True self (also known as real self, authentic self, original self and vulnerable self) and false self (also known as fake self, idealized self, superficial self and pseudo self) are psychological concepts, originally introduced into psychoanalysis in 1960 by Donald Winnicott.
Winnicott used true self to describe a sense of self based on
spontaneous authentic experience and a feeling of being alive, having a
real self. The false self, by contrast, Winnicott saw as a defensive façade,
which in extreme cases could leave its holders lacking spontaneity and
feeling dead and empty, behind a mere appearance of being real.
The concepts are often used in connection with narcissism.
Characteristics
Winnicott
saw the true self as rooted from early infancy in the experience of
being alive, including blood pumping and lungs breathing – what
Winnicott called simply being. Out of this, the baby creates the experience of a sense of reality, a sense that life is worth living. The baby's spontaneous, nonverbal gestures derive from that instinctual sense, and if responded to by the parents, become the basis for the continuing development of the true self.
However, when what Winnicott was careful to describe as good enough parenting – i.e., not necessarily perfect – was not
in place, the infant's spontaneity was in danger of being encroached on
by the need for compliance with the parents' wishes/expectations.
The result for Winnicott could be the creation of what he called the
false self, where "Other people's expectations can become of overriding
importance, overlaying or contradicting the original sense of self, the
one connected to the very roots of one's being".
The danger he saw was that "through this false self, the infant builds
up a false set of relationships, and by means of introjections even
attains a show of being real", while, in fact, merely concealing a barren emptiness behind an independent-seeming façade.
The danger was particularly acute where the baby had to provide
attunement for the mother/parents, rather than vice versa, building up a
sort of dissociated recognition of the object on an impersonal, not
personal and spontaneous basis.
But while such a pathological false self stifled the spontaneous
gestures of the true self in favour of a lifeless imitation, Winnicott
nevertheless considered it of vital importance in preventing something
worse: the annihilating experience of the exploitation of the hidden
true self itself.
Precursors
There was much in psychoanalytic theory on which Winnicott could draw for his concept of the false self. Helene Deutsch had described the "as if" personalities, with their pseudo relationships substituting for real ones. Winnicott's analyst, Joan Riviere, had explored the concept of the narcissist's masquerade – superficial assent concealing a subtle hidden struggle for control. Freud's own late theory of the ego as the product of identifications came close to viewing it only as a false self; while Winnicott's true/false distinction has also been compared to Michael Balint's "basic fault" and to Ronald Fairbairn's notion of the "compromised ego".
Erich Fromm, in his book The Fear of Freedom
distinguished between original self and pseudo self – the
inauthenticality of the latter being a way to escape the loneliness of
freedom; while much earlier the existentialist like Kierkegaard
had claimed that "to will to be that self which one truly is, is
indeed the opposite of despair" – the despair of choosing "to be another
than himself".
Karen Horney, in her 1950 book, Neurosis and Human Growth,
based her idea of "true self" and "false self" through the view of
self-improvement, interpreting it as real self and ideal self, with the
real self being what one currently is and the ideal self being what one
could become.
Later developments
The
second half of the twentieth century has seen Winnicott's ideas
extended and applied in a variety of contexts, both in psychoanalysis
and beyond.
Kohut
Kohut extended Winnicott's work in his investigation of narcissism, seeing narcissists as evolving a defensive armor around their damaged inner selves.
He considered it less pathological to identify with the damaged
remnants of the self, than to achieve coherence through identification
with an external personality at the cost of one's own autonomous
creativity.
Lowen
Alexander Lowen identified narcissists as having a true and a false,
or superficial, self. The false self rests on the surface, as the self
presented to the world. It stands in contrast to the true self, which
resides behind the facade or image. This true self is the feeling self,
but for the narcissist the feeling self must be hidden and denied. Since
the superficial self represents submission and conformity, the inner or
true self is rebellious and angry. This underlying rebellion and anger
can never be fully suppressed since it is an expression of the life
force in that person. But because of the denial, it cannot be expressed directly. Instead it shows up in the narcissist's acting out. And it can become a perverse force.
Masterson
James F. Masterson argued that all the personality disorders
crucially involve the conflict between a person's two selves: the false
self, which the very young child constructs to please the mother, and
the true self. The psychotherapy of personality disorders is an attempt
to put people back in touch with their real selves.
Symington
Symington developed Winnicott's contrast between true and false self to cover the sources
of personal action, contrasting an autonomous and a discordant source
of action – the latter drawn from the internalisation of external
influences and pressures.
Thus for example parental dreams of self-glorification by way of their
child's achievements can be internalised as an alien discordant source
of action. Symington stressed however the intentional
element in the individual's abandoning the autonomous self in favour of
a false self or narcissistic mask – something he considered Winnicott
to have overlooked.
Vaknin
As part of what has been described as a personal mission by self-confessed narcissist and author Sam Vaknin to raise the profile of the condition.
Vaknin has highlighted the role of the false self in narcissism. The
false self replaces the narcissist's true self and is intended to shield
him from hurt and narcissistic injury by self-imputing omnipotence. The narcissist pretends that his false self is real and demands that others affirm this confabulation, meanwhile keeping his real imperfect true self under wraps.
For Vaknin, the false self is by far more important to the
narcissist than his dilapidated, dysfunctional true self; and in
contrast to the psychoanalysts he does not believe in the ability to
resuscitate it through therapy.
Miller
Alice Miller cautiously warns that a child/patient may not have any formed true self, waiting behind the false self facade;
and that as a result freeing the true self is not as simple as the
Winnicottian image of the butterfly emerging from its cocoon. If a true self can be developed, however, she considered that the empty grandiosity of the false self could give way to a new sense of autonomous vitality.
Orbach: false bodies
Susie Orbach saw the false self as an overdevelopment (under parental
pressure) of certain aspects of the self at the expense of other
aspects – of the full potential of the self – producing thereby an
abiding distrust of what emerges spontaneously from the individual
himself or herself. Orbach went on to extend Winnicott's account of how environmental failure can lead to an inner splitting of mind and body, so as to cover the idea of the false body – falsified sense of one's own body.
Orbach saw the female false body in particular as built upon
identifications with others, at the cost of an inner sense of
authenticity and reliability.
Breaking up a monolithic but false body-sense in the process of therapy
could allow for the emergence of a range of authentic (even if often
painful) body feelings in the patient.
Jungian persona
Jungians have explored the overlap between Jung's concept of the persona and Winnicott's false self;
but, while noting similarities, consider that only the most rigidly
defensive persona approximates to the pathological status of the false
self.
Stern's tripartite self
Daniel Stern considered Winnicott's sense of "going on being" as constitutive of the core, pre-verbal self.
He also explored how language could be used to reinforce a false sense
of self, leaving the true self linguistically opaque and disavowed. He ended, however, by proposing a three-fold division of social, private, and of disavowed self.
Criticisms
Neville Symington criticised Winnicott for failing to integrate his false self insight with the theory of ego and id. Similarly, continental analysts like Jean-Bertrand Pontalis have made use of true/false self as a clinical distinction, while having reservations about its theoretical status.
The philosopher Michel Foucault took issue more broadly with the concept of a true self on the anti-essentialist grounds that the self was a construct – something one had to evolve through a process of subjectification, an aesthetics of self-formation, not something simply waiting to be uncovered: "we have to create ourselves as a work of art".
Literary examples
Wuthering Heights has been interpreted in terms of the true self's struggle to break through the conventional overlay.
In the novel, I Never Promised You a Rose Garden, the heroine saw her outward personality as a mere ghost of a Semblance, behind which her true self hid ever more completely.
Sylvia Plath's poetry has been interpreted in terms of the conflict of the true and false selves.
Liber Divinorum Operum, or the Universal Man of St. Hildegard of Bingen, 1185 (13th-century copy)
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning.
It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden
truths, and to human transformation supported by various practices and
experiences.
The term "mysticism" has Ancient Greek origins with various historically determined meanings. Derived from the Greek word μύω múō, meaning "to close" or "to conceal", mysticism referred to the biblical, liturgical, spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early and medieval Christianity. During the early modern period,
the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad range of beliefs
and ideologies related to "extraordinary experiences and states of
mind."
In modern times, "mysticism" has acquired a limited definition,
with broad applications, as meaning the aim at the "union with the
Absolute, the Infinite, or God". This limited definition has been applied to a wide range of religious traditions and practices, valuing "mystical experience" as a key element of mysticism.
Since the 1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches in the scientific research of "mystical experiences". The perennial position is now "largely dismissed by scholars", most scholars using a contextualist approach, which takes the cultural and historical context into consideration.
Etymology
"Mysticism" is derived from the Greekμύω, meaning "I conceal",[web 2] and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. The verb μύω
has received a quite different meaning in the Greek language, where it
is still in use. The primary meanings it has are "induct" and
"initiate". Secondary meanings include "introduce", "make someone aware
of something", "train", "familiarize", "give first experience of
something".[web 3]
The related form of the verb μυέω (mueó or myéō) appears in the New Testament. As explained in Strong's Concordance,
it properly means shutting the eyes and mouth to experience mystery.
Its figurative meaning is to be initiated into the "mystery revelation".
The meaning derives from the initiatory rites of the pagan mysteries. Also appearing in the New Testament is the related noun μυστήριον
(mustérion or mystḗrion), the root word of the English term "mystery".
The term means "anything hidden", a mystery or secret, of which
initiation is necessary. In the New Testament it reportedly takes the
meaning of the counsels of God, once hidden but now revealed in the
Gospel or some fact thereof, the Christian revelation generally, and/or
particular truths or details of the Christian revelation.
According to Thayer's Greek Lexicon, the term μυστήριον in classical Greek meant "a hidden thing", "secret". A particular meaning it took in Classical antiquity
was a religious secret or religious secrets, confided only to the
initiated and not to be communicated by them to ordinary mortals. In the
Septuagint
and the New Testament the meaning it took was that of a hidden purpose
or counsel, a secret will. It is sometimes used for the hidden wills of
humans, but is more often used for the hidden will of God. Elsewhere in
the Bible it takes the meaning of the mystic or hidden sense of things.
It is used for the secrets behind sayings, names, or behind images seen
in visions and dreams. The Vulgate often translates the Greek term to the Latin sacramentum (sacrament).
The related noun μύστης (mustis or mystis, singular) means the initiate, the person initiated to the mysteries. According to Ana Jiménez San Cristobal in her study of Greco-Roman mysteries and Orphism, the singular form μύστης and the plural form μύσται
are used in ancient Greek texts to mean the person or persons initiated
to religious mysteries. These followers of mystery religions belonged
to a select group, where access was only gained through an initiation.
She finds that the terms were associated with the term βάκχος (Bacchus),
which was used for a special class of initiates of the Orphic
mysteries. The terms are first found connected in the writings of Heraclitus.
Such initiates are identified in texts with the persons who have been
purified and have performed certain rites. A passage of the Cretans by Euripides seems to explain that the μύστης
(initiate) who devotes himself to an ascetic life, renounces sexual
activities, and avoids contact with the dead becomes known as βάκχος.
Such initiates were believers in the god Dionysus Bacchus who took on
the name of their god and sought an identification with their deity.
Until the sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the term contemplatio, c.q. theoria.
According to Johnston, "[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the
eye of love which is looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities."
Definitions
According to Peter Moore, the term "mysticism" is "problematic but indispensable." It is a generic term which joins together into one concept separate practices and ideas which developed separately, According to Dupré, "mysticism" has been defined in many ways, and Merkur notes that the definition, or meaning, of the term "mysticism" has changed through the ages.
Moore further notes that the term "mysticism" has become a popular
label for "anything nebulous, esoteric, occult, or supernatural."
Parsons warns that "what might at times seem to be a
straightforward phenomenon exhibiting an unambiguous commonality has
become, at least within the academic study of religion, opaque and
controversial on multiple levels".
Because of its Christian overtones, and the lack of similar terms in
other cultures, some scholars regard the term "mysticism" to be
inadequate as a useful descriptive term. Other scholars regard the term to be an inauthentic fabrication, the "product of post-Enlightenment universalism."
Union with the Divine or Absolute and mystical experience
Deriving from Neo-Platonism and Henosis, mysticism is popularly known as union with God or the Absolute. In the 13th century the term unio mystica
came to be used to refer to the "spiritual marriage," the ecstasy, or
rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used "to contemplate both
God’s omnipresence in the world and God in his essence."
In the 19th century, under the influence of Romanticism, this "union"
was interpreted as a "religious experience," which provides certainty
about God or a transcendental reality.
An influential proponent of this understanding was William James (1842–1910), who stated that "in mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness." William James popularized this use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience, contributing to the interpretation of mysticism as a distinctive experience, comparable to sensory experiences. Religious experiences belonged to the "personal religion," which he considered to be "more fundamental than either theology or ecclesiasticism".
He gave a Perennialist interpretation to religious experience, stating
that this kind of experience is ultimately uniform in various
traditions.
McGinn notes that the term unio mystica, although it has Christian origins, is primarily a modern expression.
McGinn argues that "presence" is more accurate than "union", since not
all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles
were not necessarily related to union. He also argues that we should
speak of "consciousness" of God's presence, rather than of "experience",
since mystical activity is not simply about the sensation of God as an
external object, but more broadly about "new ways of knowing and loving
based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner
acts."
However, the idea of "union" does not work in all contexts. For
example, in Advaita Vedanta, there is only one reality (Brahman) and
therefore nothing other than reality to unite with it—Brahman in each
person (atman) has always in fact been identical to Brahman all
along. Dan Merkur also notes that union with God or the Absolute is a
too limited definition, since there are also traditions which aim not at
a sense of unity, but of nothingness, such as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Meister Eckhart. According to Merkur, Kabbala and Buddhism also emphasize nothingness.
Blakemore and Jennett note that "definitions of mysticism [...] are
often imprecise." They further note that this kind of interpretation and
definition is a recent development which has become the standard
definition and understanding.
According to Gelman, "A unitive experience involves a
phenomenological de-emphasis, blurring, or eradication of multiplicity,
where the cognitive significance of the experience is deemed to lie
precisely in that phenomenological feature".
Religious ecstasies and interpretative context
Mysticism involves an explanatory context, which provides meaning for
mystical and visionary experiences, and related experiences like
trances. According to Dan Merkur, mysticism may relate to any kind of
ecstasy or altered state of consciousness, and the ideas and
explanations related to them.
Parsons stresses the importance of distinguishing between temporary
experiences and mysticism as a process, which is embodied within a
"religious matrix" of texts and practices. Richard Jones does the same.
Peter Moore notes that mystical experience may also happen in a
spontaneous and natural way, to people who are not committed to any
religious tradition. These experiences are not necessarily interpreted
in a religious framework. Ann Taves asks by which processes experiences are set apart and deemed religious or mystical.
Intuitive insight and enlightenment
Some authors emphasize that mystical experience involves intuitive
understanding of the meaning of existence and of hidden truths, and the
resolution of life problems. According to Larson, "mystical experience
is an intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning of
existence." According to McClenon, mysticism is "the doctrine that special mental
states or events allow an understanding of ultimate truths." According to James R. Horne, mystical illumination is "a central
visionary experience [...] that results in the resolution of a personal
or religious problem.
According to Evelyn Underhill, illumination is a generic English term for the phenomenon of mysticism. The term illumination is derived from the Latin illuminatio, applied to Christian prayer in the 15th century. Comparable Asian terms are bodhi, kensho and satori in Buddhism, commonly translated as "enlightenment", and vipassana, which all point to cognitive processes of intuition and comprehension. According to Wright, the use of the western word enlightenment is based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklärung, the independent use of reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world, and there are more resemblances with Romanticism than with the Enlightenment: the emphasis on feeling, on intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the world of appearances.
Spiritual life and re-formation
Other authors point out that mysticism involves more than "mystical
experience." According to Gellmann, the ultimate goal of mysticism is
human transformation, not just experiencing mystical or visionary
states. According to McGinn, personal transformation is the essential criterion to determine the authenticity of Christian mysticism.
History of the term
Hellenistic world
In the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to "secret" religious rituals like the Eleusinian Mysteries. The use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. A "mystikos" was an initiate of a mystery religion.
Early Christianity
In early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three
dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the
liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.
Until the sixth century, the Greek term theoria, meaning "contemplation" in Latin, was used for the mystical interpretation of the Bible. The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation. Under the influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible, and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names." Pseudo-Dionysius' Apophatic theology, or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity. It was influenced by Neo-Platonism, and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or "positive theology".
Theoria enabled the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning
in the biblical writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical
approach to interpretation. The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, saw in every passage of Scripture a double meaning, both literal and spiritual.
Later, theoria or contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual life, leading to the identification of θεωρία or contemplatio with a form of prayer distinguished from discursive meditation in both East and West.
Medieval meaning
This threefold meaning of "mystical" continued in the Middle Ages. According to Dan Merkur, the term unio mystica
came into use in the 13th century as a synonym for the "spiritual
marriage," the ecstasy, or rapture, that was experienced when prayer was
used "to contemplate both God’s omnipresence in the world and God in
his essence." Under the influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible, and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names." Pseudo-Dionysius' Apophatic theology,
or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic
religiosity, although it was mostly a male religiosity, since women were
not allowed to study. It was influenced by Neo-Platonism, and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or "positive theology". It is best known nowadays in the western world from Meister Eckhart and John of the Cross.
Early modern meaning
The Appearance of the Holy Spirit before Saint Teresa of Ávila,Peter Paul Rubens
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century mysticism came to be used as a substantive. This shift was linked to a new discourse, in which science and religion were separated.
Luther
dismissed the allegorical interpretation of the bible, and condemned
Mystical theology, which he saw as more Platonic than Christian.
"The mystical", as the search for the hidden meaning of texts, became
secularised, and also associated with literature, as opposed to science
and prose.
Science was also distinguished from religion. By the middle of
the 17th century, "the mystical" is increasingly applied exclusively to
the religious realm, separating religion and "natural philosophy" as two
distinct approaches to the discovery of the hidden meaning of the
universe.
The traditional hagiographies and writings of the saints became
designated as "mystical", shifting from the virtues and miracles to
extraordinary experiences and states of mind, thereby creating a newly
coined "mystical tradition". A new understanding developed of the Divine as residing within human, an essence beyond the varieties of religious expressions.
Contemporary meaning
The 19th century saw a growing emphasis on individual experience, as a
defense against the growing rationalism of western society. The meaning of mysticism was considerably narrowed:
The competition between the
perspectives of theology and science resulted in a compromise in which
most varieties of what had traditionally been called mysticism were
dismissed as merely psychological phenomena and only one variety, which
aimed at union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God—and thereby the
perception of its essential unity or oneness—was claimed to be genuinely
mystical. The historical evidence, however, does not support such a
narrow conception of mysticism.
Under the influence of Perennialism, which was popularised in both the west and the east by Unitarianism, Transcendentalists and Theosophy, mysticism has been applied to a broad spectrum of religious traditions, in which all sorts of esotericism and religious traditions and practices are joined together. The term mysticism was extended to comparable phenomena in non-Christian religions, where it influenced Hindu and Buddhist responses to colonialism, resulting in Neo-Vedanta and Buddhist modernism.
In the contemporary usage "mysticism" has become an umbrella term for all sorts of non-rational world views, parapsychology and pseudoscience. William Harmless even states that mysticism has become "a catch-all for religious weirdness". Within the academic study of religion the apparent "unambiguous commonality" has become "opaque and controversial". The term "mysticism" is being used in different ways in different traditions. Some call to attention the conflation of mysticism and linked terms, such as spirituality and esotericism, and point at the differences between various traditions.
Variations of mysticism
Based
on various definitions of mysticism, namely mysticism as an experience
of union or nothingness, mysticism as any kind of an altered state of
consciousness which is attributed in a religious way, mysticism as
"enlightenment" or insight, and mysticism as a way of transformation,
"mysticism" can be found in many cultures and religious traditions, both
in folk religion and organized religion.
These traditions include practices to induce religious or mystical
experiences, but also ethical standards and practices to enhance
self-control and integrate the mystical experience into daily life.
Dan Merkur notes, though, that mystical practices are often
separated from daily religious practices, and restricted to "religious
specialists like monastics, priests, and other renunciates.
Shamanism
According to Dan Merkur, shamanism may be regarded as a form of mysticism, in which the world of spirits is accessed through religious ecstasy. According to Mircea Eliade shamanism is a "technique of religious ecstasy."
Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world. A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.
The term "shamanism" was first applied by western anthropologists to the ancient religion of the Turks and Mongols, as well as those of the neighboring Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. The term is also used to describe similar magico-religious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas. For instance, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, West African Vodun, Dominican Vudú and Hoodoo are related folk-religions with ecstatic elements.
Neoshamanism refers to "new"' forms of shamanism,
or methods of seeking visions or healing, typically practiced in
Western countries. Neoshamanism comprises an eclectic range of beliefs
and practices that involve attempts to attain altered states and
communicate with a spirit world, and is associated with New Age practices.
Western mysticism
Mystery religions
The Eleusinian Mysteries, (Greek: ἘλευσίνιαΜυστήρια) were annual initiation ceremonies in the cults of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone, held in secret at Eleusis (near Athens) in ancient Greece. The mysteries began in about 1600 B.C. in the Mycenean period and continued for two thousand years, becoming a major festival during the Hellenic era, and later spreading to Rome. Numerous scholars have proposed that the power of the Eleusinian Mysteries came from the kykeon's functioning as an entheogen.
Christian mysticism
Early Christianity
The apophatic theology, or "negative theology", of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (6th c.) exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity, both in the East and (by Latin translation) in the West. Pseudo-Dionysius applied Neoplatonic thought, particularly that of Proclus, to Christian theology.
Theosis, practical unity with and conformity to God, is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer, the first stage of theoria, which results from the cultivation of watchfulness (nepsis). In theoria, one comes to behold the "divisibly indivisible" divine operations (energeia) of God as the "uncreated light" of transfiguration, a grace which is eternal and proceeds naturally from the blinding darkness of the incomprehensible divine essence. It is the main aim of hesychasm, which was developed in the thought St. Symeon the New Theologian, embraced by the monastic communities on Mount Athos, and most notably defended by St. Gregory Palamas against the Greek humanist philosopher Barlaam of Calabria. According to Roman Catholic critics, hesychastic practice has its roots to the introduction of a systematic practical approach to quietism by Symeon the New Theologian.
Symeon believed that direct experience gave monks the authority
to preach and give absolution of sins, without the need for formal
ordination. While Church authorities also taught from a speculative and
philosophical perspective, Symeon taught from his own direct mystical
experience, and met with strong resistance for his charismatic approach, and his support of individual direct experience of God's grace.
The High Middle Ages
saw a flourishing of mystical practice and theorization in western
Roman Catholicism, corresponding to the flourishing of new monastic
orders, with such figures as Guigo II, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Victorines, all coming from different orders, as well as the first real flowering of popular piety among the laypeople.
Many western esoteric traditions and elements of modern spirituality have been regarded as "mysticism," such as Gnosticism, Transcendentalism, Theosophy, the Fourth Way, and Neo-Paganism. Modern western spiritually and transpersonal psychology
combine western psycho-therapeutic practices with religious practices
like meditation to attain a lasting transformation. Nature mysticism is
an intense experience of unification with nature or the cosmic totality,
which was popular with Romantic writers.
Jewish mysticism
Portrait of Abraham Abulafia, Medieval Jewish mystic and founder of Prophetic Kabbalah.
In the common era, Judaism has had two main kinds of mysticism: Merkabah mysticism and Kabbalah.
The former predated the latter, and was focused on visions,
particularly those mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. It gets its name
from the Hebrew word meaning "chariot", a reference to Ezekiel's vision
of a fiery chariot composed of heavenly beings.
Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof
(no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Inside
Judaism, it forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation.
Kabbalah originally developed entirely within the realm of Jewish thought.
Kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and
demonstrate its esoteric teachings. These teachings are thus held by
followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature, their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances.
Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, in 12th to 13th century Southern France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. It was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century forward. 20th-century interest in Kabbalah has inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal and contributed to wider non-Jewish contemporary spirituality, as well as engaging its flourishing emergence and historical re-emphasis through newly established academic investigation.
Islamic mysticism
Tomb of Sheikh Abdul Qadir, Baghdad, Iraq
The consensus is that Islam's inner and mystical dimension is encapsulated in Sufism.
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as
[A] science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.
A practitioner of this tradition is nowadays known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ), or, in earlier usage, a dervish.
The origin of the word "Sufi" is ambiguous. One understanding is that
Sufi means wool-wearer; wool wearers during early Islam were pious
ascetics who withdrew from urban life. Another explanation of the word
"Sufi" is that it means 'purity'.
Sufis generally belong to a khalqa, a circle or group, led by a Sheikh or Murshid. Sufi circles usually belong to a Tariqa which is the Sufi order and each has a Silsila, which is the spiritual lineage, which traces its succession back to notable Sufis of the past, and often ultimately to Muhammed or one of his close associates. The turuq (plural of tariqa)
are not enclosed like Christian monastic orders; rather the members
retain an outside life. Membership of a Sufi group often passes down
family lines. Meetings may or may not be segregated according to the
prevailing custom of the wider society. An existing Muslim faith is not
always a requirement for entry, particularly in Western countries.
Visiting holy places, particularly the tombs of Sufi saints, in
order to remember death and the greatness of those who have passed.
The aims of Sufism include: the experience of ecstatic states (hal), purification of the heart (qalb), overcoming the lower self (nafs), extinction of the individual personality (fana), communion with God (haqiqa), and higher knowledge (marifat). Some sufic beliefs and practices have been found unorthodox by other Muslims; for instance Mansur al-Hallaj was put to death for blasphemy after uttering the phrase Ana'l Haqq, "I am the Truth" (i.e. God) in a trance.
Sufism first came into contact with the Judeo-Christian world during the
Moorish occupation of Spain. An interest in Sufism revived in non-Muslim countries during the modern era, led by such figures as Inayat Khan and Idries Shah (both in the UK), Rene Guenon (France) and Ivan Aguéli (Sweden). Sufism has also long been present in Asian countries that do not have a Muslim majority, such as India and China.
Indian religions
Hinduism
In Hinduism, various sadhanas aim at overcoming ignorance (avidhya) and transcending the limited identification with body, mind and ego to attain moksha. Hinduism has a number of interlinked ascetic traditions and philosophical schools which aim at moksha and the acquisition of higher powers.
With the onset of the British colonisation of India, those traditions
came to be interpreted in western terms such as "mysticism", drawing
equivalents with western terms and practices.
Yoga is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which aim to attain a state of permanent peace. Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali defines yoga as "the stilling of the changing states of the mind," which is attained in samadhi.
Classical Vedanta gives philosophical interpretations and commentaries of the Upanishads, a vast collection of ancient hymns. At least ten schools of Vedanta are known, of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita are the best known. Advaita Vedanta, as expounded by Adi Shankara, states that there is no difference between Atman and Brahman. The best-known subschool is Kevala Vedanta or mayavada as expounded by Adi Shankara.
Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and
beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality. In contrast Bhedabheda-Vedanta emphasizes that Atman and Brahman are both the same and not the same, while Dvaita Vedanta states that Atman and God are fundamentally different. In modern times, the Upanishads have been interpreted by Neo-Vedanta as being "mystical".
Tantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual which arose in India no later than the fifth century AD. Tantra has influenced the Hindu, Bön, Buddhist, and Jain traditions and spread with Buddhism to East and Southeast Asia. Tantric ritual seeks to access the supra-mundane through the mundane, identifying the microcosm with the macrocosm. The Tantric aim is to sublimate (rather than negate) reality. The Tantric practitioner seeks to use prana (energy flowing through the universe, including one's body) to attain goals which may be spiritual, material or both. Tantric practice includes visualisation of deities, mantras and mandalas. It can also include sexual and other (antinomian) practices.
Mysticism in the Sikhdharm began with its founder, Guru Nanak, who as a child had profound mystical experiences. Guru Nanak stressed that God must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being. Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, added religious mystics belonging to other religions into the holy scriptures that would eventually become the Guru Granth Sahib.
The goal of Sikhism is to be one with God. Sikhs meditate as a means to progress towards enlightenment; it is devoted meditationsimran that enables a sort of communication between the Infinite and finite human consciousness. There is no concentration on the breath but chiefly the remembrance of God through the recitation of the name of God and surrender themselves to God's presence often metaphorized as surrendering themselves to the Lord's feet.
Buddhism
According to Oliver, Buddhism is mystical in the sense that it aims
at the identification of the true nature of our self, and live according
to it. Buddhism originated in India, sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, but is now mostly practiced in other countries, where it developed into a number of traditions, the main ones being Therevada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
Buddhism aims at liberation from the cycle of rebirth by self-control through meditation and morally just behaviour. Some Buddhist paths aim at a gradual development and transformation of the personality toward Nirvana, like the Theravada stages of enlightenment. Others, like the Japanese Rinzai Zen tradition, emphasize sudden insight, but nevertheless also prescribe intensive training, including meditation and self-restraint.
Although Theravada
does not acknowledge the existence of a theistic Absolute, it does
postulate Nirvana as a transcendent reality which may be attained. It further stresses transformation of the personality through meditative practice, self-restraint, and morally just behaviour.
According to Richard H. Jones, Theravada is a form of mindful
extrovertive and introvertive mysticism, in which the conceptual
structuring of experiences is weakened, and the ordinary sense of self
is weakened. It is best known in the west from the Vipassana movement, a number of branches of modern Theravāda Buddhism from Burma, Laos, Thailand and Sri Lanka, and includes contemporary American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield.
The Yogacara school of Mahayana investigates the workings of the mind, stating that only the mind (citta-mātra) or the representations we cognize (vijñapti-mātra), really exist.In later Buddhist Mahayana thought, which took an idealistic turn, the unmodified mind came to be seen as a pure consciousness, from which everything arises. Vijñapti-mātra, coupled with Buddha-nature or tathagatagarba,
has been an influential concept in the subsequent development of
Mahayana Buddhism, not only in India, but also in China and Tibet, most
notable in the Chán (Zen) and Dzogchen traditions.
Chinese and Japanese Zen is grounded on the Chinese understanding of the Buddha-nature as one true's essence, and the Two truths doctrine as a polarity between relative and Absolute reality. Zen aims at insight one's true nature, or Buddha-nature, thereby manifesting Absolute reality in the relative reality. In Soto, this Buddha-nature is regarded to be ever-present, and shikan-taza, sitting meditation, is the expression of the already existing Buddhahood. Rinzai-zen emphasises the need for a break-through insight in this Buddha-nature, but also stresses that further practice is needed to deepen the insight and to express it in daily life, as expressed in the Three mysterious Gates, the Four Ways of Knowing of Hakuin, and the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures. The Japanese Zen-scholar D.T. Suzuki noted similarities between Zen-Buddhism and Christian mysticism, especially meister Eckhart.
The Tibetan Vajrayana tradition is based on Madhyamaka philosophy and Tantra. In deity yoga, visualizations of deities are eventually dissolved, to realize the inherent emptiness of every-'thing' that exists. Dzogchen, which is being taught in both the Tibetan buddhistNyingma school and the Bön tradition, focuses on direct insight into our real nature. It holds that "mind-nature" is manifested when one is enlightened, being nonconceptually aware (rigpa, "open presence") of one's nature, "a recognition of one's beginningless nature." Mahamudra has similarities with Dzogchen, emphasizing the meditational approach to insight and liberation.
Taoism
Taoist philosophy is centered on the Tao, usually translated "Way", an ineffable cosmic principle. The contrasting yet interdependent concepts of yin and yang also symbolise harmony, with Taoist scriptures often emphasing the Yin virtues of femininity, passivity and yieldingness. Taoist practice includes exercises and rituals aimed at manipulating the life force Qi, and obtaining health and longevity. These have been elaborated into practices such as Tai chi, which are well known in the west.
The Secularization of Mysticism
Today there is also occurring in the West what Richard Jones calls "the secularization of mysticism".
That is the separation of meditation and other mystical practices from
their traditional use in religious ways of life to only secular ends of
purported psychological and physiological benefits.
Scholarly approaches of mysticism and mystical experience
Types of mysticism
R. C. Zaehner
distinguishes three fundamental types of mysticism, namely theistic,
monistic and panenhenic ("all-in-one") or natural mysticism.
The theistic category includes most forms of Jewish, Christian and
Islamic mysticism and occasional Hindu examples such as Ramanuja and the
Bhagavad Gita. The monistic type, which according to Zaehner is based upon an experience of the unity of one's soul, includes Buddhism and Hindu schools such as Samkhya and Advaita vedanta. Nature mysticism seems to refer to examples that do not fit into one of these two categories.
Walter Terence Stace, in his book Mysticism and Philosophy (1960), distinguished two types of mystical experience, namely extrovertive and introvertive mysticism.
Extrovertive mysticism is an experience of the unity of the external
world, whereas introvertive mysticism is "an experience of unity devoid
of perceptual objects; it is literally an experience of
'no-thing-ness'."
The unity in extrovertive mysticism is with the totality of objects of
perception. While perception stays continuous, “unity shines through the
same world”; the unity in introvertive mysticism is with a pure
consciousness, devoid of objects of perception, “pure unitary consciousness, wherein awareness of the world and of multiplicity is completely obliterated.”
According to Stace such experiences are nonsensous and nonintellectual,
under a total “suppression of the whole empirical content.”
Stace argues that doctrinal differences between religious
traditions are inappropriate criteria when making cross-cultural
comparisons of mystical experiences.
Stace argues that mysticism is part of the process of perception, not
interpretation, that is to say that the unity of mystical experiences is
perceived, and only afterwards interpreted according to the perceiver's
background. This may result in different accounts of the same
phenomenon. While an atheist describes the unity as “freed from
empirical filling”, a religious person might describe it as “God” or
“the Divine”.
Mystical experiences
Since
the 19th century, "mystical experience" has evolved as a distinctive
concept. It is closely related to "mysticism" but lays sole emphasis on
the experiential aspect, be it spontaneous or induced by human behavior,
whereas mysticism encompasses a broad range of practices aiming at a
transformation of the person, not just inducing mystical experiences.
William James' The Varieties of Religious Experience
is the classic study on religious or mystical experience, which
influenced deeply both the academic and popular understanding of
"religious experience". He popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his "Varieties", and influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge of the transcendental:
Under the influence of William
James' The Varieties of Religious Experience, heavily centered on
people's conversion experiences, most philosophers' interest in
mysticism has been in distinctive, allegedly knowledge-granting
"mystical experiences.""
Yet, Gelman notes that so-called mystical experience is not a
transitional event, as William James claimed, but an "abiding
consciousness, accompanying a person throughout the day, or parts of it.
For that reason, it might be better to speak of mystical consciousness,
which can be either fleeting or abiding."
Most mystical traditions warn against an attachment to mystical
experiences, and offer a "protective and hermeneutic framework" to
accommodate these experiences. These same traditions offer the means to induce mystical experiences, which may have several origins:
Spontaneous; either apparently without any cause, or by persistent existential concerns, or by neurophysiological origins;
Neurophysiological origins, such as temporal lobe epilepsy.
The theoretical study of mystical experience has shifted from an
experiential, privatized and perennialist approach to a contextual and
empirical approach.
The experientalist approach sees mystical experience as a private
expression of perennial truths, separate from its historical and
cultural context. The contextual approach, which also includes
constructionism and attribution theory, takes into account the
historical and cultural context. Neurological research takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to neurological processes.
Perennialism versus constructionism
The
term "mystical experience" evolved as a distinctive concept since the
19th century, laying sole emphasis on the experiential aspect, be it
spontaneous or induced by human behavior. Perennialists regard those
various experience traditions as pointing to one universal
transcendental reality, for which those experiences offer the proof. In
this approach, mystical experiences are privatised, separated from the
context in which they emerge. Well-known representatives are William James, R.C. Zaehner, William Stace and Robert Forman. The perennial position is "largely dismissed by scholars", but "has lost none of its popularity."
In contrast, for the past decades most scholars have favored a
constructionist approach, which states that mystical experiences are
fully constructed by the ideas, symbols and practices that mystics are
familiar with.
Critics of the term "religious experience" note that the notion of
"religious experience" or "mystical experience" as marking insight into
religious truth is a modern development,
and contemporary researchers of mysticism note that mystical
experiences are shaped by the concepts "which the mystic brings to, and
which shape, his experience". What is being experienced is being determined by the expectations and the conceptual background of the mystic.
Richard Jones draws a distinction between "anticonstructivism"
and "perennialism": constructivism can be rejected with respect to a
certain class of mystical experiences without ascribing to a
perennialist philosophy on the relation of mystical doctrines.
One can reject constructivism without claiming that mystical
experiences reveal a cross-cultural "perennial truth". For example, a
Christian can reject both constructivism and perennialism in arguing
that there is a union with God free of cultural construction.
Constructivism versus anticonstructivism is a matter of the nature of mystical experiences while perennialism is a matter of mystical traditions and the doctrines they espouse.
Contextualism and attribution theory
The perennial position is now "largely dismissed by scholars", and the contextual approach has become the common approach. Contextualism takes into account the historical and cultural context of mystical experiences.
The attribution approach views "mystical experience" as non-ordinary
states of consciousness which are explained in a religious framework.
According to Proudfoot, mystics unconsciously merely attribute a
doctrinal content to ordinary experiences. That is, mystics project
cognitive content onto otherwise ordinary experiences having a strong
emotional impact. This approach has been further elaborated by Ann Taves, in her Religious Experience Reconsidered. She incorporates both neurological and cultural approaches in the study of mystical experience.
Neurological research
Neurological research takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to neurological processes.
This leads to a central philosophical issue: does the identification of
neural triggers or neural correlates of mystical experiences prove that
mystical experiences are no more than brain events or does it merely
identify the brain activity occurring during a genuine cognitive event?
The most common positions are that neurology reduces mystical
experiences or that neurology is neutral to the issue of mystical
cognitivity.
Interest in mystical experiences and psychedelic drugs has also recently seen a resurgence.
The temporal lobe seems to be involved in mystical experiences, and in the change in personality that may result from such experiences. It generates the feeling of "I," and gives a feeling of familiarity or strangeness to the perceptions of the senses. There is a long-standing notion that epilepsy and religion are linked, and some religious figures may have had temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE).
The anterior insula may be involved in ineffability,
a strong feeling of certainty which cannot be expressed in words, which
is a common quality in mystical experiences. According to Picard, this
feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception,
self-reflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal
representations of the world by "anticipation of resolution of
uncertainty or risk".
Mysticism and morality
A philosophical issue in the study of mysticism is the relation of mysticism to morality. Albert Schweitzer presented the classic account of mysticism and morality being incompatible. Arthur Danto also argued that morality is at least incompatible with Indian mystical beliefs.
Walter Stace, on the other hand, argued not only are mysticism and
morality compatible, but that mysticism is the source and justification
of morality.
Others studying multiple mystical traditions have concluded that the
relation of mysticism and morality is not as simple as that.
Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical experience" and social justice:
The privatisation of mysticism –
that is, the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the
psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from
political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a
personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and
equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to
accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of
anxiety and stress.
