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Saturday, March 5, 2022

Doctor of Medicine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine

Medical doctors per 1,000 people in 2018.

Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin Medicinae Doctor) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional graduate degree. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery was used and eventually in the 19th century became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, higher doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine; in those countries, the equivalent professional to the North American and some others use of M.D. is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.).

History

The thesis presented by Claude Bernard to obtain his doctorate of medicine (1843)

The first medical degrees were awarded by the Schola Medica Salernitana around the year 1000, including to women such as Trota of Salerno. The degrees received legal sanction in 1137 by Roger II of Sicily and in 1231 by Emperor Federico II, in the Constitution of Melfi. In the titles XLIV-LXXXIX of the third book of the Constitutions of 1231, it was established that the activity of a physician (medicus) could only be carried out by physicians holding a medical degree, the Licentia Medendi (license to practice medicine), by the Schola Medica Salernitana (the only school in the kingdom authorized to award degrees in medicine). This degree was awarded after a curriculum composed of three years of study of logic, five years of medical studies, an examination of a commission composed of the professors of the university, a one-year apprenticeship with an expert doctor, and a final examination before the commissioners of the Royal Curia and the Provincial Curias.

In 1703, the University of Glasgow's first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine.

University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the M.D., until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the M.D. title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American university to grant the M.D. degree instead of the MB.

Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill. These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland.

A feminine form, "Doctress of Medicine" or Medicinae Doctrix, was also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. In most countries having a Doctor of Medicine degree does not mean that the individual will be allowed to practice medicine. Typically a physician must go through a residency for at least three years and take some form of licensing examination in their jurisdiction.

By country

Professional degrees

Afghanistan

In Afghanistan, medical education begins after high school. No pre-medicine courses or bachelor's degree is required. Eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam held every year throughout the country. Entry to medical school is competitive, and only students with the highest ranks are accepted into medical programs. The primary medical degree is completed in 7 years. According to the new medical curriculum (from 2016), during the 12th semester, medical students must complete research on a medical topic and provide a thesis as part of their training. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, regarded "MD" and validated by the "Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan". All physicians are to obtain licensing and a medical council registration number from the "Ministry of Public Health" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications. After graduation, students may complete residency.

The MD specification: Before the civil wars in Afghanistan, medical education used to be taught by foreign professors or Afghan professors who studied medical education abroad. The Kabul medical institute certified the students as "Master of Medicine". After the civil wars, medical education has extremely changed, and the MD certification has been reduced to "Medicine Bachelor".

Argentina

In Argentina, the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate (Spanish: Título de Médico) is equivalent to the North American MD Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research. Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a doctorate in medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation.

Australia

Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their higher or honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorized as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.

The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs. As a result, various Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature. With the introduction of the Master's level MD, universities have also renamed their previous medical research doctorates. The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).

Austria

In Austria, medical studies (medicine or dentistry) take 6 years full-time. In medicine, the first two years comprise basic fields of medicine such as anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, physiology, etc., the next three years consist of all medical fields in the narrower sense with frequent bedside training and medical traineeships while the sixth and last year is dedicated solely to working in a clinic. After this, a specific 6-year training (e.g. in internal medicine, paediatrics, ENT, pathology) or 4 year (GP) can be started; without this training, working with patients is forbidden. There is no central placement test for said specialist training, only a board-registered spot as a resident/registrar is needed. As with all other studies in Austria, there is no tuition but compulsory students' insurance (approx. 38 € per year). A specific entrance exam (MedAT, Medizin-Aufnahmetest, medicine acceptance test) has to be taken but is open only once a year in summer; a fee of 110 € has to be paid. In 2019, 16.443 persons registered for the MedAT and 12.960 took the test. 1.680 university places for both medicine and dentistry are offered each year with 95% of all places for EU citizens and 75% for applicants with an Austrian higher education entrance qualification/GCE A-levels. Many Germans who are denied studying in their home country try to study medicine in Austria; hence this quota was introduced and approved by the EU as most of them leave upon graduation.

The title of "Doktor" is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ., Doctor medicinae universae, Dr. der gesamten Heilkunde = Dr. "of the entire art of healing") and dentists (Dr. med. dent., Doctor medicinae dentinae), who do not possess doctorate degrees, but Master's level 6 year-training, similar to the American MD or DDS. although they have to write a diploma thesis of approx. 50–100 pages. In former days the same title was connected to an official doctorate degree in connection with an older study regulation. The law has been changed in 2002. Some of which are published in peer-reviewed journals while others are not. A post-graduate research doctorate (Dr. scient. med., Dr. scientiae medicinae, or PhD) can be obtained after a three years post-graduate study at a medical university.

All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor ______", and the title is usually contracted to "Dr. ______". In many everyday-day settings in Austria, also outside the clinic, it is common to address medical doctors solely as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr./Ms./Mrs. doctor) without any specific family name (especially in rural areas and small villages, and by older people), and they are often viewed as the "real doctors". Among themselves, MDs don't use "doctor" as an appellation but just "Herr Kollege/Frau Kollegin" (Mr./Ms/Mrs. = "dear" colleague). Consistent use of "Doktor" when addressing another medical doctor is seen as confrontative and mockery.

Belgium

In the French-speaking part of Belgium, the medical degree awarded after six years of study is "Docteur en Médecine". Physicians would then have to register with the Ordre des Médecins to practice medicine in the country.

In Flanders, the medical degree awarded after six years of study is "Master in de geneeskunde". Physicians would then either have to do a three year internship to become a general practitioner or specialize.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a Faculty of Medicine ("medicinski fakultet") immediately after high school.

Bulgaria

At the end of the six-year medical programs from Bulgarian medical schools, medical students are awarded the academic degree Master/Magister in Medicine and the professional title Physician – Doctor of Medicine (MD / MA ).

Cambodia

After 6 years of general medical education (a foundation year plus 5 years), all students will graduate with a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc, Khmer: បរិញ្ញាប័ត្រ វិទ្យាសាស្រ្តវេជ្ជសាស្ត្រ), equivalent to Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). This degree does not allow graduates to work independently as a physician, but it is possible for those who wish to continue to master's degrees in other fields relating to medical sciences such as public health, epidemiology, biomedical science, and nutrition.

Medical graduates, who wish to be fully qualified as physicians or specialists must follow the process as below:

General Practitioner's (GP) course of 8 years (BMedSc plus a 2-year internship). Clinical rotation during the internship is modulated within four main disciplines (general medicine, surgery, gynecology, and pediatrics). The medical certification awarded is Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, Khmer: បណ្ឌិតវេជ្ជសាស្ត្រ ឬ វេជ្ជបណ្ឌិត) – equivalent to a master's degree [?].
After graduating with BMedSc; any students who wish to enter a 'Residency Training Program', are required to sit for an Residency Entrance Exam. The duration of the programs takes 4 years after either BMedSc or MD (BMedSc or MD plus 4 years of specialization). Once the graduates have successfully defended their practical thesis, they are awarded the Diploma of Specialized Doctor (MD with specialization, Khmer: សញ្ញាប័ត្រ៖ វេជ្ជបណ្ឌិតឯកទេស, lit. 'Professional Doctorate').

All medical graduates must complete a 'Thesis Defense' and pass the National Exit Exam (Khmer: ប្រឡងចេញថ្នាក់ជាតិក្នុងវិស័យសុខាភិបាល) to become either GPs or medical or surgical specialists. Last but importantly, those GPs or MDs have to register their name in the Cambodian Medical Committee (CMC) to receive the license to see patients, and pay for the registration every year.

Canada

In Canada, the M.D. is the degree required to practise medicine. Despite the name, the MD is considered to be equivalent to a bachelor's degree in Canada. Similar to the United States, students in Canada from English-speaking provinces must attain a bachelor's degree, then pass the MCAT at which point they move into the typical 4-year medical school curriculum. The notable exception is the French-speaking province of Quebec, where their special CEGEP post-secondary institutions don't grant a bachelor's degree, but instead College Education Diplomas (DECs). Students typically enroll in a 2-year Science Program such as Health Science, Pure & Applied, or Environmental (latter exclusive to CEGEP Dawson College) which lead into the one-year med-p at Quebec universities, where students catch up on what they need, at which point it resumes like any other province and students pass the 4-year curriculum. This in total means the path to graduation from medical school is one year shorter for Quebec students (7 as opposed to 8). McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada that continues to award the M.D., C.M. degrees (abbreviated M.D.C.M.). M.D.C.M. is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning "Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery". Upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Prior to obtaining an independent practising licence from a provincial regulatory body, students must complete the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination to obtain the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada (LMCC) qualification.

Chile

In Chile, medical education begins after graduating high-school, in public or private universities, which select candidates based on a national entrance exams (former University Selection Test, now in transition to a new selection test). Public universities and private universities cost around US$8,000–12,000 a year. In almost every university the career lasts for 7 years, the first two being basic sciences, then three years of preclinical studies, and ending with two years of supervised clinical practice (internship, or “internado”) both at hospitals and ambulatory centers. Upon graduation, students obtain the professional title "Médico Cirujano", equivalent to Doctor of Medicine (MD). After graduation every new physician must take the EUNACOM (National Exam of Medical Knowledge), which gives the ability to practise medicine in public establishments of primary or hospital care. The title enables the graduate to practice as a General Practitioner, and many of them may follow specialization studies in clinical or non-clinical fields. There is a national program of accreditation, mandatory to every Medicine School. In Chile, physicians receive the courtesy denomination of Doctor followed by their family name, even though in an academic environment the medical title isn't accepted as an equivalent to PhDs; regardless, at community and family level, and in day-to-day activities, they are often viewed as "real doctors".

China

In China, many prestigious research universities such as Peking Union Medical College, Peking University Health Science Center, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University offer the 8-year Doctor of Medicine program. In the meantime, the majority of primary medical training comes in the form of a 5-year Bachelor of Medicine degree, which includes 2.5 years of basic science and biomedical science training and 2.5 years of clerkship training. Graduates from such programs are eligible to sit for Medical Doctor License Examination in China providing they are working as resident physicians in a hospital. Many of the young doctors do seek further training by entering a 3-year Master of Medicine (clinical track) program or 5-year Doctor of Medicine (clinical track). Some take a job/promotion after the 3-year program and work for a number of years and then take on another 3 years of training to get the ultimate Doctor of Medicine degree.

Croatia

In Croatia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded to candidates who successfully completed six years of study in medicine and defended their graduate thesis (student's original research in clinical / preclinical medicine or life sciences). The title is legally awarded only upon the successful thesis exam (thesis defence) in the presence of a board of senior researchers and candidate's research mentor. It is not equivalent to "doktor znanosti" degree ("doctor scientiae", abbreviated "dr.sc."), which is equivalent to PhD.

Cuba

In Cuba, the title of "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor of Medicine) is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a University of Medical Sciences after high school. Medicine was one of the four foundational careers of the first Cuban university named Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Jeronimo de La Habana (current University of Havana) founded in 1728.

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, students are awarded the title MUDr. upon successfully passing set of State Examinations after six years of medical school composed of theoretical and clinical training.

Dominican Republic

In the Dominican Republic, it is known as "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor in Medicine). In 1511 the Spanish Catholic church founded the first university of the Americas in Santo Domingo present capital of modern-day Dominican Republic and name it Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino (today Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo). In 1630 this university graduated the first medical doctors of the Americas and amongst the graduates some Native Americans included.

Ecuador

In Ecuador, medical school begins after graduating high-school. There are two options; applying to public or private universities. Both private and public university select their candidates based on entrance exams. Public universities are free while private universities cost around US$6,000–12,000 a year. In most universities, the career lasts for 6 years. After graduating, students obtain a degree of “médico” or "médico cirujano", depending which one is offered by each university. Both degrees are equivalent to doctor of medicine (MD).

Estonia

In Estonia, there is only one university, The University of Tartu, with programs in medicine and dentistry. The program in medicine lasts for 6 years, including a one year clinical internship, and students are awarded Doctor of Medicine (MD) upon graduation. The degree is academically equivalent to a master's degree. After that, one can work either as a general practitioner or enter a residency program to become a specialized doctor. Residency usually lasts, depending on the field, three to five years, with surgical residencies usually being the longest (5 years).

France

After graduating from high school with a Baccalaureat, any student can register at a university of medicine (there are about 30 of them throughout the country). Until 2018, at the end of the first year, an internal ranking examination took place at each of these universities in order to implement the numerus clausus. This ranking examination and the numerus clausus has since been abolished. First year consists primarily of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology. Passing first year is generally considered very challenging, requiring hard and continuous work. Each student can only try twice. For example, the Université René Descartes welcomes about 2,000 students in the first year and only 300 after numerus clausus.

The second and third year are usually quite theoretical although the teachings are often accompanied by placements in the field (e.g., internships as nurses or in the emergency room, depending on the university).

During their fourth, fifth and sixth years, medical students get a special status called "externe" (In some universities, such as Pierre et Marie Curie, the externe status is given beginning in the third year). They work as interns every morning at the hospital plus a few night shifts a month and study in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between three and four months and takes place in a different department. Med students get five weeks off a year.

At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a national ranking exam, which will determine their specialty. The first student gets to choose first, then the second, etcetera. Usually, students work hard during the fifth and sixth years in order to train properly for the national ranking exam. During these years, actual practice at the hospital and in conjunction with some theoretical courses are meant to balance the training. Such externs' average wage stands between 100 and 300 euros a month.

After taking those ranking exams, students can start as residents in the specialty they have been able to pick. That is the point from which they also start getting paid.

Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis, no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis. At the conclusion of the thesis defense, French medical students receive a State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, French: diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médecine). Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (DES, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées) to mark their specialty. Some students may also receive a Diploma of Complementary Specialized Studies (DESC, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées complémentaires).

Georgia

In Georgia, medical universities in Georgia offer a 6-year curriculum leading to award Doctor of Medicine (MD) "Physician" "Medical Doctor (MD), a European medical degree which is valid throughout the world. Some of the reputed medical universities include Batumi State University, Tbilisi State Medical University, Akaki Tsereteli State University and Petre Shotadze Tbilisi Medical Academy.

Germany

The University of Freiburg Faculty of Medicine

After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam (Dritter Abschnitt der ärztlichen Prüfung). Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician (Arzt). About 60% of them additionally obtain the academic degree Doctor of Medicine (Dr. med.). The European Research Council ruled in 2010 that a medical doctorate alone is not considered equivalent to a PhD research degree for the purpose of selection for ERC Starting Grants, requiring additional evidence (e.g., proof of an appointment that requires doctoral equivalency, such as a post-doctoral fellowship) for the overall training to be considered equivalent to a PhD.

Guyana

In Guyana, Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree is awarded after the completion of 4 years or 5 years of study. Texila American University, Green Heart University, American International School of Medicine, Alexander American University, Lincoln American University provides medicine programs.

Hungary

In Hungary, after six years of medical school, which includes a sixth-year internship, students are awarded the degree of 'okleveles orvosdoktor' (Doctor of Medicine) degrees.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, the title of "dokter" (dr.) is awarded after 3–3.5 years of study (at least) and 1.5–2 years of clinical course in university hospitals. After a medical student finished those five years of study, they need to take "Uji Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter" (UKMPPD). If they pass the test, they can take Hippocrates Oath and the title of Dokter (dr.) is entitled before their name. Then they need to take a year-long internship course in primary health care clinics (also known as Puskesmas) or primary hospitals all over the country to practice as general practitioner under supervision of senior doctors. Those who wished to further their study into specialties can take graduate course of medicine of their preference and will be entitled with "Specialist of ..." after their name (e.g.: Sp.A for Spesialis Anak = Pediatrician). A graduate course of medicine is equal with a residency program. It requires the candidates to study for four years followed by an internship in a hospital. Note that "dr." is used for medical graduates, while Dr. (or wrongfully DR.), that is Doktor, is used for PhD holders.

Iran

In Iran, Medical education begins after high school. No pre-med course or BSc degree is required. The eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam being held every year throughout the country. The entry to medical school is competitive and only students with the highest rank are accepted into medical program. The primary medical degree is completed in 7–7.5 years. On the final years (last 1–2 years) medical students need to do a research on a medical topic and provide thesis as part of their trainings. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the "Ministry of Health and Medical Education of Iran". All physicians will obtain license and medical council registration number from the "Medical Council of Iran" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications.

Israel

There are six university medical schools in Israel, including the Technion in Haifa, Ben Gurion University in Be'er Sheva, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the medical school of the Bar-Ilan University in Safed, and Ariel University. They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University and Ariel University, which has a four-year program similar to the US system. However, as of 2009, Tel Aviv University has introduced a four-year program similar to the US system for students with a bachelor's degree in certain biological sciences. The entrance requirements of the various schools of medicine are very strict. Israeli students require a high school Baccalaureate average above 100 and psychometric examination grade over 740, which corresponds to the 99th percentile. Candidates achieving these demanding cognitive requirements are then selected according to their ranking in the Mor and Mirkam MMI personality tests. Approximately 30% of applicants pass the Mor and Mirkam tests and are accepted into medical school. The demand for medical education is strong and growing, and there is a lack of doctors in Israel. The Technion Medical School, Ben Gurion University, and Tel Aviv University Sackler Faculty of Medicine offer 4-year MD programs for American students who have American college degrees and have taken the MCAT interested in completing rigorous medical education in Israel before returning to the US or Canada. In Israel, the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) is considered to be equivalent to a master's degree academically and legally.

Italy

In Italy, before the Bologna process, the degree of "Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia" (literally Doctor in Medicine and Surgery, from the Latin Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae) is awarded after completion of at least six years of study and clinical training in a university and after the submission of a thesis, that consists of original research.

However, spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform instituted in 1999 to align University programmes with the more universal system of undergraduate (bachelor's degree) and postgraduate studies (master's and doctoral degrees) and as such the degree of 'Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia' is no longer offered and was replaced with the 'Laurea Magistrale in Medicina e Chirurgia' (Master of Medicine and Surgery). In this context, the new Laurea Magistrale a ciclo unico in Medicina e Chirurgia is a six-year second cycle degree, equivalent to a master's degree (360 ECTS credits) which can be earned in a six-year programme and requires a scientific research thesis. Consequently, the new medical degrees in Italy is considered to be equivalent to a Master's degree academically and legally.

Latvia

In Latvia, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (ārsta diploms or M.D.). This degree is done full time and earns you 240 credits or 360 ECTS. The level acquired by this degree at the Latvian Qualifications Framework is similar to (EQF) level which is at is Level 7 and at the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) level is also Level 7. These levels indicate this qualification to be Masters level which is contrary to what North American M.D. is since it is considered a higher standing Bachelor or 1st Professional degree.

Lithuania

In Lithuania, the duration of basic medical education is six years and leads to the Doctor of Medicine degree (Aukštojo mokslo diplomas, nurodantis suteiktą gydytojo kvalifikaciją or M.D.). This degree is considered a Masters of Health Science degree.

Malaysia

In Malaysia, there are two types of MDs, one being for a basic medical degree while the other being a doctoral degree, depending on the awarding universities. The basic medical degree MDs (Similar to the MBBS awarded by other local universities) are awarded by both private and public universities, mostly are trained as a undergraduate 5-year course, however, with the establishment of Perdana University, it became the first university in Malaysia to provide a 4-year graduate entry course. Examples of universities in Malaysia offering the M.D degree are University Sains Malaysia, National University of Malaysia, University Putra Malaysia, UCSI University, etc. MDs are being awarded as a doctoral degree in public universities such as University of Malaya.

Philippines

In the Philippines, the MD is a first professional degree in medicine. To be accepted in Philippine medical schools, one must have finished a college degree before one can proceed to have a medical education. It is attained by either completing a 4-year degree or a 5-year degree (with internship included) from an accredited institution private and public Medical School by the Association of Philippine Medical Colleges and the Commission on Higher Education. The MD degree does not permit the practice of medicine but qualifies the degree-holder to apply for registration to the Professional Regulatory Commission. Registration to the commission through completion of internship and examinations will grant the privilege of practicing medicine in the Philippines. Moreover, the licensed Physician has the option to proceed for medical specialization and the taking of diplomate board examinations conducted by the respective board of medical specialists in a particular field.

Poland

In Poland the title of lekarz (physician, medical doctor) or "lek." is granted after completing a 6-year medical program (students apply to it directly after graduating high school). Many medical schools in Poland also offer medicine programs in English, which award the Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. In contrast, a higher doctoral academic research degree in medicine resembling a PhD is named "dr n. med." or doktor nauk medycznych (Doctor of Medical Sciences). Specialization is valued similarly to a specialization in the English system. It is not a pre-requisite for a "dr n. med." which is an academic, not a professional title in Poland.

Romania

Romanian medical programs last for 6 years (including clinical practice), which is the long-cycle first professional degree and concludes with a final licensing examination (licența), based on the dissertation of the student's original research. The degree awarded is 'Doctor-Medic' and graduates are entitled to use the title "Dr."

Russia

Medical universities in Russia offer a six-year curriculum leading to award a professional graduate degree, called qualification (degree) [ru] of "specialist" (Diploma of Specialist; in medicine, Diploma of Physician (Doctor of Medicine)).

Whereas, the title of Doctor of Medical Sciences (Russian: доктор медицинских наук, "doktor medicinskikh nauk" abbreviated д. м. н.) is a higher research doctoral degree, which may be earned after the Candidate of Medical Sciences (the latter is informally regarded in Russia as equivalent to the Ph.D.).

Serbia

In Serbia, MD degree is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a School of Medicine immediately after high school, after which a six month residency followed a national exam has to be completed in order to complete the degree.

Singapore

The American Duke University has a medical school based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Medical School), and follows the North-American model of styling its first professional degree "Doctor of Medicine" ("MD"), consid. By contrast, the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore confers MB BS as the first professional degree.

Slovakia

Slovakia's medical education is offered at 4 medical schools in the country. Two of them are faculties of the Comenius University Jessenius School of Medicine in Martin,and there is a second medical school in Bratislava Slovak Medical University in Bratislava (SZU) while the fourth one is the Pavol Josef Šafarik University in Košice. Both the Jessenius School of Medicine and the Faculty of Medicine in Košice have several international students. The Jessenius School of Medicine has almost a thousand international students, most from Norway.

Admission to the medical schools is based on entrance examination that can be undergone once a year. The program is a 6-year program in general medicine with a strictly preclinical and clinical division. The preclinical years are the two first, and are purely theoretical. They consist of subjects such as cell biology, genetics, biophysics, medical chemistry, anatomy, biochemistry, histology, embryology and so on. From the third year onwards, the study is integrated with practical learning at the faculty's associated teaching hospital, including major multi-year subjects such internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, etc. In the sixth and final year, the student must pass four final state examinations and defend a self-composed thesis in order to graduate with a professional doctorate granting them the title of MUDr. for practicing in Slovakia or the Czech Republic or MD when practicing outside of Slovakia.

Slovenia

In Slovenia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at one of the two Slovenian Faculties of Medicine ("medicinska fakulteta") in Ljubljana or Maribor. Studying at these faculties is only possible if the student has finished a gymnasium/grammar school ("gimnazija") with a general diploma called "splošna matura".

South Korea

In South Korea, there is a Medical Doctor (MD) license.

The medical educations in South Korea (Republic of Korea) are 6 or 4 years in duration, 6-year courses starting right after high schools, and 4-year course starting after 4-year's university education (to start the 4-year course, the student needs a bachelor's degree). The first 2 years in the 6-year system is composed of basic sciences and liberal art courses.

Taiwan

In Taiwan, the MD is a first awarded professional degree that goes up and beyond the limits of upper education.

Tanzania

In Tanzania, MD is the first awarded degree and takes 5 years of medical school, plus a sixth-year internship, students are awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD). The popular medical school in country includes Muhimbili University of health and allied sciences (MUHAS), The University of Dodoma- School of Medicine and Dentistry (UDOM) and Catholic University of health and allied sciences (CUHAS)

After undergraduate studies the students then pursue residency or termed as Master of Medicine for 3 or 4 or 5 depending on the speciality they are interested after that the students is awarded Master of Medicine degree which they can further go on to do Superspecialities for 2 more years and after that do fellowship

Thailand

The Thai medical education follows the 6-year European system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training. Upon graduation, all medical students must pass national medical licensing examinations and a university-based comprehensive test. After medical school, newly graduated doctors are under contract to spend a year of internship and 2 years of tenure in rural areas before they are eligible for any other residency positions or specialized training. The students will receive Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. However, the degree is equivalent to master's degree in Thailand. Specialty training after the MD degree requires at least 4–6 years residency program in the training university hospitals and must pass the board examination. Board-certified specialized degree is equivalent to doctorate degree.

Tunisia

In Tunisia, education is free for all Tunisian citizens and for foreigners who have scholarships. The oldest Medical school is a faculty of the University of Tunis. There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir. Admission is bound to the success and score in the baccalaureate examination. Admission score threshold is very high, based on competition among all applicants throughout the nation. Medical school curriculum consists of six years. The first two years are medical theory (PCEM), containing all basic sciences related to medicine, and the last four years (DCEM) consists of clinical issues related to all medical specialties. During these last four years, the student gets the status of "Externe". The student has to attend at the university hospital every day, rotating around all wards. Every period is followed by a clinical exam regarding the student's knowledge in that particular specialty. After those five years, there are two years on internship, in which the student is a physician but under the supervision of the chief doctor; the student rotates over the major and most essential specialties during period of four months each. After that, student has the choice of either passing the residency national exam or extending his internship for another year, after which he gains the status of family physician. The residency program consists of four to five years in the specialty he qualifies, depending on his score in the national residency examination under the rule of highest score chooses first. Whether the student chooses to be a family doctor or a specialist, he has to write a doctoral thesis, which he will be defending in front of a jury, after which he gains his degree of Docteur d'état en Medecine (MD).

Turkey

In Turkey, the title of "Tıp Doktoru" (literally "Doctor of Medicine") is awarded upon completion of six years continuous study started with five years university education include three years basic sciences, two years clinical courses followed by one year of internship in university hospitals. The internal structure and methodology of training vary among universities; however vertical integration between basic and clinical sciences and horizontal integration between disciplines have become more prevalent approaches as well as student oriented practices. Regardless of the university, the whole program is equivalent to a combined degree of bachelors and masters, thus every students graduates with a master's degree. The graduates, becoming Doctors of Medicine, are eligible to practice general medicine through state assigned slots, start residency training through a state exam called "TUS"(short for "Tıpta Uzmanlık Sınavı"), or apply for a PhD program in a relevant field.

Ukraine

In Ukraine, by 2018, graduates of the school with completed secondary education that have coped with the relevant exams (in the disciplines designated by these universities) in the nationwide system for assessing graduates' knowledge – EIT (Ukrainian: ЗНО, External independent testing) based on the rating – may be admitted to the Medical Universities.

Ukrainian medical universities offer a 6-year curriculum, which should end with the passing of the State Complex Examination. The graduate receives the Diploma of the State Standard with the title "Specialist Diploma", which specifies a specialty and qualification (for example, "Physician"), or "Magister's Diploma" also of a state standard. After that, the graduate according to the rating division (at the university) is required to undergo a practical internship course (working as a doctor under the supervision of an experienced doctor) with a duration of 2 to 3 years, in the corresponding specialty. Successful completion of internship implies that an intern passes an examination on a specialty, including testing and receives a certificate of a specialist physician of the Ministry of Health, which is a formal permission for practical activity.

Thus, the American MD and the Ukrainian Physician have identical titles. On the other hand, the colloquial (not official terminology) Doctor of Medicine means that a Physician with a higher education successfully defended his thesis, after a 2-year postgraduate course and corresponding term of research (Candidate of Medical Sciences before 2015, or Ph.D. after 2015 – till 2020), which is closer to the English system of degrees.

United States

In the United States, the M.D. awarded by medical schools is a professional doctorate (as opposed to the Doctor of Philosophy degree which requires a focus on research) and is accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), an independent body sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Medical Association (AMA).

In addition to the M.D., the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) is an equivalent professional doctoral degree for physicians and surgeons offered by medical schools in the United States. According to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of M.D. physicians, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and certification."

Admission to medical school in the United States is highly competitive, and in the United States there were 21,869 matriculants to medical school out of 53,371 applicants (≈41%) in 2019. Before entering medical school, students are required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT); however, some combined undergraduate-medical programs exist. Before graduating from a medical school and being awarded the Doctor of Medicine degree, students are required to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and the clinical knowledge Step 2 exam. As of 2020, the requirement of the Clinical Skills portion of the Step 2 exam was removed. The MD degree is typically earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. In order to receive board eligible or board accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, physicians undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or infectious diseases then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years.

Even though the M.D. is a professional degree and not a research doctorate (i.e., a Ph.D.), many holders of the M.D. degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation; an academic physician whose work emphasizes basic research is called a physician-scientist. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting an MD-PhD. The National Institutes of Health (NIH), through its Medical Scientist Training Program, funds M.D.-Ph.D. training programs at many universities. Some M.D.s choose a research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the M.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.

Venezuela

After graduating from high school in Venezuela students can apply for federal appointment to a six-year medical program within a university. Only Public Universities offer this degree in Venezuela. Any student can apply for federal appointment by Ministry of Higher Education. So that, the student is allowed to register at university and follow a medical program. This a six-year program divided within three cycles. First cycle: Theory and lectures (1–2), second cycle: pre-clinical training (3–4) and third cycle: clinical training (5–6).

First year consists mainly of theoretical classes. however there are practical experiences since first day in laboratories and institutes, such as biochemistry, anatomy which includes lectures and teaching sessions with cadavers in dissection tables, molecular biology, histology, embryology and many others general subjects.

The second year is mainly theoretical, although most teaching sessions take place in laboratories. After completing these years the student know how the human body is and how it works. Also, any extrinsic agent that can modify its functions. There is also Medical Exercise demonstration which included guided visit to primarily care centers during a complete semester or year-round depending on universities.

During third year medical students start studying pharmacology, pathology and physical examination. Passing successfully first, second and third year is commonly considered a filter, almost half of previously admitted students leave voluntarily.

The fourth year medical students enter on the field starting to visit hospitals and healthcare services. This is called Pre-Clinical Cycle were they acquire deep knowledge about clinical examination visiting specialized units such as Internal Medicine, Trauma and orthopedics, surgery and gynecology and obstetrics. They start to be member of a medical team. Every morning at the hospital, plus one night shifts per week, and lectures in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between six and four months and takes place in a different department.

The fifth and sixth year are very similar but this time they applied their previously earned clinical knowledge and skills starting to follow patients independently. At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a highly supervised medical practice examination in an unserved outpatient center or specialized hospital in order to earn the degree. During these years, there is training at the hospital almost exclusively. Very little theoretical courses are meant to balance the training. Once completed they earn a university degree and a title granted by the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela as "Medical Surgeon" this is considered equivalent to a M.D degree.

There is also a five years program the "Médico Integral Comunitario" title and degree granted by newly created universities and headed by Cuban nationals from the Cuba – Venezuela cooperation agreements. This program has been subject of controversy in the country over the legitimacy of the Cuban doctors' licensure for teaching and practice medicine.

After graduation, recently graduate doctors acquire the right to use Dr. before their names but still must follow a one-year exercise in the countryside or a two years training in a specialized hospital. So that, They can be enabled to practice medicine with a full licence in Venezuela and the right to work as a medical doctor, generally as a general practitioner (Artículo 8). That is the point from which they also start getting paid.

They can follow specialized studies which usually last between 3 or 5 years depending on specialization and furthermore a Doctorate degree for relevant research and a Thesis, which usually take three or more years.

Postgraduate clinical degrees

Bhutan

In Bhutan, a medical doctor who completes 4 to 5 years of medical school is awarded with MBBS or Dr.title by their respective universities ( usually from universities in Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Bangladesh). Upon recognition by Bhutan Health and Medical council, they work as medical doctor in country. M.D title is usually given to those who completes 3 to 4 years of residency for specialised course like surgery, medicine pediatrics, etc.

India

The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (undergraduate) level of training required to be licensed as a physician (other degrees in alternative medicine are present like BAMS, BHMS, BSMS etc.) and the MS or MD degree is a postgraduate degree, representative of speciality training. The equivalent training in the US or Canada would be the completion of a medical (post-graduate) degree. Eligibility for the MS or MD course is restricted to medical graduates holding the MBBS degree.

The MBBS course is for five and a half years, and training imparted is as follows:

Pre-clinical (Anatomy, Physiology, and Biochemistry)
Para-clinical (Pathology, Microbiology, Pharmacology, Forensic Medicine and Community Medicine)
Clinical (Ophthalmology, Otorhinolaryngology, General Medicine, General Surgery, Pediatrics and Obstetrics/Gynecology; with speciality rotations such as Orthopaedics, Radiology, Pulmonary Medicine, Psychiatry, Dermatology, Anesthesiology and Dentistry)

After five and a half years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature such as Physiology, Pharmacology, Internal Medicine, Pediatrics, Pathology, Psychiatry, Microbiology] the candidate receives a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree, whereas in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a surgical nature (e.g. Anatomy, General Surgery, Orthopaedics, Obstetrics/Gynaecology, Ophthalmology), the candidate receives the equivalent degree Master of Surgery (MS). The Doctor of Medicine awarded by Medical Universities in India and regulated by Medical Council of India are doctorate level qualification incorporating high level specialist clinical training, research and teaching. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in medical subjects is a research doctorate level qualification and could be done under supervision of a guide who is MD qualified from India (rather than PhD) and usually doesnot involve direct clinical work or teaching of scholars of that specialty. Scope for PhD in medical subjects is very limited in India as all faculty appointments mostly (except for some pre-clinical subjects) require a person to hold MD/MS in their respective specialties rather than a PhD.

A second alternate qualification termed DNB (Diplomate of National Board), is considered equivalent to the MD and MS degrees. However, the DNB is not awarded by Medical Universities and thus is not a doctorate level qualification. It can be obtained by passing the exam conducted by the National Board of Examinations after completing 3 years of post-MBBS residency training in teaching hospitals recognised by the board but not necessarily by the Medical Council. The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Mumbai (established in 1912) also awards higher postgraduate qualifications in clinical and pre-clinical specialities, called FCPS (Fellowship of CPS); it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva. The FCPS is representative of speciality clinical training, and equivalent to MD/MS/DNB/PhD Medical in Medical Doctorate in other parts of the world. Until 2007, the Government of India and the Medical Council of India recognised the FCPS qualification – since then, this is being done by State Medical Councils.

After obtaining the first postgraduate degree, that is MD/MS/FCPS/DNB/PhD Medical, one can go for further specialisation in medical or surgical fields. This involves a highly competitive entrance examination. This course has three years of additional training and requires the submission of a dissertation (thesis). This is also considered a clinical doctorate as the focus is on preparing a super-specialist with adequate clinical as well as research training. After the dissertation is approved and the exit examination (theory and practical) is cleared, the degree awarded is DM (Doctor of Medicine), PhD Medical . Based on the specific field of training, the degree awarded is DM in Cardiac Anaesthesia, Cardiology, Neurology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, Neuroradiology, Critical Care, Pulmonology, Hematology, Medical Oncology, Clinical Pharmacology, Pediatric Critical Care, Pediatric Neurology, Neonataology, Pediatric Gastroenterology, Neuroanaesthesia, etc. For surgical superspecialities the degree awarded is MCh (Magister Chirurgiae), like MCh in Cardio-thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Endocrine Surgery, Neurosurgery, Surgical Gastroenterology, Urology, Plastic Surgery, Pediatric Surgery etc. DM and MCh are the clinical equivalent of a doctorate degree just like MD degree. The holders of DM who also hold a MD degree thus have two doctorate degrees one in broad specialty and the other in its subspecialty. A third alternate qualification is DNB (superspecialties), offered by National Board of Examinations, like DNB in Cardiology, Neurology, Cardiac Surgery, Neurosurgery.

Following DM or MCh, one can also go for postdoctoral fellowship programs of one-year duration in specific subspecialties like Cardiac Electrophysiology, Invasive cardiology, Pediatric cardiology, Epilepsy, stroke, electroencephalography, movement disorders, neuromuscular disorders, cerebrovascular surgery, skull base surgery, neurocritical care, pediatric cardiac surgery etc. offered by prestigious government institutes and abroad.

The National Board of Examinations also awards the DNB degree for 6 year integrated surgical courses in specialties of Neurosurgery, Cardio-thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Pediatric Surgery and Plastic surgery. The residency period lasts 6 years post MBBS and thus alleviates the need to undergo a 3-year residency in General Surgery.

Pakistan

In Pakistan MBBS is the undergraduate degree. The MD is a higher doctorate, awarded by medical universities based on successful completion of a residency program of four to six years' duration in a university hospital. Many universities are offering MD. Parallel to MD, MS is a higher doctorate awarded on successful completion of four to six years' duration of a residency program in surgical field.

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, the MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree that is awarded by the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after completion of a postgraduate course, examinations and speciality training. The MD degree in Sri Lanka is representative of specialty training in clinical, para clinical, and preventive medicine (e.g., general medicine, cardiology, nephrology, oncology, para clinical such as microbiology, haematology and preventive such as community medicine). Entry for the MD course is open only for medical graduates holding the MBBS degree (with a duration of five and a half years), and training is obtained in medical disciplines that are non-surgical in nature (e.g., internal medicine, radiology, pathology, etc.) After three or four years of study and the successful completion of an examination with written as well as cases and via examinations, the MD degree in the respective field of study is awarded. In community medicine and medical administration, part I examination consists of a theoretical exam while the degree is conferred after completion of a thesis as a PhD. This thesis has to be completed within a period of five years. After successfully defending the academic thesis, the MD degree is conferred to the candidate. The MD degree holder is certified as a board certified specialist by the respective board of study of the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after he or she undergoes 2–4 years of local and foreign training depending on the specialty/subspecialty selected.

Research degrees

United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries

The entry-level first professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChB). This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree. Due to the UK code for higher education, first degrees in medicine comprise an integrated programme of study and professional practice spanning several levels. These degrees may retain, for historical reasons, "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" and are abbreviated to MBChB, MBBS or BMBS.

In the UK, Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, the MD is a postgraduate research degree in medicine. At most universities, this takes the form of a first doctorate, analogous to the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a thesis and a successful viva. The thesis may consist of new research undertaken on a full- or part-time basis, with much less supervision (in the UK) than for a Ph.D., or a portfolio of previously published work.

In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree from a UK or Commonwealth University one must hold either a "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" (MBBS, MBChB, BMBS for example) degree, or an equivalent U.S.-MD degree and must usually have at least five years of postgraduate experience. Therefore, graduates from the MBBS/MBChB/BMBS degrees do not hold doctorates; however, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as "doctor" as they are fully licensed as medical practitioners. In some commonwealth nations, these interns are designated as "house officers".

Traditionally, the MD in the UK and Commonwealth was a higher doctorate (similar to a DSc) awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research. Many universities have now changed its status, but this has happened only recently: for example, the University of Cambridge in 2012 introduced a new higher degree of MedScD (more akin to the ScD degree) awarded on the basis of a career's contribution to the science or art of medicine, while redesignating the MD as an initial research doctorate awarded on the basis of a thesis. Oxford, which had changed the regulations for the MD degree to bring it more in line with initial doctorates in 2002, removed its status as a higher doctorate after a review in 2016. Some Commonwealth institutions retain the MD as a higher degree, such as the relatively new James Cook University.

In the case where the MD is awarded (either as a first or higher doctorate) for previously published research, the candidate is usually required to be either a graduate or a full-time member of staff, of several years' standing of the university in question.

Equivalent degrees in other countries

In Belgian medical education, in the first three years, which are theoretical in nature and lead to a university bachelor's degree, general scientific courses are taken such as chemistry, biophysics, physiology, biostatistics, anatomy, virology, etc. To enter the bachelor course in Flanders, prospective students have to pass an exam, as a result of the numerus clausus. After the bachelor courses, students are allowed to enter the 'master in medicine' courses, which consist of three years of theoretical and clinical study. In general, the first two master years are theoretical and teach the students human pathology, diseases and pharmacology. The third year consists of internships in a wide range of specialities in different clinics. The seventh, final year serves as a kind of 'pre-specialization' year in which the students are specifically trained in the specialty they wish to pursue after medical school.
In Bangladesh, the basic medical degree is the MBBS. After completing the intermediate level of education (12 years) the candidate must undergo 5 years of medical training in any medical college to achieve the MBBS degree. After obtaining the degree, the candidate needs to undergo one year of internship to obtain BMDC (Bangladesh medical and dental council) accreditation in order to practice in the country.
In mainland China, some medical schools award MBBS to foreign students while all medical schools award Bachelor of Medicine to nationals. Some MD degrees are higher academic research degrees.
In Colombia, the medicine faculties of the universities awards the title of "Medico Cirujano" after taking 12 semesters of studies on "all clinic and surgery discipline a two semester on internship. After receiving the degree there is a mandatory year "obliged social work" were the doctors practice as GP in the countryside. Residency programs last between 3–4 years depends on the specialty.
The Czech and Slovak title MUDr. (Medicinae Universae doctor or doktor medicíny) is a professional doctorate granted upon completion of six years pregraduate Master's study at medical schools. The postgraduate academic research degree in medicine is a PhD degree.
The Danish and Norwegian Candidatus medicinae or Candidata medicinae degrees (cand. med.) is awarded after completing a six-year medical programme, to which students apply directly upon finishing secondary school. The programme usually includes a small thesis. However, the cand. med. degree must not be confused with the previous Danish and Norwegian Dr. Med. degree, which is a separate degree from the Ph.D. and represents a higher degree of medical research experience. It typically consists of at least 5–6 original publications.
In Finland, the duration of basic medical education is six years and the course leads to the degree of Licentiate of Medicine.
In Greece, after a six-year study, a medical student acquires his medical degree and the right to use "Δρ.", (Dr.) before his name. This is considered equivalent to the MD title.
In Kosovo, there are medical high schools. Students from elementary school can choose to attend the medical high school, which lasts 3 years. When they finish the 3 years of medical high school, they practice for 4 months. After that, they can be a nurse or they can go to medical facilities in Pristina, with the education there taking around 6 years, including practice, to become a doctor.
In Mexico and Peru, schools of medicine award the "Título de Médico Cirujano" degree after completing either six or seven years of study. This curriculum includes a rotating internship year and a year of social service providing care to an underserved community.
In Nepal, a MBBS degree is awarded. This is an undergraduate level degree, which is awarded after completion of four and half years of medical school followed by one year of clinical internship. Most medical schools also offer postgraduate M.D and M.S. degrees, which requires three years of further training. Post-doctorate D.M. and M.Ch. terminal degrees are awarded by a few elite institutions after three more years of super-speciality training.
In the Netherlands, medical students receive six years of university education prior to their graduation. Prospective students can apply for medical education directly after finishing the highest level of secondary school, vwo; previous undergraduate education is not a precondition for admittance. Medical students receive three years of preclinical training, followed by three years of clinical training (co-assistentschappen, or co-schappen) in hospitals. At one medical faculty (Utrecht University), clinical training already begins in the third year of medical school. After 6 years, students graduate as basisartsen (non-specialized physicians). As a result of the Bologna process, medical students in the Netherlands receive a bachelor's degree (BSc) after successfully concluding three years of medical university curriculum, and a master's degree (MSc) upon graduation. After graduation, physicians may choose to apply for and complete a research doctorate, earning them a PhD in Medicine. In international communication, Dutch medical graduates may identify themselves as MD. Whilst this title is neither officially awarded nor regulated in the Netherlands, its use is legally permitted.
In Portugal, to practice medicine, a master's degree in medicine (awarded after a 6-year Integrated master's program in medicine) is mandatory. Before the 2007 Bologna Process, the same course was only a Licentiate Degree. After the 6-year program, students must go through the National Seriation Exam (Prova Nacional de Seriação), and then a year of General Medical Internship (Ano Comum). When the internship ends, the students are placed in their choice of Medical Specialty, according to their ranking in the aforementioned Exam and the vacancies available for each medical specialty. Only when each student finishes the Medical Internship, will they be allowed to practice medicine without supervision. Entry to the Integrated Masters Program in Medicine is done directly after high school, based on the student's grade – each year there are about 1800 new Medical Students in Portugal, in 8 different Medical Schools.
In Sudan the awarded degree in most of the medical schools is, Bachelor of Medicine and Basic Surgery (MBBS). In schools that are based on the English system of medical teaching, the degree is granted after six years of studying. As for the schools that are adopting the American system, they grant their students the degree of MBBS in only five years.
In Sweden, medical education begins with a five-and-a-half-year undergraduate university program including the successful completion of examinations, which includes both theoretical and practical elements. Depending upon university, a research thesis must also be completed during this time. This leads to the degree "Master of Science in Medicine" (Swedish: Läkarexamen). Following this, the National Board of Health and Welfare requires a minimum of 18 months of clinical internship (Swedish: AT (Allmäntjänstgöring)) before granting a medical license (Swedish: Läkarlegitimation) to be fully qualified as the Swedish equivalent to Medical Doctor (MD). This internship consists of surgery (3–6 months), internal medicine (3–6 months), psychiatry (three months) and family medicine (six months). Upon receiving a license to practice, a physician is able to apply for a post to start specialist training. There are currently 52 recognised medical specialties in Sweden. The specialist training (Swedish: ST (Specialiseringstjänstgöring)) has a duration of minimum five years, which upon completion grants formal qualification as a specialist.

Aristotle's biology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology

Historia animalium, one of Aristotle's books on biology. A 12th century manuscript.

Among Aristotle's many observations of marine biology was that the octopus can change colour when disturbed.

Aristotle's biology is the theory of biology, grounded in systematic observation and collection of data, mainly zoological, embodied in Aristotle's books on the science. Many of his observations were made during his stay on the island of Lesbos, including especially his descriptions of the marine biology of the Pyrrha lagoon, now the Gulf of Kalloni. His theory is based on his concept of form, which derives from but is markedly unlike Plato's theory of Forms.

The theory describes five major biological processes, namely metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, embryogenesis, and inheritance. Each was defined in some detail, in some cases sufficient to enable modern biologists to create mathematical models of the mechanisms described. Aristotle's method, too, resembled the style of science used by modern biologists when exploring a new area, with systematic data collection, discovery of patterns, and inference of possible causal explanations from these. He did not perform experiments in the modern sense, but made observations of living animals and carried out dissections. He names some 500 species of bird, mammal, and fish; and he distinguishes dozens of insects and other invertebrates. He describes the internal anatomy of over a hundred animals, and dissected around 35 of these.

Aristotle's writings on biology, the first in the history of science, are scattered across several books, forming about a quarter of his writings that have survived. The main biology texts were the History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, Progression of Animals, Parts of Animals, and On the Soul, as well as the lost drawings of The Anatomies which accompanied the History.

Apart from his pupil, Theophrastus, who wrote a matching Enquiry into Plants, no research of comparable scope was carried out in ancient Greece, though Hellenistic medicine in Egypt continued Aristotle's inquiry into the mechanisms of the human body. Aristotle's biology was influential in the medieval Islamic world. Translation of Arabic versions and commentaries into Latin brought knowledge of Aristotle back into Western Europe, but the only biological work widely taught in medieval universities was On the Soul. The association of his work with medieval scholasticism, as well as errors in his theories, caused Early Modern scientists such as Galileo and William Harvey to reject Aristotle. Criticism of his errors and secondhand reports continued for centuries. He has found better acceptance among zoologists, and some of his long-derided observations in marine biology have been found in modern times to be true.

Context

Aristotle spent some 20 years at Plato's academy in Athens.

Aristotle's background

Aristotle (384–322 BC) studied at Plato's Academy in Athens, remaining there for about 20 years. Like Plato, he sought universals in his philosophy, but unlike Plato he backed up his views with detailed and systematic observation, notably of the natural history of the island of Lesbos, where he spent about two years, and the marine life in the seas around it, especially of the Pyrrha lagoon in the island's centre. This study made him the earliest scientist whose written work survives. No similarly detailed work on zoology was attempted until the sixteenth century; accordingly Aristotle remained highly influential for some two thousand years. He returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lycaeum, where he taught for the last dozen years of his life. His writings on zoology form about a quarter of his surviving work. Aristotle's pupil Theophrastus later wrote a similar book on botany, Enquiry into Plants.

Aristotelian forms

Aristotle argued by analogy with a woodcarving that a thing takes its form both from its design and from the material used.

Aristotle's biology is constructed on the basis of his theory of form, which is derived from Plato's theory of Forms, but significantly different from it. Plato's Forms were eternal and fixed, being "blueprints in the mind of God". Real things in the world could, in Plato's view, at best be approximations to these perfect Forms. Aristotle heard Plato's view and developed it into a set of three biological concepts. He uses the same Greek word, εἶδος (eidos), to mean first of all the set of visible features that uniquely characterised a kind of animal. Aristotle used the word γένος (génos) to mean a kind. For example, the kind of animal called a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood.

Aristotle further noted that there are many bird forms within the bird kind – cranes, eagles, crows, bustards, sparrows, and so on, just as there are many forms of fishes within the fish kind. He sometimes called these atoma eidē, indivisible forms. Human is one of these indivisible forms: Socrates and the rest of us are all different individually, but we all have human form.

Finally, Aristotle observed that the child does not take just any form, but is given it by the parents' seeds, which combine. These seeds thus contain form, or in modern terms information. Aristotle makes clear that he sometimes intends this third sense by giving the analogy of a woodcarving. It takes its form from wood (its material cause); the tools and carving technique used to make it (its efficient cause); and the design laid out for it (its eidos or embedded information). Aristotle further emphasises the informational nature of form by arguing that a body is compounded of elements like earth and fire, just as a word is compounded of letters in a specific order.

System

Soul as system

The structure of the souls of plants, animals, and humans, according to Aristotle, where humans are unique in having all three types of soul.

As analysed by the evolutionary biologist Armand Leroi, Aristotle's biology included five major interlocking processes:

a metabolic process, whereby animals take in matter, change its qualities, and distribute these to use to grow, live, and reproduce
a cycle of temperature regulation, whereby animals maintain a steady state, but which progressively fails in old age
an information processing model whereby animals receive sensory information, alter it in the seat of sensation, and use it to drive movements of the limbs. He thus separated sensation from thought, unlike all previous philosophers except Alcmaeon.
the process of inheritance.
the processes of embryonic development and of spontaneous generation

The five processes formed what Aristotle called the soul: it was not something extra, but the system consisting exactly of these mechanisms. The Aristotelian soul died with the animal and was thus purely biological. Different types of organism possessed different types of soul. Plants had a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth. Animals had both a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation. Humans, uniquely, had a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.

Processes

Metabolism

Metabolism: Leroi's open system model. Food is converted to the body's uniform parts and excreted residues.

Aristotle's account of metabolism sought to explain how food was processed by the body to provide both heat and the materials for the body's construction and maintenance. The metabolic system for live-bearing tetrapods described in the Parts of Animals can be modelled as an open system, a branching tree of flows of material through the body.

The system worked as follows. The incoming material, food, enters the body and is concocted into blood; waste is excreted as urine, bile, and faeces, and the element fire is released as heat. Blood is made into flesh, the rest forming other earthy tissues such as bones, teeth, cartilages and sinews. Leftover blood is made into fat, whether soft suet or hard lard. Some fat from all around the body is made into semen.

All the tissues are in Aristotle's view completely uniform parts with no internal structure of any kind; a cartilage for example was the same all the way through, not subdivided into atoms as Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 BC) had argued. The uniform parts can be arranged on a scale of Aristotelian qualities, from the coldest and driest, such as hair, to the hottest and wettest, such as milk.

At each stage of metabolism, residual materials are excreted as faeces, urine, and bile.

Temperature regulation

Temperature regulation: Leroi's model based on Youth and Old Age, Life and Death 26.

Aristotle's account of temperature regulation sought to explain how an animal maintained a steady temperature and the continued oscillation of the thorax needed for breathing. The system of regulation of temperature and breathing described in Youth and Old Age, Life and Death 26 is sufficiently detailed to permit modelling as a negative feedback control system (one that maintains a desired property by opposing disturbances to it), with a few assumptions such as a desired temperature to compare the actual temperature against.

The system worked as follows. Heat is constantly lost from the body. Food products reach the heart and are processed into new blood, releasing fire during metabolism, which raises the blood temperature too high. That raises the heart temperature, causing lung volume to increase, in turn raising the airflow at the mouth. The cool air brought in through the mouth reduces the heart temperature, so the lung volume accordingly decreases, restoring the temperature to normal.

The mechanism only works if the air is cooler than the reference temperature. If the air is hotter than that, the system becomes a positive feedback cycle, the body's fire is put out, and death follows. The system as described damps out fluctuations in temperature. Aristotle however predicted that his system would cause lung oscillation (breathing), which is possible given extra assumptions such as of delays or non-linear responses.

Information processing

Information processing: Leroi's "centralized incoming and outgoing motions model" of an animal's "sensitive soul"; the heart is the seat of perception.

Aristotle's information processing model has been named the "centralized incoming and outgoing motions model". It sought to explain how changes in the world led to appropriate behaviour in the animal.

The system worked as follows. The animal's sense organ is altered when it detects an object. This causes a perceptual change in the animal's seat of sensation, which Aristotle believed was the heart (cardiocentrism) rather than the brain. This in turn causes a change in the heart's heat, which causes a quantitative change sufficient to make the heart transmit a mechanical impulse to a limb, which moves, moving the animal's body. The alteration in the heat of the heart also causes a change in the consistency of the joints, which helps the limb to move.

There is thus a causal chain which transmits information from a sense organ to an organ capable of making decisions, and onwards to a motor organ. In this respect, the model is analogous to a modern understanding of information processing such as in sensory-motor coupling.

Inheritance

Inheritance: model of transmission of movements from parents to child, and of form from the father. The model is not fully symmetric.

Aristotle's inheritance model sought to explain how the parents' characteristics are transmitted to the child, subject to influence from the environment.

The system worked as follows. The father's semen and the mother's menses have movements that encode their parental characteristics. The model is partly asymmetric, as only the father's movements define the form or eidos of the species, while the movements of both the father's and the mother's uniform parts define features other than the form, such as the father's eye colour or the mother's nose shape.

Aristotle's theory has some symmetry, as semen movements carry maleness while the menses carry femaleness. If the semen is hot enough to overpower the cold menses, the child will be a boy; but if it is too cold to do this, the child will be a girl. Inheritance is thus particulate (definitely one trait or another), as in Mendelian genetics, unlike the Hippocratic model which was continuous and blending.

The child's sex can be influenced by factors that affect temperature, including the weather, the wind direction, diet, and the father's age. Features other than sex also depend on whether the semen overpowers the menses, so if a man has strong semen, he will have sons who resemble him, while if the semen is weak, he will have daughters who resemble their mother.

Embryogenesis

Embryogenesis: Aristotle saw the chick embryo's heart beating. 19th century drawing by Peter Panum

Aristotle's model of embryogenesis sought to explain how the inherited parental characteristics cause the formation and development of an embryo.

The system worked as follows. First, the father's semen curdles the mother's menses, which Aristotle compares with how rennet (an enzyme from a cow's stomach) curdles milk in cheesemaking. This forms the embryo; it is then developed by the action of the pneuma (literally, breath or spirit) in the semen. The pneuma first makes the heart appear; this is vital, as the heart nourishes all other organs. Aristotle observed that the heart is the first organ seen to be active (beating) in a hen's egg. The pneuma then makes the other organs develop.

Method

Aristotle has been called unscientific by philosophers from Francis Bacon onwards for at least two reasons: his scientific style, and his use of explanation. His explanations are in turn made cryptic by his complicated system of causes. However, these charges need to be considered in the light of what was known in his own time. His systematic gathering of data, too, is obscured by the lack of modern methods of presentation, such as tables of data: for example, the whole of History of Animals Book VI is taken up with a list of observations of the life histories of birds that "would now be summarized in a single table in Nature – and in the Online Supplementary Information at that".

Scientific style

Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.

Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures, such as (in Generation of Animals) finding a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opening it so as to be able to see the embryo's heart inside.

Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.

From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.

Mechanism and analogy

Aristotle used the analogy of the movement of water through a porous pot (an oenochoe shown) to help explain biological processes as mechanisms.

Aristotle's use of explanation has been considered "fundamentally unscientific". The French playwright Molière's 1673 play The Imaginary Invalid portrays the quack Aristotelian doctor Argan blandly explaining that opium causes sleep by virtue of its dormitive [sleep-making] principle, its virtus dormitiva. Argan's explanation is at best empty (devoid of mechanism), at worst vitalist. But the real Aristotle did provide biological mechanisms, in the form of the five processes of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, embryonic development, and inheritance that he developed. Further, he provided mechanical, non-vitalist analogies for these theories, mentioning bellows, toy carts, the movement of water through porous pots, and even automatic puppets.

Complex causality

Readers of Aristotle have found the four causes that he uses in his biological explanations opaque, something not helped by many centuries of confused exegesis. For a biological system, these are however straightforward enough. The material cause is simply what a system is constructed from. The goal (final cause) and formal cause are what something is for, its function: to a modern biologist, such teleology describes adaptation under the pressure of natural selection. The efficient cause is how a system moves and develops: to a modern biologist, those are explained by developmental biology and physiology. Biologists continue to offer explanations of these same kinds.

Empirical research

Map of Lesbos by Giacomo Franco [es] (1597). The lagoon near Kalloni (labelled "Calona") where Aristotle studied marine zoology is in the centre of the island.

Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.

His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods including the octopus, cuttlefish and paper nautilus. His claim that the octopus had a hectocotyl arm which was perhaps used in sexual reproduction was widely disbelieved, until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (roughly, the modern zoologist's selachians).

Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac).

Among many other things, he gave accurate descriptions of the four-chambered stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the dogfish. His accounts of about 35 animals are sufficiently detailed to convince biologists that he dissected those species, indeed vivisecting some; he mentions the internal anatomy of roughly 110 animals in total.

Classification

The khalkeus (John Dory) was one of the many fish named by Aristotle.

Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and fishes in History of Animals and Parts of Animals. His system of classification, one of the earliest in scientific taxonomy, was influential for over two thousand years. Aristotle distinguished animals with blood, Enhaima (the modern zoologist's vertebrates) and animals without blood, Anhaima (invertebrates).

Aristotle's *Scala naturae* (highest to lowest)
Group	Examples (given by Aristotle)	Blood	Legs	Soul (Rational, Sensitive, Vegetative)	Qualities (Hot–Cold, Wet–Dry)
Man	Man	with blood	2 legs	R, S, V	Hot, Wet
Live-bearing tetrapods	Cat, hare	with blood	4 legs	S, V	Hot, Wet
Cetaceans	Dolphin, whale	with blood	none	S, V	Hot, Wet
Birds	Bee-eater, nightjar	with blood	2 legs	S, V	Hot, Wet, except Dry eggs
Egg-laying tetrapods	Chameleon, crocodile	with blood	4 legs	S, V	Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
Snakes	Water snake, Ottoman viper	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet except scales, eggs
Egg-laying fishes	Sea bass, parrotfish	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet, including eggs
(Among egg-laying fishes): placental selachians	Shark, skate	with blood	none	S, V	Cold, Wet, but placenta like tetrapods
Crustaceans	Shrimp, crab	without	many legs	S, V	Cold, Wet except shell
Cephalopods	Squid, octopus	without	tentacles	S, V	Cold, Wet
Hard-shelled animals	Cockle, trumpet snail	without	none	S, V	Cold, Dry (mineral shell)
Larva-bearing Insects	Ant, cicada	without	6 legs	S, V	Cold, Dry
Spontaneously-generating	Sponges, worms	without	none	S, V	Cold, Wet or Dry, from earth
Plants	Fig	without	none	V	Cold, Dry
Minerals	Iron	without	none	none	Cold, Dry

Animals with blood included live-bearing tetrapods, Zōiotoka tetrapoda (roughly, the mammals), being warm, having four legs, and giving birth to their young. The cetaceans, Kētōdē, also had blood and gave birth to live young, but did not have legs, and therefore formed a separate group (megista genē, defined by a set of functioning "parts"). The birds, Ornithes had blood and laid eggs, but had only 2 legs and were a distinct form (eidos) with feathers and beaks instead of teeth, so they too formed a distinct group, of over 50 kinds. The egg-bearing tetrapods, Ōiotoka tetrapoda (reptiles and amphibians) had blood and four legs, but were cold and laid eggs, so were a distinct group. The snakes, Opheis, similarly had blood, but no legs, and laid dry eggs, so were a separate group. The fishes, Ikhthyes, had blood but no legs, and laid wet eggs, forming a definite group. Among them, the selachians Selakhē (sharks and rays), had cartilages instead of bones.

Animals without blood were divided into soft-shelled Malakostraka (crabs, lobsters, and shrimps); hard-shelled Ostrakoderma (gastropods and bivalves); soft-bodied Malakia (cephalopods); and divisible animals Entoma (insects, spiders, scorpions, ticks). Other animals without blood included fish lice, hermit crabs, red coral, sea anemones, sponges, starfish and various worms: Aristotle did not classify these into groups.

Scale of being

Aristotle reported correctly that electric rays were able to stun their prey.

Aristotle stated in the History of Animals that all beings were arranged in a fixed scale of perfection, reflected in their form (eidos). They stretched from minerals to plants and animals, and on up to man, forming the scala naturae or great chain of being. His system had eleven grades, arranged according to the potentiality of each being, expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals gave birth to warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. The system was based on Aristotle's interpretation of the four elements in his On Generation and Corruption: Fire (hot and dry); Air (hot and wet); Water (cold and wet); and Earth (cold and dry). These are arranged from the most energetic to the least, so the warm, wet young raised in a womb with a placenta were higher on the scale than the cold, dry, nearly mineral eggs of birds. However, Aristotle is careful never to insist that a group fits perfectly in the scale; he knows animals have many combinations of attributes, and that placements are approximate.

Influence

On Theophrastus

Aristotle's pupil and successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, the first classical book of botany. It has an Aristotelian structure, but rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus described how plants functioned. Where Aristotle expanded on grand theories, Theophrastus was quietly empirical. Where Aristotle insisted that species have a fixed place on the scala naturae, Theophrastus suggests that one kind of plant can transform into another, as when a field sown to wheat turns to the weed darnel.

On Hellenistic medicine

After Theophrastus, though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology resumed. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.

On Islamic zoology

Many classical works including those of Aristotle were transmitted from Greek to Syriac, then to Arabic, then to Latin in the Middle Ages. Aristotle remained the principal authority in biology for the next two thousand years. The Kitāb al-Hayawān (كتاب الحيوان, Book of Animals) is a 9th-century Arabic translation of History of Animals: 1–10, On the Parts of Animals: 11–14, and Generation of Animals: 15–19.

Albertus Magnus commented extensively on Aristotle's zoology, adding more of his own.

The book was mentioned by Al-Kindī (d. 850), and commented on by Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) in his Kitāb al-Šifā (کتاب الشفاء, The Book of Healing). Avempace (Ibn Bājja) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) commented on On the Parts of Animals and Generation of Animals, Averroes criticising Avempace's interpretations.

On medieval science

When the Christian Alfonso VI of Castile retook the Kingdom of Toledo from the Moors in 1085, an Arabic translation of Aristotle's works, with commentaries by Avicenna and Averroes emerged into European medieval scholarship. Michael Scot translated much of Aristotle's biology into Latin, c. 1225, along with many of Averroes's commentaries. Albertus Magnus commented extensively on Aristotle, but added his own zoological observations and an encyclopedia of animals based on Thomas of Cantimpré. Later in the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas merged Aristotle's metaphysics with Christian theology. Whereas Albert had treated Aristotle's biology as science, writing that experiment was the only safe guide and joining in with the types of observation that Aristotle had made, Aquinas saw Aristotle purely as theory, and Aristotelian thought became associated with scholasticism. The scholastic natural philosophy curriculum omitted most of Aristotle's biology, but included On the Soul.

On Renaissance science

Dürer's Rhinoceros in Konrad Gessner's Historia Animalium, 1551

Renaissance zoologists made use of Aristotle's zoology in two ways. Especially in Italy, scholars such as Pietro Pomponazzi and Agostino Nifo lectured and wrote commentaries on Aristotle. Elsewhere, authors used Aristotle as one of their sources, alongside their own and their colleagues' observations, to create new encyclopedias such as Konrad Gessner's 1551 Historia Animalium. The title and the philosophical approach were Aristotelian, but the work was largely new. Edward Wotton similarly helped to found modern zoology by arranging the animals according to Aristotle's theories, separating out folklore from his 1552 De differentiis animalium.

Early Modern rejection

Galileo's champion-figure Salviati convinces Sagredo and defeats the Aristotelian Simplicio, in his 1632 Dialogue

In the Early Modern period, Aristotle came to represent all that was obsolete, scholastic, and wrong, not helped by his association with medieval theology. In 1632, Galileo represented Aristotelianism in his Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo (Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems) by the strawman Simplicio ("Simpleton"). That same year, William Harvey proved Aristotle wrong by demonstrating that blood circulates.

Aristotle still represented the enemy of true science into the 20th century. Leroi noted that in 1985, Peter Medawar stated in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".

19th century revival

Zoologists working in the 19th century, including Georges Cuvier, Johannes Peter Müller, and Louis Agassiz admired Aristotle's biology and investigated some of his observations. D'Arcy Thompson translated History of Animals in 1910, making a classically-educated zoologist's informed attempt to identify the animals that Aristotle names, and to interpret and diagram his anatomical descriptions.

Darwin quoted a passage from Aristotle's Physics II 8 in The Origin of Species, which entertains the possibility of a selection process following the random combination of body parts. However, Aristotle immediately rejected the possibility, and he was in any case discussing ontogeny, the Empedoclean coming into being of an individual from component parts, not phylogeny and natural selection. Darwin considered Aristotle the most important early contributor to biological thought. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle".

20th and 21st century interest

Elephant swimming, using its trunk as a snorkel, as Aristotle stated

Zoologists have frequently mocked Aristotle for errors and unverified secondhand reports. However, modern observation has confirmed one after another of his more surprising claims, including the active camouflage of the octopus and the ability of elephants to snorkel with their trunks while swimming.

Aristotle remains largely unknown to modern scientists, though zoologists are perhaps most likely to mention him as "the father of biology"; the MarineBio Conservation Society notes that he identified "crustaceans, echinoderms, mollusks, and fish", that cetaceans are mammals, and that marine vertebrates could be either oviparous or viviparous, so he "is often referred to as the father of marine biology". The evolutionary zoologist Armand Leroi has taken an interest in Aristotle's biology.The concept of homology began with Aristotle, and the evolutionary developmental biologist Lewis I. Held commented that

The deep thinker who would be most amused by .. deep homologies is Aristotle, who was fascinated by the natural world but bewildered by its inner workings.

Works

Aristotle did not write anything that resembles a modern, unified textbook of biology. Instead, he wrote a large number of "books" which, taken together, give an idea of his approach to the science. Some of these interlock, referring to each other, while others, such as the drawings of The Anatomies are lost, but referred to in the History of Animals, where the reader is instructed to look at the diagrams to understand how the animal parts described are arranged.

Aristotle's main biological works are the five books sometimes grouped as On Animals (De Animalibus), namely, with the conventional abbreviations shown in parentheses:

History of Animals, or Inquiries into Animals (Historia Animalium) (HA)
Generation of Animals (De Generatione Animalium) (GA)
Movement of Animals (De Motu Animalium) (DM)
Parts of Animals (De Partibus Animalium) (PA)
Progression of Animals or On the Gait of Animals (De Incessu Animalium) (IA)

together with On the Soul (De Anima) (DA).

In addition, a group of seven short works, conventionally forming the Parva Naturalia ("Short treatises on Nature"), is also mainly biological:

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