From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Microplastics
in sediments from four rivers in Germany. Note the diverse shapes
indicated by white arrowheads. (The white bars represent 1 mm for
scale.)
Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European Chemicals Agency. They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial processes.
The term macroplastics is used to differentiate
microplastics from larger plastic waste, such as plastic bottles. Two
classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary
microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are
already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment. These
include microfibers from clothing, microbeads, and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles).
Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of
larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after
entering the environment. Such sources of secondary microplastics
include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave
containers, tea bags and tire wear. Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.
35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily
due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often
during the washing process. However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems.
Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years), microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain.
In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to
reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms.
The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are not
fully known, but research is currently underway to investigate the
phenomenon. Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the
presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention
of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in
surface sample ocean surveys. Microplastics have also been found in the high mountains, at great distances from their source.
Microplastics have also been found in human blood, though their effects are largely unknown.
Classification
Microplastic fibers identified in the marine environment
Photodegraded green plastic bag adjacent to hiking trail in about 2,000 pieces of 1 to 25 mm size after three months' exposure outdoors
The term "microplastics" was introduced in 2004 by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom.
Microplastics are common in our world today. In 2014, it was
estimated that there are between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of
microplastic in the world's oceans, which was estimated to weigh
between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons.
Primary microplastics
Polyethylene based microspherules in toothpaste
a)
Artificial turf football field with ground tire rubber (GTR) used for
cushioning. b) Microplastics from the same field, washed away by rain,
found in nature close to a stream.
Primary microplastics are small pieces of plastic that are purposefully manufactured. They are usually used in facial cleansers and cosmetics, or in air blasting technology. In some cases, their use in medicine as vectors for drugs was reported. Microplastic "scrubbers", used in exfoliating hand cleansers and facial scrubs, have replaced traditionally used natural ingredients, including ground almond shells, oatmeal, and pumice. Primary microplastics have also been produced for use in air blasting technology. This process involves blasting acrylic, melamine, or polyester
microplastic scrubbers at machinery, engines, and boat hulls to remove
rust and paint. As these scrubbers are used repeatedly until they
diminish in size and their cutting power is lost, they often become
contaminated with heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, and lead.
Although many companies have committed to reducing the production of
microbeads, there are still many bioplastic microbeads that also have a
long degradation life cycle similar to normal plastic.
Secondary microplastics
Secondary
plastics are small pieces of plastic derived from the breakdown of
larger plastic debris, both at sea and on land. Over time, a culmination
of physical, biological, and chemphotodegradation, including photo-oxidation
caused by sunlight exposure, can reduce the structural integrity of
plastic debris to a size that is eventually undetectable to the naked
eye. This process of breaking down large plastic material into much smaller pieces is known as fragmentation.
It is considered that microplastics might further degrade to be smaller
in size, although the smallest microplastic reportedly detected in the
oceans at present is 1.6 micrometres (6.3×10−5 in) in diameter. The prevalence of microplastics with uneven shapes suggests that fragmentation is a key source.
Other sources: as a by-product/dust emission during wear and tear
There are countless sources of both primary and secondary microplastics. Microplastic fibers enter the environment from the washing of synthetic clothing. Tires, composed partly of synthetic styrene-butadiene
rubber, will erode into tiny plastic and rubber particles as they are
used. Furthermore, 2.0-5.0 mm plastic pellets, used to create other
plastic products, often enter ecosystems due to spillages and other accidents.
A Norwegian Environment Agency review report about microplastics published in early 2015
states it would be beneficial to classify these sources as primary, as
long as microplastics from these sources are added from human society
since the "start of the pipe", and their emissions are inherently a
result of human material and product use and not secondary
defragmentation in the nature.
Nanoplastics
Depending on the definition used, nanoplastics are less than 1 μm (i.e. 1000 nm) or less than 100 nm in size.
Speculations over nanoplastics in the environment range from it being a
temporary byproduct during the fragmentation of microplastics to it
being an invisible environmental threat at potentially high and
continuously rising concentrations. The presence of nanoplastics in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre has been confirmed and recent developments in Raman spectroscopy coupled with optical tweezers (Raman Tweezers) as well as nano-fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (nano-FTIR) or atomic force infrared (AFM-IR)
are promising answers in the near future regarding the nanoplastic
quantity in the environment. Fluorescence could represent a unique tool
for the identification and quantification of nanoplastics, since it
allows the development of fast, easy, cheap, and sensitive methods.
Nanoplastics are thought to be a risk to environmental and human
health. Due to their small size, nanoplastics can cross cellular
membranes and affect the functioning of cells. Nanoplastics are
lipophilic and models show that polyethylene nanoplastics can be
incorporated into the hydrophobic core of lipid bilayers.
Nanoplastics are also shown to cross the epithelial membrane of fish
accumulating in various organs including the gall bladder, pancreas, and
the brain. Little is known on adverse health effects of nanoplastics in organisms including humans. In zebrafish, polystyrene
nanoplastics can induce a stress response pathway altering glucose and
cortisol levels, which is potentially tied to behavioral changes in
stress phases.
In Daphnia, polystyrene nanoplastic can be ingested by the freshwater
cladoceran Daphnia pulex and affect its growth and reproduction as well
as induce stress defense, including the ROS production and
MAPK-HIF-1/NF-κB-mediated antioxidant system.
Sources
Most microplastic pollution comes from textiles, tires and city dust which account for over 80% of all microplastic in the environment. The existence of microplastics in the environment is often established through aquatic studies. These include taking plankton samples, analyzing sandy and muddy sediments, observing vertebrate and invertebrate consumption, and evaluating chemical pollutant interactions. Through such methods, it has been shown that there are microplastics from multiple sources in the environment.
Microplastics could contribute up to 30% of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch polluting the world's oceans and, in many developed countries, are a bigger source of marine plastic pollution than the visible larger pieces of marine litter, according to a 2017 IUCN report.
Car and truck tires
Wear and tear from tires significantly contributes to the flow of
(micro-)plastics into the environment. Estimates of emissions of
microplastics to the environment in Denmark are between 5,500 and 14,000 tonnes (6,100 and 15,400 tons)
per year. Secondary microplastics (e.g. from car and truck tires or
footwear) are more important than primary microplastics by two orders of
magnitude. The formation of microplastics from the degradation of
larger plastics in the environment is not accounted for in the study.
The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to
4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. The emissions from
car tires (wear reaching 100%) are substantially higher than those of
other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tires (2%), artificial
turf (wear 12–50%), brakes (wear 8%), and road markings (wear 5%). In
the case of road markings, recent field study indicated that they were
protected by a layer of glass beads and their contribution was only
between 0.1 and 4.3 g/person/year,
which would constitute approximately 0.7% of all of the secondary
microplastics emissions; this value agrees with some emissions
estimates.
Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage
systems. The relative contribution of tire wear and tear to the total
global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be
5–10%. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM2.5)
is estimated to consist of tire wear and tear, indicating that it may
contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been
projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in
2012. Pollution from tire wear and tear also enters the food chain, but
further research is needed to assess human health risks.
Clothing
Studies have shown that many synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon, acrylics, and spandex, can be shed from clothing and persist in the environment. Each garment in a load of laundry can shed more than 1,900 fibers of microplastics, with fleeces releasing the highest percentage of fibers, over 170% more than other garments. For an average wash load of 6 kilograms (13 lb), over 700,000 fibers could be released per wash.
Washing machine
manufacturers have also reviewed research into whether washing machine
filters can reduce the amount of microfiber fibers that need to be
treated by sewage treatment facilities.
These microfibers have been found to persist throughout the food chain from zooplankton to larger animals such as whales.
The primary fiber that persist throughout the textile industry is
polyester which is a cheap cotton alternative that can be easily
manufactured. However, these types of fibers contribute greatly to the
persistence to microplastics in terrestrial, aerial, and marine
ecosystems. The process of washing clothes causes garments to lose an
average of over 100 fibers per liter of water. This has been linked with health effects possibly caused by the release of monomers, dispersive dyes, mordants, and plasticizers
from manufacturing. The occurrence of these types of fibers in
households has been shown to represent 33% of all fibers in indoor
environments.
Textile fibers have been studied in both indoor and outdoor
environments to determine the average human exposure. The indoor
concentration was found to be 1.0–60.0 fibers/m3, whereas the outdoor concentration was much lower at 0.3–1.5 fibers/m3. The deposition rate indoors was 1586–11,130 fibers per day/m3 which accumulates to around 190-670 fibers/mg of dust.
The largest concern with these concentrations is that it increases
exposure to children and the elderly, which can cause adverse health
effects.
Cosmetics industry
Some companies have replaced natural exfoliating ingredients with microplastics, usually in the form of "microbeads" or "micro-exfoliates". These products are typically composed of polyethylene, a common component of plastics, but they can also be manufactured from polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and nylon. They are often found in face washes, hand soaps, and other personal care products; the beads are usually washed into the sewage
system immediately after use. Their small size prevents them from fully
being retained by preliminary treatment screens at wastewater plants,
thereby allowing some to enter rivers and oceans.
In fact, wastewater treatment plants only remove an average of 95–99.9%
of microbeads because of their small design . This leaves an average of
0–7 microbeads per litre being discharged.
Considering that one treatment plant discharges 160 trillion liters of
water per day, around 8 trillion microbeads are released into waterways
every day.
This number does not account for the sewage sludge that is reused as
fertilizer after the waste water treatment that has been known to still
contain these microbeads.
Although many companies have committed to phasing out the use of
microbeads in their products, according to research, there are at least
80 different facial scrub products that are still being sold with
microbeads as a main component.
This contributes to the 80 metric tons of microbead discharge per year
by the United Kingdom alone, which not only has a negative impact upon
the wildlife and food chain, but also upon levels of toxicity, as
microbeads have been proven to absorb dangerous chemicals such as
pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The restriction proposal by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and reports by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
and TAUW suggest that there are more than 500 microplastic ingredients
that are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products.
Even when microbeads are removed from cosmetic products, there
are still harmful products being sold with plastics in them. For
example, acrylates copolymers cause toxic effects for waterways and
animals if they are polluted. Acrylate copolymers also can emit styrene monomers when used in body products which increases a person's chances of cancer.
Countries like New Zealand which have banned microbeads often pass over
other polymers such as acrylates copolymer, which can be just as toxic
to people and the environment.
Fishing industry
Recreational and commercial fishing, marine vessels,
and marine industries are all sources of plastic that can directly
enter the marine environment, posing a risk to biota both as
macroplastics, and as secondary microplastics following long-term
degradation. Marine debris observed on beaches also arises from beaching of materials carried on inshore and ocean currents. Fishing gear
is a form of plastic debris with a marine source. Discarded or lost
fishing gear, including plastic monofilament line and nylon netting (sometimes called ghost nets), is typically neutrally buoyant
and can, therefore, drift at variable depths within the oceans. Various
countries have reported that microplastics from the industry and other
sources have been accumulating in different types of seafood. In Indonesia, 55% of all fish species had evidence of manufactured debris similar to America which reported 67%.
However, the majority of debris in Indonesia was plastic, while in
North America the majority was synthetic fibers found in clothing and
some types of nets. The implication from the fact that fish are being
contaminated with microplastic is that those plastics and their
chemicals will bioaccumulate in the food chain.
One study analyzed the plastic-derived chemical called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the stomachs of short-tailed shearwaters. It found that one-fourth of the birds had higher-brominated congeners
that are not naturally found in their prey. However, the PBDE got into
the birds' systems through plastic that was found in the stomachs of the
birds. It is therefore not just the plastics that are being transferred
through the food chain but the chemicals from the plastics as well.
Manufacturing
The manufacture of plastic products uses granules and small resin
pellets as their raw material. In the United States, production
increased from 2.9 million pellets in 1960 to 21.7 million pellets in
1987.
In 2019, plastic world production was 368 million tonnes; 51% were
produced in Asia. China, the world's largest producer, created 31% of
the world total. Through accidental spillage during land or sea transport, inappropriate use as packing materials, and direct outflow from processing plants, these raw materials can enter aquatic ecosystems. In an assessment of Swedish waters using an 80 µm mesh, KIMO Sweden found typical microplastic concentrations of 150–2,400 microplastics per m3; in a harbor adjacent to a plastic production facility, the concentration was 102,000 per m3.
Many industrial sites in which convenient raw plastics are
frequently used are located near bodies of water. If spilled during
production, these materials may enter the surrounding environment,
polluting waterways. "More recently, Operation Cleansweep, a joint initiative of the American Chemistry Council and Society of the Plastics Industry, is aiming for industries to commit to zero pellet loss during their operations".
Overall, there is a significant lack of research aimed at specific
industries and companies that contribute to microplastics pollution.
Packaging and shipping
Shipping has significantly contributed to marine pollution.
Some statistics indicate that in 1970, commercial shipping fleets
around the world dumped over 23,000 tons of plastic waste into the
marine environment. In 1988, an international agreement (MARPOL 73/78,
Annex V) prohibited the dumping of waste from ships into the marine
environment. In the United States, the Marine Plastic Pollution Research
and Control Act of 1987 prohibits discharge of plastics in the sea,
including from naval vessels. However, shipping remains a dominant source of plastic pollution, having contributed around 6.5 million tons of plastic in the early 1990s. Research has shown that approximately 10% of the plastic found on the beaches in Hawaii are nurdles.
In one incident on July 24, 2012, 150 tonnes of nurdles and other raw
plastic material spilled from a shipping vessel off the coast near Hong Kong after a major storm. This waste from the Chinese company Sinopec was reported to have piled up in large quantities on beaches.
While this is a large incident of spillage, researchers speculate that
smaller accidents also occur and further contribute to marine
microplastic pollution.
Personal protective equipment
Face masks
Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the usage of medical face masks has sharply increased to reach approximately 89 million masks each.
Single use face masks are made from polymers, such as polypropylene,
polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, polycarbonate,
polyethylene, or polyester. The increase in production, consumption, and
littering of face masks was added to the list of environmental
challenges, due to the addition of plastic particles waste in the
environment. After degrading, disposable face masks could break down
into smaller size particles (under 5mm) emerging a new source of
microplastic.
A report made in February 2020 by Oceans Asia, an organization
committed to advocacy and research on marine pollution, confirms "the
presence of face masks of different types and colors in an ocean in Hong
Kong".
Plastics
Bottled water
In
one study, 93% of the bottled water from 11 different brands showed
microplastic contamination. Per liter, researchers found an average of
325 microplastic particles.
Of the tested brands, Nestlé Pure Life and Gerolsteiner bottles
contained the most microplastic with 930 and 807 microplastic particles
per liter (MPP/L), respectively.
San Pellegrino products showed the least quantity of microplastic
densities. Compared to water from taps, water from plastic bottles
contained twice as much microplastic. Some of the contamination likely
comes from the process of bottling and packaging the water.
Baby bottles
Newborn drinks milk from a baby bottle
In 2020 researchers reported that polypropylene infant feeding bottles
with contemporary preparation procedures were found to cause
microplastics exposure to infants ranging from 14,600 to 4,550,000
particles per capita per day in 48 regions. Microplastics release is
higher with warmer liquids and similar with other polypropylene products
such as lunchboxes. Unexpectedly, silicone rubber
baby bottle nipples degrade over time from repeated steam
sterilization, shedding micro- and nano-sized particles of silicone
rubber, researchers found in 2021. They estimated that, using such
heat-degraded nipples for a year, a baby will ingest more than 660,000
particles.
Single-use plastic products
Conventional paper coffee cups release many nanoplastics into water.
Common single-use plastic products – such as paper coffee cups
that are lined with a thin plastic film inside – release trillions of
microplastic-nanoparticles per liter into water during normal use. Single-use plastic products enter aquatic environments and "Local and statewide policies that reduce single-use plastics were identified as effective legislative actions that
communities can take to address plastic pollution".
Sewage treatment plants
Sewage treatment
plants, also known as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), remove
contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage, using
various physical, chemical, and biological processes. Most plants in developed countries have both primary and secondary treatment
stages. In the primary stage of treatment, physical processes are
employed to remove oils, sand, and other large solids using conventional
filters, clarifiers, and settling tanks. Secondary treatment uses biological processes involving bacteria and protozoa to break down organic matter. Common secondary technologies are activated sludge systems, trickling filters, and constructed wetlands. The optional tertiary treatment stage may include processes for nutrient removal (nitrogen and phosphorus) and disinfection.
Microplastics have been detected in both the primary and
secondary treatment stages of the plants. A groundbreaking 1998 study
suggested that microplastic fibers would be a persistent indicator of
sewage sludges and wastewater treatment plant outfalls.
A study estimated that about one particle per liter of microplastics
are being released back into the environment, with a removal efficiency
of about 99.9%.
A 2016 study showed that most microplastics are actually removed during
the primary treatment stage where solid skimming and sludge settling
are used.
When these treatment facilities are functioning properly, the
contribution of microplastics into oceans and surface water environments
from WWTPs is not disproportionately large.
Sewage sludge is used for soil fertilizer in some countries,
which exposes plastics in the sludge to the weather, sunlight, and other
biological factors, causing fragmentation. As a result, microplastics
from these biosolids often end up in storm drains and eventually into
bodies of water. In addition, some studies show that microplastics do pass through filtration processes at some WWTPs.
According to a study from the UK, samples taken from sewage sludge
disposal sites on the coasts of six continents contained an average one
particle of microplastic per liter. A significant amount of these
particles was of clothing fibers from washing machine effluent.
Effects on the environment
According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism
in 2019, microplastics are now present in every part of the
environment. While there is no evidence of widespread ecological risk
from microplastic pollution yet, risks are likely to become widespread
within a century if pollution continues at its current rate.
Participants at the 2008 International Research Workshop on the
Occurrence, Effects and Fate of Microplastic Marine Debris at the University of Washington at Tacoma concluded that microplastics are a problem in the marine environment, based on:
- the documented occurrence of microplastics in the marine environment,
- the long residence times of these particles (and, therefore, their likely buildup in the future), and
- their demonstrated ingestion by marine organisms.
So far, research has mainly focused on larger plastic items. Widely
recognized problems facing marine life are entanglement, ingestion, suffocation
and general debilitation often leading to death and/or strandings. This
causes serious public concern. In contrast, microplastics are not as
conspicuous, being less than 5 mm, and are usually invisible to the
naked eye. Particles of this size are available to a much broader range
of species, enter the food chain at the bottom, become embedded in
animal tissue, and are then undetectable by unaided visual inspection.
Furthermore, consequences of plastic degradation and pollution
release over long term have mostly been overlooked. The large amounts of
plastic currently in the environment, exposed to degradation, but that
has many more years of decay and release of toxic compounds to follow is
referred to as toxicity debt.
Microplastics have been detected not just in marine but also in
freshwater systems including marshes, streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers
in (Europe, North America, South America, Asia and Australia). Samples collected across 29 Great Lakes
tributaries from six states in the United States were found to contain
plastic particles, 98% of which were microplastics ranging in size from
0.355mm to 4.75mm.
Biological integration into organisms
Microplastics
can become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or
respiration. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (Arenicola marina), have been shown to have microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tracts. Many crustaceans, like the shore crab Carcinus maenas, have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts.
Plastic particles are often mistaken by fish for food which can block
their digestive tracts sending incorrect feeding signals to the brains
of the animals. New research revealed, however, that fish ingest microplastics inadvertently rather than intentionally.
Representation of the exposure of marine life to microplastics
Some coral such as Pocillopora verrucosa have also been found to ingest microplastics.
It can take up to 14 days for microplastics to pass through an animal
(as compared to a normal digestion period of 2 days), but enmeshment of
the particles in animals' gills can prevent elimination entirely.
When microplastic-laden animals are consumed by predators, the
microplastics are then incorporated into the bodies of higher
trophic-level feeders. For example, scientists have reported plastic
accumulation in the stomachs of lantern fish which are small filter feeders and are the main prey for commercial fish like tuna and swordfish. Microplastics also absorb chemical pollutants that can be transferred into the organism's tissues.
Small animals are at risk of reduced food intake due to false satiation
and resulting starvation or other physical harm from the microplastics.
A study done at the Argentinean coastline of the Rio de la Plata estuary,
found the presence of microplastics in the guts of 11 species of
coastal freshwater fish. These 11 species of fish represented four
different feeding habits: detritivore, planktivore, omnivore and ichthyophagous. This study is one of the few so far to show the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater organisms.
Bottom feeders, such as benthic sea cucumbers, who are non-selective scavengers that feed on debris on the ocean floor, ingest large amounts of sediment. It has been shown that four species of sea cucumber (Thyonella gemmate, Holothuria floridana, H. grisea and Cucumaria frondosa)
ingested between 2- and 20-fold more PVC fragments and between 2- and
138-fold more nylon line fragments (as much as 517 fibers per organism)
based on plastic-to-sand grain ratios from each sediment treatment.
These results suggest that individuals may be selectively ingesting
plastic particles. This contradicts the accepted indiscriminate feeding
strategy of sea cucumbers, and may occur in all presumed non-selective
feeders when presented with microplastics.
Bivalves, important aquatic filter feeders, have also been shown to ingest microplastics and nanoplastics. Upon exposure to microplastics, bivalve filtration ability decreases. Multiple cascading effects occur as a result, such as immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Decreased immune function occurs due to reduced phagocytosis and NF-κB gene activity. Impaired neurological function is a result of the inhibition of ChE and suppression of neurotransmitter regulatory enzymes. When exposed to microplastics, bivalves also experience oxidative stress, indicating an impaired ability to detoxify compounds within the body, which can ultimately damage DNA.
Bivalve gametes and larvae are also impaired when exposed to
microplastics. Rates of developmental arrest, and developmental
malformities increase, while rates of fertilization decrease. When bivalves have been exposed to microplastics as well as other pollutants such as POPs, mercury or hydrocarbons in lab settings, toxic effects were shown to be aggravated.
Not only fish and free-living organisms can ingest microplastics. Scleractinian corals, which are primary reef-builders, have been shown to ingest microplastics under laboratory conditions.
While the effects of ingestion on these corals has not been studied,
corals can easily become stressed and bleach. Microplastics have been
shown to stick to the exterior of the corals after exposure in the
laboratory. The adherence to the outside of corals can potentially be harmful, because corals cannot handle sediment or any particulate matter
on their exterior and slough it off by secreting mucus, expending
energy in the process, increasing the likelihood of mortality.
Marine biologists in 2017 discovered that three-quarters of the underwater seagrass in the Turneffe Atoll off the coast of Belize had microplastic fibers, shards, and beads stuck to it. The plastic pieces had been overgrown by epibionts (organisms that naturally stick themselves to seagrass). Seagrass is part of the barrier reef ecosystem and is fed on by parrotfish, which in turn are eaten by humans. These findings, published in Marine Pollution Bulletin,
may be "the first discovery of microplastics on aquatic vascular
plants... [and] only the second discovery of microplastics on marine
plant life anywhere in the world."
It is not just aquatic animals which may be harmed. Microplastics can stunt the growth of terrestrial plants and earthworms.
In 2019, the first European records of microplastic items in
amphibians' stomach content was reported in specimens of the common
European newt (Triturus carnifex). This also represented the first evidence for Caudata worldwide, highlighting that the emerging issue of plastics is a threat even in remote high-altitude environments.
Zooplankton
ingest microplastics beads (1.7–30.6 μm) and excrete fecal matter
contaminated with microplastics. Along with ingestion, the microplastics
stick to the appendages and exoskeleton of the zooplankton.[121] Zooplankton, among other marine organisms, consume microplastics because they emit similar infochemicals, notably dimethyl sulfide, just as phytoplankton do. Plastics such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) produce dimethyl sulfide odors. These types of plastics are commonly found in plastic bags, food storage containers, and bottle caps. Green and red filaments of plastics are found in the planktonic organisms and in seaweeds.
Not only do animals and plants ingest microplastics, some
microbes also live on the surface of microplastics. This community of
microbes form a slimy biofilm which, according to a 2019 study,
has a unique structure and possesses a special risk, because
microplastic biofilms have been proven to provide a novel habitat for
colonization that increases overlap between different species, thus
spreading pathogens and antibiotic resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer.
Then, due to rapid movement through waterways, these pathogens can be
moved very quickly from their origin to another location where a
specific pathogen may not be naturally present, spreading the potential
disease.
Humans
According to a comprehensive review of scientific evidence published by the European Union's Scientific Advice Mechanism
in 2019, "little is known with respect to the human health risks of
nano- and microplastics, and what is known is surrounded by considerable
uncertainty". The authors of the review identify the main limitations
as the quality or methodology of the research to date. Since "the poison
is in the dose", the review concludes that "there is a need to
understand the potential modes of toxicity for different size-shape-type
NMP combinations in carefully selected human models, before robust
conclusions about 'real' human risks can be made".
Mean/median intake of microplastics in humans are at levels
considered to be safe in humans; however, some individuals may sometimes
exceed these limits; the effects, if any, of this is unknown. It is unknown whether and to what degree microplastics bioaccumulate in humans.
Research reported in 2022 identified, for the first time, the presence
of polymers in human blood in 17 of 22 healthy volunteers. The mean of
the sum quantifiable concentration of plastic particles was 1.6 mg/L.
The stated purpose of the study was to develop a sampling and analytic
method that could be used to detect plastics in human blood.
A recent sub-chronic study investigated methacrylate-based
polymer beads (> 10 μm) in food for therapeutic purposes and it found
no sign of polymer beads' bioaccumulation in mice organs apart from
gastrointestinal tract. The microplastics ingested by fish and crustaceans can be subsequently consumed by humans as the end of the food chain.
Microplastics are found in air, water, and food that humans eat,
especially seafood; however, the degree of absorption and retention is
unclear.
However, ingestion of microplastics via food may be relatively minor;
for example, while mussels are known to accumulate microplastics, humans
are predicted to be exposed to more microplastics in household dust
than by consuming mussels.
There are three main areas of potential concern with
microplastics: the plastics themselves may have some effect on human
physiology, microplastics might complex with heavy metals or other
chemical compounds in the environment and act as a vector for bringing
them into the body, and it is possible that microplastics might serve as
vectors for pathogens.
It is as yet unknown if exposure to microplastics at the levels found
in the environment represent a "real" risk to humans; research into the
subject is ongoing.
Persistent organic pollutants and Emerging organic contaminants
Plastic particles may highly concentrate and transport synthetic organic compounds (e.g. persistent organic pollutants, POPs and emerging organic contaminants), commonly present in the environment and ambient seawater, on their surface through adsorption. Microplastics can act as carriers for the transfer of POPs from the environment to organisms.
Recent articles have also shown that microplastics can sorb emerging
organic chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products. The sorption potential is affected by water matrix, pH, ionic strength and aging of microparticles.
Additives added to plastics during manufacture may leach out upon ingestion, potentially causing serious harm to the organism. Endocrine disruption by plastic additives may affect the reproductive health of humans and wildlife alike.
Plastics, polymers derived from mineral oils, are virtually non-biodegradable. However, renewable natural polymers are now in development which can be used for the production of biodegradable materials similar to those derived from oil-based polymers.
Where microplastics can be found
Steve Allen of Dalhousie University
in Canada, main author of a study that found microplastics in high
mountains, said "Plastic leaving the ocean into the air that high – it
shows there is no eventual sink for this plastic. It's just moving
around and around in an indefinite cycle."
Air
Airborne microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere,
as well as indoors and outdoors. In 2019 a study found microplastic to
be atmospherically transported to remote areas on the wind.
A 2017 study found indoor airborne microfiber concentrations between
1.0 and 60.0 microfibers per cubic meter (33% of which were found to be
microplastics). Another study looked at microplastic in the street dust of Tehran
and found 2,649 particles of microplastic within 10 samples of street
dust, with ranging samples concentrations from 83 particle – 605
particles (±10) per 30.0 g of street dust. Microplastics and microfibers were also found in snow samples, and high up in "clean" air in high mountains at vast distances from their source.
However, much like freshwater ecosystems and soil, more studies are
needed to understand the full impact and significance of airborne
microplastics.
Water
Oceans
A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem
is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less
than 5 millimeters wide,
and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other
exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through
the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their
small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary
treatment screens on wastewater plants.
These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially
filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become
sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to
clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these
harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe
exfoliates.
Because plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have
become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics
can be found on sandy beaches and surface waters
as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are
also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead
biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown
in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). Upon reaching marine
environments, the fate of microplastics is subject to naturally
occurring drivers, such as winds and surface oceanic currents. Numerical
models are able to trace small plastic debris (micro- and
meso-plastics) drifting in the ocean, thus predicting their fate.
Ice cores
Kelly et al. found 96 microplastic particles from 14 different types of polymers in an ice core sampled in 2009 from east Antarctica. Plastic pollution
has previously been recorded in Antarctic surface waters and sediments
as well as in Arctic sea ice, but this is thought to be the first time
plastic has been found in Antarctic sea ice. Relatively large particle
sizes suggest local pollution sources.
Freshwater
Microplastics have been widely detected in the world's aquatic environments. The first study on microplastics in freshwater ecosystems was published in 2011 that found an average of 37.8 fragments per square meter of Lake Huron sediment samples. Additionally, studies have found MP (microplastic) to be present in all of the Great Lakes with an average concentration of 43,000 MP particle km−2.
Microplastics have also been detected in freshwater ecosystems outside
of the United States. In Canada, a three-year study found a mean
microplastic concentration of 193,420 particles km−2 in Lake Winnipeg.
None of the microplastics detected were micro-pellets or beads and most
were fibers resulting from the breakdown of larger particles, synthetic
textiles, or atmospheric fallout.
The highest concentration of microplastic ever discovered in a studied
freshwater ecosystem was recorded in the Rhine river at 4000 MP
particles kg−1.
Soil
A substantial portion of microplastics are expected to end up in the world's soil, yet very little research has been conducted on microplastics in soil outside of aquatic environments.
In wetland environments microplastic concentrations have been found to
exhibit a negative correlation with vegetation cover and stem density.
There exists some speculation that fibrous secondary microplastics from
washing machines could end up in soil through the failure of water
treatment plants to completely filter out all of the microplastic
fibers. Furthermore, geophagous soil fauna, such as earthworms, mites,
and collembolans
could contribute to the amount of secondary microplastic present in
soil by converting consumed plastic debris into microplastic via
digestive processes. Further research, however, is needed. There is
concrete data linking the use of organic waste materials to synthetic fibers being found in the soil; but most studies on plastics in soil merely report its presence and do not mention origin or quantity. Controlled studies on fiber-containing land-applied wastewater sludges (biosolids) applied to soil reported semiquantitative recoveries of the fibers a number of years after application.
Human body
Microplastics
find their way into the food we eat, the water we drink and even the
air we breathe. By some estimates, people consume more than 50,000
plastic particles per year – and many more if inhalation is considered. Microplastics were found in every human tissue studied by graduate students at Arizona State University.
A study published in March, 2022, revealed that Microplastics have also
been found in 80% of 22 anonymous blood samples, meaning they can be
transported around the human body and raising the question of whether
they can be transported to the brain. In December 2020, microplastic particles were found in the placentas of unborn babies for the first time.
Plastic pollution is having the greatest impacts on the world’s
poorest and most vulnerable populations. Segments of these populations
predominantly work in the informal waste sector and/or live in the
vicinities of open dumpsites. Plastic pollution directly and indirectly
threatens their human rights, including the rights to life, health, water and sanitation, food, housing, culture and development.
Prevention
Treatment
Some
researchers have proposed incinerating plastics to use as energy, which
is known as energy recovery. As opposed to losing the energy from
plastics into the atmosphere in landfills,
this process turns some of the plastics back into energy that can be
used. However, as opposed to recycling, this method does not diminish
the amount of plastic material that is produced. Therefore, recycling plastics is considered a more efficient solution.
Biodegradation
is another possible solution to large amounts of microplastic waste. In
this process, microorganisms consume and decompose synthetic polymers
by means of enzymes. These plastics can then be used in the form of energy and as a source of carbon
once broken down. The microbes could potentially be used to treat
sewage wastewater, which would decrease the amount of microplastics that
pass through into the surrounding environments.
Filtering
Stormwater
or wastewater collection systems can capture many microplastics which
are transported to treatment plants, the captured microplastics become
part of the sludge produced by the plants. This sludge is often used as
farm fertilizer meaning the plastics enter waterways through runoff.
Fionn Ferreira, winner of the 2019 Google Science Fair, is developing a device for the removal of microplastic particles from water using a ferrofluid.
Collection devices
Computer modelling done by The Ocean Cleanup,
a Dutch foundation, has suggested that collection devices placed nearer
to the coasts could remove about 31% of the microplastics in the area.
On September 9, 2018, The Ocean Cleanup launched the world's first
ocean cleanup system, 001 aka "Wilson", which is being deployed to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
System 001 is 600 meters long that acts as a U-shaped skiff that uses
natural oceanic currents to concentrate plastic and other debris on the
ocean's surface into a confined area for extraction by vessels.
The project has been met with criticism from oceanographers and plastic
pollution experts, though it has seen wide public support.
In addition, some bacteria have adapted to eat plastic, and some bacteria species have been genetically modified to eat (certain types of) plastics.
Other than degrading microplastics, microbes had been engineered in a
novel way to capture microplastics in their biofilm matrix from polluted
samples for easier removal of such pollutants. The microplastics in the
biofilms can then be released with an engineered 'release' mechanism
via biofilm dispersal to facilitate with microplastics recovery.
Education and recycling
Increasing
education through recycling campaigns is another proposed solution for
microplastic contamination. While this would be a smaller-scale
solution, education has been shown to reduce littering, especially in
urban environments where there are often large concentrations of plastic
waste.
If recycling efforts are increased, a cycle of plastic use and reuse
would be created to decrease our waste output and production of new raw
materials. In order to achieve this, states would need to employ
stronger infrastructure and investment around recycling.
Some advocate for improving recycling technology to be able to recycle
smaller plastics to reduce the need for production of new plastics.
Action for creating awareness
A signboard encouraging the public to collect nurdles so as to reduce their negative impact on the coastal environment
On April 11, 2013, in order to create awareness, Italian artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State under the patronage of UNESCO and the Italian Ministry of the Environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) launched its "Trash-Free Waters" initiative in 2013 to prevent
single-use plastic wastes from ending up in waterways and ultimately the
ocean. EPA collaborates with the United Nations Environment Programme–Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP) and the Peace Corps to reduce and also remove trash in the Caribbean Sea. EPA has also funded various projects in the San Francisco Bay Area including one that is aimed at reducing the use of single-use plastics such as disposable cups, spoons and straws, from three University of California campuses.
Additionally, there are many organizations advocating action to
counter microplastics and that is spreading microplastic awareness. One
such group is the Florida Microplastic Awareness Project (FMAP), a group
of volunteers who search for microplastics in coastal water samples. There is also increased global advocacy aimed at achieving the target of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 which hopes to prevent and significantly reduce all forms of marine pollution by 2025.
Funding
The Clean Oceans Initiative is a project launched in 2018 by the public institutions European Investment Bank, Agence Française de Développement and KfW Entwicklungsbank.
The goal of the organisations was to provide up to €2 billion in
lending, grants and technical assistance until 2023 to develop projects
that remove pollution from waterways (with a focus on macroplastics and
microplastics) before it reaches the oceans.
The effort focuses on initiatives that demonstrate efficient methods of
minimising plastic waste and microplastics output, emphasising on
riverine and coastal areas.
In February 2022, the initiative stated that it would increase
its financing aim to €4 billion by the end of 2025. At the same time,
the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) became the Clean Oceans Initiative's sixth member.
By the beginning of 2022, more than 80% of this target has been
achieved, with €1.6 billion being used in long-term financing for public
and private sector initiatives that minimise the discharge of plastics,
microplastics, and other pollutants through enhanced solid waste,
wastewater, and storm water management.
Policy and legislation
With
increasing awareness of the detrimental effects of microplastics on the
environment, groups are now advocating for the removal and ban of
microplastics from various products. One such campaign is "Beat the Microbead", which focuses on removing plastics from personal care products.
The Adventurers and Scientists for Conservation run the Global
Microplastics Initiative, a project to collect water samples to provide
scientists with better data about microplastic dispersion in the
environment. UNESCO has sponsored research and global assessment programs due to the trans-boundary issue that microplastic pollution constitutes.
These environmental groups will keep pressuring companies to remove
plastics from their products in order to maintain healthy ecosystems.
China
China
banned in 2018 the import of recyclables from other countries, forcing
those other countries to re-examine their recycling schemes. The Yangtze River in China contributes 55% of all plastic waste going to the seas. Including microplastics, the Yangtze bears an average of 500,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer. Scientific American reported that China dumps 30% of all plastics in the ocean.
United States
In the US, some states have taken action to mitigate the negative environmental effects of microplastics. Illinois was the first US state to ban cosmetics containing microplastics. On the national level, the Microbead-Free Waters Act 2015 was enacted after being signed by President Barack Obama
on December 28, 2015. The law bans "rinse-off" cosmetic products that
perform an exfoliating function, such as toothpaste or face wash. It
does not apply to other products such as household cleaners. The act
took effect on July 1, 2017, with respect to manufacturing, and July 1,
2018, with respect to introduction or delivery for introduction into
interstate commerce.
On June 16, 2020, California adopted a definition of 'microplastics in
drinking water', setting the foundation for a long-term approach to
studying their contamination and human health effects.
On July 25, 2018, a microplastic reduction amendment was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives. The legislation, as part of the Save Our Seas Act designed to combat marine pollution, aims to support the NOAA's
Marine Debris Program. In particular, the amendment is geared towards
promoting NOAA's Great Lakes Land-Based Marine Debris Action Plan to
increase testing, cleanup, and education around plastic pollution in the
Great Lakes. President Donald Trump signed the re-authorization and amendment bill into effect on October 11, 2018.
Japan
On June 15,
2018, the Japanese government passed a bill with the goal of reducing
microplastic production and pollution, especially in aquatic
environments.
Proposed by the Environment Ministry and passed unanimously by the
Upper House, this is also the first bill to pass in Japan that is
specifically targeted at reducing microplastic production, specifically
in the personal care industry with products such as face wash and
toothpaste. This law is revised from previous legislation, which focused on removing plastic marine debris. It also focuses on increasing education and public awareness surrounding recycling and plastic waste.
The Environment Ministry has also proposed a number of recommendations
for methods to monitor microplastic quantities in the ocean
(Recommendations, 2018). However, the legislation does not specify any penalties for those who continue manufacturing products with microplastics.
European Union
The European Commission has noted the increased concern about the impact of microplastics on the environment. In April 2018, the European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors commissioned a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence on microplastic pollution through the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism. The evidence review was conducted by a working group nominated by European academies and delivered in January 2019.
A Scientific Opinion based on the SAPEA report was presented to the
Commission in 2019, on the basis of which the commission will consider
whether policy changes should be proposed at a European level to curb
microplastic pollution.
In January 2019, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) proposed to restrict intentionally added microplastics.
The European Commission's Circular Economy Action Plan sets out
mandatory requirements for the recycling and waste reduction of key
products e.g. plastic packaging. The plan starts the process to restrict
addition of microplastics in products. It mandates measures for
capturing more microplastics at all stages of the lifecycle of a
product. E.g. the plan would examine different policies which aim to
reduce release of secondary microplastics from tires and textiles. The European Commission plans to update the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
to further address microplastic waste and other pollution. They aim to
protect the environment from industrial and urban waste water discharge.
A revision to the EU Drinking Water Directive was provisionally
approved to ensure microplastics are regularly monitored in drinking
water. It would require countries must propose solutions if a problem is
found.
United Kingdom
The
Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017 ban
the production of any rinse-off personal care products (such as
exfoliants) containing microbeads.
This particular law denotes specific penalties when it is not obeyed.
Those who do not comply are required to pay a fine. In the event that a
fine is not paid, product manufacturers may receive a stop notice, which
prevents the manufacturer from continuing production until they have
followed regulation preventing the use of microbeads. Criminal
proceedings may occur if the stop notice is ignored.