (2002)
ICT hubs are erected in six secondary schools and several
semi-urban areas across Malaysia. Thu hubs have hardware and software
and an internet connection for the teachers and students to engage in
ICT training for the overall goal, which is part of Malaysia vision of
building a knowledge economy.
- Computer in Education (CIE) (1995)
Started by the Ministry of Education, this initiative
introduces the subject of computer literacy to primary and secondary
schools across Malaysia. It trained 1230 teachers on CIE in education
and created 90 laboratories for secondary schools and 20 laboratories
for primary school.
Regional and agriculture development
- Community Communications Development Programme (CCDP)
CCDP targets rural and remote communities and provide them
access to internet for e-learning and e-commerce. It encourages the usage of communications based media all over Malaysia.
- e-Kundasang
The goal of this initiative is to attempt to improve the life of poor
rural farmers by giving them access to knowledge of agriculture through
the computer centers that have access to the internet and to provide
IICT training to bridge the digital divide.
- AkisNet (2001)
Akisnet is a software application specifically created for
the agriculture sub-sectors Wwth the goal of bridging the digital
divide in the agriculture communities. The four main goals are:
- Establishment of an ICT infrastructure.
- The creation of productivity enhancing programs.
- Teaching farmers ICT to increase ICT literacy in these communities.
- The creation of commercial opportunities for the agriculture community.
The goal of this software is to help local farming projects to
produce low-cost solutions to prepare them for participation to the
e-Marketplace.
Health
- e-Farmasi
It is an online portal that connects members to a wealth of
unbiased medical information, medicine and self-care for minor
ailments and any other health related information. The portal also
allows users to have direct contact with pharmacists who can complete a
pharmaceutical transaction online.
Youth and woman development
- Networking Women
Newwoman.net is the website of the National Council of
Women's Organization created to teach ICT skills to women. The
website serves as a hub for other women organizations and as a platform
to conduct research on the impact of ICT in women lives.
- K-Youth (2003)
The project seeks to equip youth living in the paddy farming
area of Karpan Malaysia with ICT knowledge for sustainable community
development. The project is design in phases. The first phase will teach
them about basic computer usage from operating windows to surfing the
internet.
Government
- e-Public Services
e-PS was designed to assist people in navigating important
information on forms and public services. E-PS will enable the public
to easily download application forms and to access a variety of
government services online.
[201]
Bangladesh
Digital Bangladesh implies the broad use of
computers, and embodies the modern philosophy of effective and useful use of
technology in terms of implementing the promises in
education,
health,
job placement and
poverty reduction. The party underscored a changing
attitude,
positive thinking and
innovative ideas for the success of "Digital Bangladesh".
The philosophy of "Digital Bangladesh" comprises ensuring people's
democracy and
human rights,
transparency,
accountability, establishing
justice
and ensuring delivery of government services to the citizens of
Bangladesh through maximum use of technology, with the ultimate goal
being the overall improvement of the daily lifestyle of general people.
This includes all classes of people and does not discriminate people in
terms of technology.
The government further emphasized on the four elements of "Digital Bangladesh Vision" which are
human resource development,
people involvement,
civil services and use of
information technology in business.
[202]
In Bangladesh
- National Portal Framework (NPF)
The National Portal Framework (NPF) is the single platform for
accessing all public information from any government organization to
ensure easy accessibility to information for citizens and easy
management and share of data and information among various
organizations.
[202]
- Multimedia classrooms and e-books
Multimedia classrooms has been introduced in 500 schools, 15,200
secondary schools and 5,300 Madrasa through Ministry of Education of
Bangladesh within 2014. A number of 23,661 primary and secondary school
teachers now use multimedia contents through teacher's portal. More than
300 electronic text books of primary and secondary education are made
available online for students.
[203][204]
- e-Purjee-Digital Sugarcane Procurement System
The system allows the sugar mills all over Bangladesh to send
purchase orders to the sugarcane growers through SMS. Sugar and Food
Industries Corporation of Bangladesh has been running the
e-Purjee system in 15 state-owned sugar mills of Bangladesh since 2011–12.
[205]
Jatiyo e-Tathyakosh is an online knowledge bank on livelihood related information and contents. The medium is
Bangla and contents are delivered in audio-visual, text and animation formats.
[206][207]
China
China
is the world's biggest nation and fastest growing economy. Firstly,
China develop both satellite and fiber optics technology for its rural
infrastructure. However, there's an agreement with the Government of
Israel for provision of 500 small aperture terminals (VSAT) for its
rural satellite broadcast and internet access. Secondly, the eCommunity
centers belong to a centralized multi-tiered network (national,
provincial, prefecture, township and villages). Thirdly, the Ministry of
Agriculture are building such networks service providers in
agricultural bureaus, agricultural information centers, local government
and distance education institutions. Fourthly, eCommunity centers that
is part of distance – learning network called as the Central
Agricultural Broadcasting and Television School (CABTS).
The CABTS Network
CABTS
is huge network. It has 1 central school in Beijing administering the
network, 38 provincial schools, 330 prefecture schools, 2,480 county
school, 23 000 township training centers, 60 virtual classrooms, that
will increase soon in 560 Israel's donation of VSAT units, 2 750
administrators, and 4 107 staff.
While the CABTS is growing, its network is now being linked and
sooner it will focus on livelihood sector in non-agricultural sector and
this will shift into ICT4L. (Reference: AGFlor BGFlor book in ICT4D
version 2.0)
China's agricultural information dissemination models
China
implemented various types of information dissemination models such as a
web portal, an SMS-based service where information can be distributed
through text messages; a membership-based online community where people
can share their experiences and information, an interactive video
conferencing services and many more.
[208]
Its initial stages began during the 1970s to 1990s when China imported
their very first computer for agricultural informatization and
established their first computer application research institute in
agriculture. During this period, they also began their research and
invested more on ICTs, mainly in adding more computers in the different
departments of their agricultural sector. They also conducted computer
seminars for their staff in order to push through with their development
goals.
It's establishing stage was around 1990 to 2000s where more
informatization programs were added, expanding their ICT networks all
over the country. And from 2000s to today, China's rural ICT
infrastructures and development programs continues to expand and
improve, benefiting their country and their economy.
These information dissemination models helped China improve its
agricultural landscape, which improved farmers' income, disaster
preparedness, trading, marketing, policy-making and in establishing best
practices for their agricultural sector. Human actors were key
proponents to the success of these information dissemination models in
China. The success of these models were based on people related factors
such as farmer's ICT literacy, level of awareness and education and
motivation.
Indonesia
ICT policy
Indonesia
implemented Presidential Decree Number 3 of 2003 and Republic Act
Number 22 of 1999 (known as the Local Government Code).
[209]
The first promulgates the application of E-Governance all over
Indonesia and the latter is for decentralizing the agricultural
extension function from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Dinas
Pertanian of the decentralized local governments.
Another law implemented in Indonesia is Republic Act Number 25 of
1999, which is intended for the distribution of the agricultural budget
extension to local governments, which will further relocate this budget
for other urgent priorities. But this law has weakened the Information
and Communications capabilities of the agricultural extension force
since the funds were channeled elsewhere.
Further, Republic Act Number 8 of 2003has limited the number of
Dinases in each district to three unless the criteria for establishing
more than three is fulfilled. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture
has no direct influence on any decisions regarding agricultural programs
at the local level.
Infrastructure
The
government of Indonesia invested heavily in ICT for basic delivery of
services in the country, in fact Indonesia was the first Southeast Asian
country to launch its own satellite for telecommunication purposes.
Indonesia was leading in programs promoting rural access. However,
internet access in Indonesia is still among the lowest in Southeast
Asia. Furthermore, The MOA Center for Agricultural Database and
Information gets services from commercial Internet Service Providers for
the district and sub-district level programs since the noncommercial
internet backbone is not effectively tapped for agricultural extension.
The Ministry of Agriculture has sufficient hardware, software and
networking facilities up to the provincial level and district level but
at the sub-district level and below the hardware is lacking and aging.
Despite the existence of the potential for ICT infrastructure, it is
not being employed effectively for agricultural development, the
noncommercial internet backbone should be developed and utilized
accordingly.
Program planning and development
The
Agency for Agricultural Human Resource Development (AAHRD) cannot
directly implement ICT programs at the field level for agricultural
extension.
However, the following ICT-related programs, which may be linked to
the agricultural extension ICT system in Indonesia, are in the pipeline:
- FAO TCP National Program for Food Security (NPFS);
- ADB Poor Farmers Income Improvement through Innovation Project (PFI3P);
- World Bank Farmers' Empowerment through Appropriate Technology and Information (FEATI).
Even though there is a lack in programs on agricultural extension ICT
systems, there are still opportunities to link-up with exiting and
upcoming programs that are related directly to agriculture.
Indonesia should develop a strategy that that utilizes high-end ICTs
such as the Web, cable modem, PDAs, 3G Cellular telephony and low-end
ICTs such as cable television, SMS, rural radio and indigenous media.
Content provision
The
Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD) has kept its
Assessment Institutes for Agricultural Technology (AIATs) and retained
its nationwide agricultural research network, this network enabled the
AARD to implement field level activities from national program
perspectives. Dismantling the agricultural extension system has left an
empty space, which did force the AARD to carry part of the extension
burden in the countryside since the content for innovative agricultural
technologies is housed in the AIATs.
The participation of AIATs in the agricultural extension ICT system makes content available.
Capability building
Indonesia
has 8,000 researchers compared to 35,000 extension workers, most of
them receive their salaries from the local governments. The AIATs carry
part of the agricultural extension burden, yet the AIATs are ran by
researchers and not by extension workers.
Other than that, most extension workers in local governments are over
40 years and awaiting retirement, which means that they belong to the
old school of ICTs. Agricultural extension workers need training courses
for designing, developing and utilizing ICTs, these courses should
include sessions on digital multimedia production, they should also
incorporate interfaces with conventional and traditional media and last
mile linkage strategies.
[209]
International programs, agencies, and strategies
eLAC
eLAC
is an intergovernmental strategy that conceives of information and
communications technologies as instruments for economic development and
social inclusion in Latin America and the Caribbean.
[210] eLAC is based on a public-private sector partnership
[211]
and is part of a long-term vision (until 2015) in line with the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and those of the World Summit on the
Information Society (WSIS). The inter-governmental strategy contributes
to the implementation of these long-term goals by pursuing a
consecutive series of frequently adjusted short-term achtion plans with
concrete qualitative and quantitative goals to be achieved. Three plans
have already been worked on to implement this vision:
2005-2007: eLAC2007 with 30 goals and 70 activities for the years 2005-2007
[212]
2008-2010: eLAC2010 with 83 goals to be achieved during the 2008-2010 period
[213]
2010-2015: eLAC2015 with 24 goals to be achieved during the period 2010-2015
[214]
The monitoring of eLAC through
United Nations ECLAC has produced a wealth of important statistics of the most diverse aspects of ICT4D in Latin America and the Caribbean.
[210][215][216]
SIRCA
Strengthening
Capacity Research in Asia (SIRCA) is a pioneer capacity-building
programme that intends to develop social science research skills of
emerging researchers in Asia Pacific region in the information and
communication technologies for development (ICTD) space by supporting
research that was scientific, replicable, generalisable, collaborative,
and actionable (i.e. applied research).
[160] It is conceptualized by the Singapore Internet Research Centre (SiRC) and the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and was initiated in August 2008.
[160]
SIRCA has the following objectives:
- Promote high-quality inter-disciplinary social science
research in Internet development, e-services, new media use and social
impact, and policy for the benefit and advancement of individuals,
organisations, nation and society;
- Support networks and linkages among researchers through a mentorship
programme, as well as workshops and conferences to share knowledge and
conduct training activities; and
- Disseminate the research findings through such venues as academic
journals, conferences and other relevant online and print media outlets.
The SIRCA programme facilitated 15 research projects (12 grant
recipients, and three graduate student awardees) of emerging ICTD from
eight Asian countries from 2008 to 2011. The topics covered on these
studies address key development goals in agriculture, education, health,
migration, livelihoods, and disaster-preparedness for the benefit and
advancement of individuals, organizations, nations, and societies in
Asia. The program mentors ensured that projects had not only an applied
practical context but were grounded in theory, a necessity for
publication in the best peer reviewed journals, and for contribution to
the scientific community.
[160]
To further improve SIRCA to become one of the best ICT4D programs in
Asia, SiRC hired an external evaluator in cooperation with their
management. Two evaluations were done: a formative, The SIRCA Programme
Evaluation; and a qualitative, The Mentorship Model Evaluation. The
formative evaluation spanned for two years and four months (March 2008 –
July 2010). Grant Review Process, Mentorship Programme, SIRCA
Workshops, and Conferences were areas of The SIRCA Programme Evaluation.
On the other hand, the second evaluation (qualitative) consisted of
interviews of Principal Investigators (PI) and mentors.
[217]
SIRCA II
Following the success of SIRCA, the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC) and the Singapore Internet Research Centre (SiRC)
decided to launch a second programme that will extend to a larger group
of emerging scholars from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Launched in
2011, the Strengthening Information Society Research Capacity Alliance
(or SIRCA II) would put more emphasis on regional collaboration and real
world (policy) impacts.
SIRCA II would maintain the primary goals of SIRCA I, which is to
provide support to emerging ICT4D scholars by awarding them with
research grants; and to shape them into future research leaders by
developing their capacities to conduct research in ICT4D. However, it is
intended that SIRCA II would go beyond the extent of SIRCA I by giving
an increased emphasis on research take-up, as Harris & Chib (2012)
explained: "
the utilisation of the knowledge generated by research
within the fields of policy advocacy and programme practice through the
packaging of research in a more suitable manner such that it can be
presented to policy-makers and have direct or even indirect impacts on
policy."
Harris & Chib (2012) also pointed that SIRCA II "
will achieve
the same academic impact in terms of peer-reviewed publications that
remain a priority within the professional context, but will add this new
layer of socio-economic impact in order to further promote ICTD
research as a tool for advocating for policy formulation and enhancing
programme practice".
[218]
CIDA
Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA) is the federal government agency
tasked to administer most of Canada's official cooperation program with
developing countries and countries in transition. CIDA's mandate is to
reduce poverty and to contribute to a better world by supporting
sustainable development in developing countries. To attain this goal,
CIDA focuses on the following priorities:
- basic human needs – where 25% of CIDA's resources is devoted
- full participation of women
- infrastructure for the poor
- human rights/democratic development/governance
- private-sector development
- the environment[219]
CIDA's strategy in participating in ICT projects is guided by needs
and priorities of developing/transition countries. This strategy is
meant to guide and inform CIDA's work in the ICT sector, especially its
involvement in international projects and initiatives for the next three
to five years. All of these are based on the principle of country
ownership. This further recommends that CIDA's approach to be at two
levels:
- Programming should focus on
- using ICT as a tool for development of the education and health
sectors – particularly the control and prevention of communicable
diseases like HIV/AIDS.
- building environments via support for policy and regulatory
framework advice and development and promoting local capacity
development; and
- supporting knowledge sharing and networking.
- Strategic institutional partnerships by supporting
international initiatives between different sectors (the government,
private sector, civil society) through exerting efforts in
knowledge-sharing activities and bridging the digital divide through the
Knowledge for Development Fund.
CIDA has been programming in ICTs for over 25 years. Through the
years, its interventions and contributions are deemed relevant,
addressed real needs, and participated in balancing the development of
institutional, human, and infrastructure capacity without letting go of
the rapidly changing ICT dynamics. Its work in ICT4D can be divided into
3 categories:
- Category 1: ICTs – a sector in itself
- Infrastructure services, where ICT belongs, is one of the six programming priorities in which it is mandated to help
developing countries deliver environmentally sound infrastructure
services, with an emphasis on poorer groups and on capacity building.
Such services/projects include The Telecommunication Sector Reform
project (Colombia) and The Digital Telecommunications Training Project
(China).
- The role of CIDA in this category are:
- support for modernizing IT and telecommunications sectors
- support for installing a telecommunications, television, or radio network
- training and capacity development in ICTs
- Category 2: Using ICTs as tools
- These international projects uses ICTs as tools to enhance the
efficiency, effectiveness, and impact of sectoral interventions. Due to
its cross-cutting nature, ICTs affect various sectors, thus lending
themselves well to integrated efforts. Projects that fall under this
category are Global Distance Learning Center (Ukraine), Integrating and
Launching ICTs in Education (Jordan), and Carioca HIV/AIDS project
(Caribbean Region).
- ICTs are used as tools by:
- enhancing delivery of education through distance education (tertiary education, teacher training)
- improving public sector administration systems (taxation, finance, health)
- utilizing Geographic Information Systems to manage water systems, environment, and agricultural production
- sharing information
- promoting health care
- Category 3: Using ICTs to promote knowledge sharing and networking
- The focus of these projects is building knowledge networks, links,
and sharing knowledge. Networks are used as a vehicle to achieve
positive development outcomes in other sectors. These projects include
the (global) Developing Countries Farm Radio Network, the Earth Council,
and the Sierra Leone
W.TEC
W.TEC
is a Nigerian non-governmental organization working for the economic
and social empowerment of girls and women, using information and
communication technologies (ICTs). We have chosen to focus on this area
because statistical evidence has shown that in most African countries,
women's use and knowledge of ICTs (to store, share, organise and process
information) is lower than men's, denying them of income-generating
opportunities and the chance to network with others.
W.TEC's programmes will consist of technology literacy training,
technology-based projects, mentoring and work placement. W.TEC will also
research and publish works examining pivotal issues related to how
African women use technology, barriers preventing or limiting technology
use, and strategies for more efficient technology use.
Our objectives are for Nigerian women to develop financial
independence by: training for ICT-specific jobs, like computer engineer,
programmer, system analysts, hardware and network specialists,
designers; developing technology skills that can be used for other
ICT-reliant jobs or self-employment. We also want women to develop
skills and confidence to use ICTs for activism, learning,
awareness-raising and advocacy for a better quality of life.
Girls in ICT
The Girls in ICT initiative of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
is a global effort to raise awareness on empowering and encouraging
girls and young women to consider studies and careers in Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs). The initiative is committed to
celebrate and commemorate the International Girls in ICT Day on the
fourth Thursday of every April as established by the ITU membership.
The Girls in ICT Portal is a tool for girls and young women to get an
insight into the ICT sector as well as for partners to understand the
importance of the International Girls in ICT Day, developed by the
Digital Inclusion programme of ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau.
ICT4Peace
ICT4Peace
is an international foundation established in 2006 that utilizes ICT to
improve crisis information management, provide humanitarian aid and
promote peace. Before it became a foundation, it originated as a project
of Daniel Stauffacher (Ambassador of Switzerland to the WSIS) to
address the armed conflicts in many countries that undermines progress
towards the Millennium Development Goals through ICTs. Stauffacher held a
series of meetings that bore groundbreaking outcomes in advocacy,
research and networking. The ICT4Peace Project then became ICT4Peace
Foundation with Stauffacher as its chairman.
The following are the initiatives and programs of the foundation:
- In-depth research on the role of ICT and information management in
preventing, responding to and recovering from conflict (see report: https://web.archive.org/web/20080510114007/http://www.ict4peace.org/articles/ict4peace_ebook.pdf )
- Negotiation and adoption of Paragraph 36 of the WSIS Tunis Commitment.
- Setting up of ICT4Peace Foundation including website and
Contributions to the Peace.it publication by the Crisis Management
Initiative: https://web.archive.org/web/20080828155145/http://www.ict4peace.org/articles/PeaceIT_1_2007.pdf and https://web.archive.org/web/20080124171925/http://ict4peace.org/view_blog_posts-1-v-119.html
- Establishment of an ICT4Peace Informal Policy advisory Board under the Chairmanship of President Martti Ahtisaari of Finland: https://web.archive.org/web/20090406065646/http://www.ict4peace.org/people-1.html
- Launching of partnership between DESA Global Alliance for ICT and
Development (GAID) and ICT4Peace Foundation: ICT4Peace Foundation
appointed as leader of GAID community of practice of ICT4Peace.
- Expert meeting: under the Chairmanship of President Martti Ahtisaari
of Finland, a group of experts from the UN, international civil
society, business and academia met in March 2007 to identify key
challenges of and solutions to existing ICT mechanisms on conflict
management. Launching of collaborative research of best practices by
CMI, ISCRAM, ICT4Peace Foundation, Interpeace Alliance.
- Launch of ICT4Peace inventory wiki: A global database of ICT in crisis management, humanitarian aid and peacebuilding (http://inventory.ict4peace.org)
- Launch of partnership between the ICT4Peace Foundation and the
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(OCHA) through the Global Symposium +5 ‘Information for Humanitarian
Action’ event and the ICT4Peace: An International Process for Crisis
Management process (http://www.reliefweb.int/symposium )
- Meeting at the United Nations, New York on 15 November 2007 to
launch the ICT4Peace initiative and introduce it to an international
range of stakeholders. Presentation of a report on the UN's Crisis
Information Management capacities and capabilities at the United Nations
in New York on 8 July 2008.
- ICT4Peace Foundation signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the
Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre on 29 August 2008
- High-level meeting to discuss Interim Report: Stocktaking of UN
Crisis Information Management Capabilities, held on 7 November 2008 at
the United Nations in New York (supported by Martti Ahtisaari, former
President of Finland and Nobel Peace Prize Laureate 2008)
- Training programme with the Cairo Regional Center for Training on
Conflict Resolution & Peacekeeping in Africa (CCCPA) on using ICTs
for peacekeeping operations. Click here for Memorandum of Understanding
between the CCCPA and the ICT4Pe
Future
"Based on the article by AGFlor BGFlor version 2.0"
[220]
According to their resource material,it was mentioned that experts
and economists warned everyone about an imminent danger of facing a
global food crisis that was unlikely similar to what we’ve encountered
before. To put it another way, the Industrial Age we took advantage of,
brought with it were problems that harms the agricultural sector which
leads to food shortages and price hike at a global scale.
Factors of agriculture causing the surge in food prices:
- Poor harvest in major producing countries because of extreme weather condition
- Declining of food stocks (lowest level since 1970)[221]
- Lack of investment in the agricultural sector
- Subsidization of bio-fuels product that substitute food production
- Speculative transactions that hedges future markets
- Exporting restriction causing panic buying
The global crisis that these factors contribute is simply a product
of social entropy or societal break down. Fortunately, entropy can be
countered by information because it is true that in the process of
information exchange, the world may find its salvation.
Through exchange of information, communities of practice must do this
in order to correct unsound policies (land conversion), uninformed
decisions (biofuel), and unwarranted practices (using staples as animal
feeds, and inaccurate prediction and forecasts. As a result, these would
lead to the potential advocacies of eAgriculture: alternative fuel,
alternative fertilizers, alternative feeds, and alternative foods.
Unfortunately, since most eAgriculture involves the participation of
mobile communities, they have been confronted by the following
challenges: Carriage, Critical mass, Collaboration, Content, and Costs.
The Five Cs
- Carriage: There are no first/last mile linkages
- Critical mass: ICT use in the rural areas has not reached the
numbers required to make an impact in agriculture of rural areas in
productivity and poverty alleviation
- Collaboration: Intermediaries only make partnerships and
collaboration possible. Generally, farmers, housewives and rural youth
do not use ICTs without of intervention of line agencies that provide
basic services. This otherwise known as Calvano's Missing Link
hypothesis.[222]
- Content: There is a lack of content. There cannot be a universally accepted medium.
- Cost: Rural communities cannot afford ICT hardware and services.
As technology advances, the mentioned challenges of the participating
mobile communities were offset by devices such as the iPhone 3G.
In terms of carriage, a device like the iPhone 3G with such
capabilities can successfully address all of these problems and =solve
first mile/last mile challenges. Modern devices can also create
shareable and reusable user-generated content which helpful especially
among farmng communities.
In terms of critical mass, back in 1998, the Philippines quickly
reached the sufficient of adopters of an innovation (devices with 2G or
GSM). Thus, becomes beneficial to the community and promotes growth in
mass communication.
In terms of collaboration, advance devices capable of an effective
Web 2.0 would lead everyone to collaborate, share and reuse, and simply
to exchange information. Students of would benefit especially in matters
of online learning because it is cheaper and has no significant
difference in learning.
In terms of content, web communities can effectively use audio and
video, with the language of their choice, to exchange information.
Lastly, in terms of cost, as technology is getting better, faster,
stronger, and cheaper. One can afford a phone with the right components
to achieve the minimum requirement for an effective performance in
exchanging information.
There is a lot of debate and critical thinking about solving the
problem on ICT4D especially in the eAgricultural sector. It means it
still needs a lot of study on how to entropy the poverty alleviation and
the step by step productivity of ICTs.
Artificial Intelligence is the future of ICT4D. Therefore, agriculture should be the focus.
Food stocks are necessary for long term cultivation of life. We have
to prepare for the worst. Due to recent escalating issue on climate
change the natural resources are at risk and in order for it to maintain
its purpose is to monitor and analyse its activities 24x7 by cognitive
technologies. Crop choice allows diversity. Mixed crops can be adapted
to develop further ways of consumption and production. Analyzing the
information at hand and working hard through intelligence technologies
will change outcomes and probabilities of maximizing the crop returns.
Virtual assistant is another automation that may interact with
agricultural farmers. Conversational approach to understand and learn
techniques at the right time and moment of need. We can leverage to this
technology to assist farmers in their questions and answers can be
given right away.
Artificial intelligence technologies are making its way to
agriculture and it is now the future that we see for ICT4D. Food stocks,
crop choice and virtual assistant are the main focus of the advance
intellectual technology that can bring the livestock and agriculture to
industrial and to information links back again. As a result, these will
shape the future of ICT4D.