New Zealand (
/ /;
Māori:
Aotearoa [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is an
island country in the southwestern
Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the
North Island, or
Te Ika-a-Māui, and the
South Island, or
Te Waipounamu – and numerous
smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of
Australia across the
Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the
Pacific island areas of
New Caledonia,
Fiji, and
Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive
biodiversity of animal, fungal and plant life. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the
Southern Alps, owe much to the
tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is
Wellington, while its most populous city is
Auckland.
Polynesians settled New Zealand in 1250–1300 CE and developed a distinctive
Māori culture.
Abel Tasman, a Dutch explorer, was the first European to sight New Zealand in 1642 CE.
[11] In 1840, representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the
Treaty of Waitangi, making New Zealand a
British colony. Today, the majority of
New Zealand's population of 4.5 million is of
European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this,
New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening arising from increased
immigration. The official languages are English, Māori and
New Zealand Sign Language, with English predominant. The country's economy was historically dominated by the export of wool, but exports of dairy products, meat, and wine, along with tourism, are more significant today.
Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral
Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the
Cabinet, led by the
Prime Minister, who is currently
John Key.
Queen Elizabeth II is the country's
head of state and is represented by a
Governor-General. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11
regional councils and 67
territorial authorities for local government purposes. The
Realm of New Zealand also includes
Tokelau (a
dependent territory); the
Cook Islands and
Niue (self-governing states in
free association with New Zealand); and the
Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's
territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the
United Nations,
Commonwealth of Nations,
ANZUS,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,
Pacific Islands Forum and
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.
Etymology
Detail from a 1657 map showing the western coastline of "Nova Zeelandia"
Dutch explorer
Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it
Staten Landt, supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America.
[12] In 1645 Dutch
cartographers renamed the land
Nova Zeelandia after the
Dutch province of
Zeeland.
[13][14] British explorer
James Cook subsequently
anglicised the name to New Zealand.
[n 5]
Aotearoa (often translated as "land of the long white cloud") is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with
Aotearoa originally referring to just the
North Island. Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including
Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of
Māui) for the North Island and
Te Waipounamu (the waters of
greenstone) or
Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of
Aoraki) for the
South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (
Stewart Island / Rakiura).
[18] In 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.
[19] The
New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.
[20] Note that for each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.
History
The
Māori people are most likely descended from people who emigrated from
Taiwan to
Melanesia and then travelled east through to the
Society Islands. After a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.
[21]
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans.
Radiocarbon dating, evidence of
deforestation[22] and
mitochondrial DNA variability within
Māori populations
[23] suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern
Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,
[24] concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.
[25] Over the centuries that followed these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into
iwi (tribes) and
hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight with each other. At some point a group of Māori migrated to the
Chatham Islands (which they named
Rēkohu) where they developed their distinct
Moriori culture.
[26][27] The Moriori population was decimated between 1835 and 1862, largely because of
Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.
[28]
The first
Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer
Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642. In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by
canister shot.
[30] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer
James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American
whaling,
sealing and trading ships. They traded food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, food, artifacts and water. The introduction of the potato and the
musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.
[32] The resulting inter-tribal
Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.
[33] From the early 19th century, Christian
missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually
converting most of the Māori population.
[34] The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.
[35]
The Waitangi sheet from the Treaty of Waitangi
In 1788 Captain
Arthur Phillip assumed the position of
Governor of the new British colony of
New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.
[36] The British Government appointed
James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.
[37] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by
Charles de Thierry, the nebulous
United Tribes of New Zealand sent a
Declaration of the Independence to King
William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.
[37] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the
New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the
Colonial Office to send Captain
William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.
[38] The
Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the
Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.
[39] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in
Wellington[40] and French settlers purchasing land in
Akaroa,
[41] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.
[42] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.
[43]
New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate
Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841.
[44] The colony gained a
representative government in 1852 and the
first Parliament met in 1854.
[45] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy. (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)
[45] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier
Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the
Cook Strait.
[46] Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the
New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.
[47]
In 1891 the
Liberal Party led by
John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party. The
Liberal Government, later led by
Richard Seddon, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all
women the right to vote[48] and in 1894 pioneered the
adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.
[49] In 1898 Seddon's government passed the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire.
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King
Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a
dominion within the
British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. Accordingly, the title "Dominion of New Zealand" dates from 1907.
[50][51]
In 1947 the country adopted the
Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.
[45] New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting alongside the British Empire in the
First and
Second World Wars[52] and suffering through the
Great Depression.
[53] The depression led to the election of the
first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive
welfare state and a
protectionist economy.
[54] New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II
[55] and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.
[56] A
Māori protest movement developed, which criticised
Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of
Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi.
[57] In 1975, a
Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.
[39] The government has negotiated
settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although
Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.
Government
New Zealand is a
constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary democracy,
[58] although
its constitution is
not codified.
[59] Elizabeth II is the
Queen of New Zealand and the
head of state.
[60] The Queen is represented by the
Governor-General, whom she appoints on the advice of the
Prime Minister.
[61][62] The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's
prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of
ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials,
[63] and in rare situations, the
reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the
Royal Assent of a
bill into law).
[64] The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of
Cabinet.
[64][65]
The Queen of New Zealand and her
vice-regal representative, the Governor-General
The
New Zealand Parliament holds
legislative power and consists of the Queen and the
House of Representatives.
[65] It also included an upper house, the
Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.
[65] The
supremacy of Parliament, over the Crown and other government institutions, was established in England by the
Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.
[65] The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or
coalition with the majority of seats.
[65] If no majority is formed a
minority government can be formed if support from other parties during
confidence and supply votes is assured. The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the
Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.
[66] Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.
[67] By
convention, members of cabinet are bound by
collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.
[68]
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding
tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government.
[59] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.
[69] The
Privy Council in London was the country's final court of appeal until 2004, when it was replaced with the newly established
Supreme Court of New Zealand. The judiciary, headed by the
Chief Justice,
[70] includes the
Court of Appeal, the
High Court, and subordinate courts.
[59]
Almost all
parliamentary general elections between
1853 and
1993 were held under the
first-past-the-post voting system.
[71] The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties,
National and
Labour.
[71] Since the
1996 election, a form of
proportional representation called
Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) has been used.
[59] Under the MMP system each person has two votes; one is for electoral seats (including some reserved for
Māori),
[72] and the other is for a party. Since the
2005 election, there have been 70 electorate seats (which includes, since the 1996 election, 7 Māori electorates), and the remaining fifty seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats.
[73] Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land (Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister,
Speaker and Chief Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.
[74]
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed nations.
[75] As of 2011, the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions
[76] and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.
[77] New Zealand has a high level of civic participation, with 79% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. Furthermore, 67% of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions, far higher than the OECD average of 56%.
[78]
Foreign relations and the military
Anzac Day service at the National War Memorial
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.
[79] The 1923 and 1926
Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political
treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and
declared war on Germany with Prime Minister
Michael Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."
[80]
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,
[81] while New Zealand joined
Australia and the
United States in the
ANZUS security treaty.
[82] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the
Vietnam War,
[83] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the
sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,
[84] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and
New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.
[85][86] Despite the USA's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.
[87] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with
free trade agreements and
travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.
[88] In 2013, there are about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand.
[89] 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand.
[88]
New Zealand has a strong presence among the
Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.
[90] Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.
[91] New Zealand is involved in the
Pacific Islands Forum,
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the
East Asia Summit).
[88] New Zealand is also a member of the
United Nations,
[92] the
Commonwealth of Nations,
[93] the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development[94] and the
Five Power Defence Arrangements.
[95]
The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the
Royal New Zealand Navy, the
New Zealand Army and the
Royal New Zealand Air Force.
[96] New Zealand's
national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack,
[97] although it does have a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in
Gallipoli,
Crete,
[98] El Alamein[99] and
Cassino.
[100] The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's
national identity[101][102] and strengthened the
ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.
[103] According to Mary Edmond-Paul, "World War I had left scars on New Zealand society, with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war, more than 41,000 wounded, and others affected emotionally, out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million."
[104] New Zealand also played key parts in the naval
Battle of the River Plate[105] and the
Battle of Britain air campaign.
[106][107] During World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.
[108]
In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the
Korean War, the
Second Boer War,
[109] the
Malayan Emergency,
[110] the
Gulf War and the
Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in
Cyprus, Somalia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
Sinai,
Angola,
Cambodia, the
Iran–Iraq border,
Bougainville,
East Timor, and the
Solomon Islands.
[111] New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild
Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the
Iraq War.
New Zealand ranks 8th in the
Center for Global Development's 2012
Commitment to Development Index, which ranks the world's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations.
[112] New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014
Global Peace Index.
[113]
Local government and external territories
The early European settlers divided New Zealand into
provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.
[114] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.
[115] As a result, New Zealand now has no separately represented
subnational entities. The provinces are remembered in
regional public holidays[116] and sporting rivalries.
[117]
Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.
[114][118] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of
regional councils and
territorial authorities.
[119] The
249 municipalities[119] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.
[120] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on
resource management",
[119] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.
[121] Five of the territorial councils are
unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.
[122] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the
Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.
[123]
New Zealand is one of 16
realms within the Commonwealth.
[124][125] The
Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand,
Tokelau, the
Ross Dependency, the
Cook Islands and
Niue.
[125] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in
free association with New Zealand.
[126][127] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a
non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan
atoll).
[128][129] The
Ross Dependency is New Zealand's
territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the
Scott Base research facility.
[130] New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.
[131]
New Zealand is located near the centre of the
water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of
smaller islands. The two main islands (the
North Island, or
Te Ika-a-Māui, and the
South Island, or
Te Waipounamu) are separated by the
Cook Strait, 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point.
[132] Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island, the Chatham Islands,
Great Barrier Island (in the
Hauraki Gulf),
[133] d'Urville Island (in the
Marlborough Sounds)
[134] and
Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland).
[135] The country's islands lie between latitudes
29° and
53°S, and longitudes
165° and
176°E.
New Zealand is long and narrow (over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),
[136] with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline
[137] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi)
[138] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its
Exclusive
Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.
[139]
The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the
Southern Alps.
[140] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is
Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft).
Fiordland's steep mountains and deep
fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island.
[142] The North Island is less mountainous but is
marked by volcanism.
[143] The highly active
Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large
volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain,
Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake,
Lake Taupo,
[144] nestled in the
caldera of one of the world's most active
supervolcanoes.
[145]
The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the
Pacific and
Indo-Australian Plates.
[146] New Zealand is part of
Zealandia, a
microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the
Gondwanan supercontinent.
[147] About 25 million years ago, a shift in
plate tectonic movements began to
contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by
compression of the crust beside the
Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the
subduction of one plate under the other, producing the
Puysegur Trench to the south, the
Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the
Kermadec and
Tonga Trenches[148] further north.
[146]
Climate
New Zealand has a mild and temperate
maritime climate (
Köppen: Cfb) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.
[149] Historical
maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in
Rangiora,
Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in
Ranfurly,
Otago.
[150] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the
West Coast of the
South Island to almost
semi-arid in
Central Otago and the
Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and
subtropical in
Northland.
[151] Of the seven largest cities,
Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Auckland the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.
[152] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.
[153] The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island. Snowfall is less common on the North Island, although it does occur.
Biodiversity
New Zealand's
geographic isolation for 80 million years
[154] and island
biogeography is responsible for the country's unique species of
animals,
fungi and
plants. They have either evolved from
Gondwanan wildlife or the few organisms that have
managed to reach the shores flying, swimming or
being carried across the sea.
[155] About 82 percent of New Zealand's indigenous
vascular plants are
endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65
genera and includes a single endemic
family.
[156][157] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are approximately 2300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand
[156] and 40 percent of these are endemic.
[158]
The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent
podocarps, or by
southern beech in cooler climates.
[159] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are
tussock.
[160]
Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest, with only
high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.
[161] Massive
deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.
[162] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land.
[163]
The endemic flightless
kiwi is a national icon.
The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the
kiwi,
kakapo and
takahē evolving
flightlessness.
[164] The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of
rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the
extinction of many bird species, including
large birds like the
moa and
Haast's eagle.
[165][166]
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (
tuataras,
skinks and
geckos),
[167] frogs, spiders (
katipo), insects (
weta) and snails.
[168][169] Some, such as the
wrens and tuatara, are so unique that they have been called
living fossils. Three species of bats (
one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.
[170][171] Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's
cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and
porpoises) and large numbers of
fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.
[172] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.
[173] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.
[174]
Since human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.
[165] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological
restoration of islands and
other selected areas.
[175][176][177][178] According to the 2012
Environmental Performance Index, New Zealand is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, ranking 14th out of 132 assessed countries.
[179]
Economy
New Zealand has a modern, prosperous and
developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at
purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita of roughly US$28,250.
[n 6] The currency is the
New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see
Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the
Pitcairn Islands.
[183] New Zealand was ranked sixth in the 2013
Human Development Index,
[184] fourth in the
The Heritage Foundation's 2012
Index of Economic Freedom,
[185] and 13th in
INSEAD's 2012
Global Innovation Index.
[186]
Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling,
flax, gold,
kauri gum, and native timber.
[188] With
the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.
[189] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.
[190] In 1973 New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community
[191] and other compounding factors, such as the
1973 oil and
1979 energy crisis, led to a severe
economic depression.
[192] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by
the World Bank.
[193] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major
macroeconomic restructuring (known first as
Rogernomics and then
Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly
protectionist economy to a liberalised
free-trade economy.
[194][195]
Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992,
[196] following the
1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).
[197] However, the
global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,
[198][199] and unemployment rising back to 7 percent in late 2009.
[200] At May 2012, the general unemployment rate was around 6.7 percent, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13.6 percent.
[201] New Zealand has experienced a series of "
brain drains" since the 1970s
[202] that still continue today.
[203] Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.
[204] In recent years, however, a "
brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries.
[205]
Trade
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,
[207] particularly in
agricultural products.
[208] Exports account for a high 24 percent of its output,
[137] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global
economic slowdowns. Its principal export industries are agriculture,
horticulture,
fishing, forestry and mining, which make up about half of the country's exports.
[209] Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom.
[137] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the
New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.
[210][211] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.
[137] Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supporting 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010.
[212] International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010
[213] and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.
[212]
Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.
Wool was New Zealand’s major agricultural export during the late 19th century.
[188] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,
[188] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities
[214] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.
[215] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,
[216] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.
[217] In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports,
[218] and the country's largest company,
Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.
[219] Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent.
New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,
[220] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.
[221][222]
Infrastructure
In 2008, oil, gas and coal generated about 69 percent of
New Zealand's gross energy supply while 31% was generated from
renewable energy, primarily
hydroelectric power and
geothermal power.
[223]
New Zealand's transport network comprises 93,805 kilometres (58,288 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,
[224] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.
[137] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.
[225] The
railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise
KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by
Transdev.
[226] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.
[227] Most international visitors arrive via air
[228] and New Zealand has
six international airports, but currently
[update] only the
Auckland and
Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.
[229]
The
New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1989 when
Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then
privatised in 1990.
[230] Telecom was
rebranded as
Spark New Zealand in 2014.
Chorus, which was split from Telecom in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. The United Nations
International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.
[231]
Demography
New Zealand's historical population (black) and projected growth (red)
The population of New Zealand is about 4.5 million.
[232] New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of
Auckland,
Christchurch,
Wellington, and
Hamilton.
[233] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010
Auckland was ranked the world's 4th most
liveable city and
Wellington the 12th by the
Mercer Quality of Life Survey.
[234]
Life expectancy of a New Zealand in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males.
[235] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline.
[236] New Zealand's
fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of
population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialized nations, with 20 percent of New Zealanders being 14 years-old or younger.
[137] By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent.
[236] Despite the high life expectancy, mortality from
heart disease is higher in New Zealand than it is in various other developed Western countries such as
Australia, the
United Kingdom and
Canada.
[237]
|
|
Rank |
Name |
Region |
Pop. |
Rank |
Name |
Region |
Pop. |
|
Auckland
Wellington |
1 |
Auckland |
Auckland |
1,413,700 |
11 |
New Plymouth |
Taranaki |
55,600 |
Christchurch
Hamilton |
2 |
Wellington |
Wellington |
393,600 |
12 |
Whangarei |
Northland |
54,400 |
3 |
Christchurch |
Canterbury |
375,200 |
13 |
Invercargill |
Southland |
49,800 |
4 |
Hamilton |
Waikato |
218,800 |
14 |
Kapiti |
Wellington |
41,000 |
5 |
Napier-Hastings |
Hawke's Bay |
128,800 |
15 |
Whanganui |
Manawatu-Wanganui |
39,200 |
6 |
Tauranga |
Bay of Plenty |
127,700 |
16 |
Gisborne |
Gisborne |
35,400 |
7 |
Dunedin |
Otago |
116,200 |
17 |
Blenheim |
Marlborough |
30,200 |
8 |
Palmerston North |
Manawatu-Wanganui |
82,400 |
18 |
Pukekohe |
Auckland |
28,400 |
9 |
Nelson |
Nelson |
64,100 |
19 |
Timaru |
Canterbury |
28,400 |
10 |
Rotorua |
Bay of Plenty |
56,200 |
20 |
Taupo |
Waikato |
23,400 |
Ethnicity and immigration
New Zealanders of European descent
In the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include
Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%).
[238][n 7] The population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.
[239]
While the
demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "
Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally
[240] and by locals.
[241] The Māori loanword
Pākehā has been used to refer to
New Zealanders of European descent, although others reject this appellation.
[242][243] The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.
[244]
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the
white Australian policies.
[245] There was also significant Dutch,
Dalmatian,
[246] Italian, and German immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.
[247] Following the
Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service — more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.
[248] Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland region. In the late 2000s, Asia overtook the UK and Ireland as the largest source of overseas migrants; at the 2013 census, 31.6% of overseas-born New Zealand residents were born in Asia (mainly China, India, the Philippines and South Korea), while 26.5% were born in the UK and Ireland. Australia, the Pacific Islands, and South Africa are also significant sources of migrants.
[249] The number of fee-paying
international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public
tertiary institutions in 2002.
[250]
Language
English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 98 percent of the population.
[3] New Zealand English is similar to
Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the
accents apart. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the
schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.
[252] Hence, the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as "bad", "dead", "fish" and "chips" sound like "bed", "did", "fush" and "chups" to non-New Zealanders.
After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (
te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.
[253] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,
[254][255] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,
[256] and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population.
[3] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two
Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori.
[257] Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised. Samoan is one of the most widely spoken languages in New Zealand (2.3 percent),
[n 8] followed by French, Hindi, Yue and Northern Chinese.
[3][258][n 9] New Zealand Sign Language is used by about 28,000 people. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.
[259]
Education
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.
[260] There are 13 school years and attending
state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.
[261] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent,
[137] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.
[260][n 10] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education,
polytechnics, specialist colleges, and
wānanga,
[262] in addition to private training establishments.
[263] In the adult population 14.2 percent have a
bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification.
[264] The OECD's
Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the 7th best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.
[265]
Religion
Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most
secular in the world.
[266] In the 2006 Census, 55.6 percent of the population identified themselves as Christians, while another 34.7 percent indicated that they had no religion (up from 29.6 percent in 2001) and around 4 percent affiliated with other religions.
[267][n 11] The main Christian denominations are
Anglicanism (14.8 percent),
Roman Catholicism (13.6 percent),
Presbyterianism (10.7 percent) and
Methodism (5 percent). There are also significant numbers of Christians who identify themselves with
Pentecostal,
Baptist, and
Latter-day Saint churches. According to census figures, other significant minority religions include
Hinduism,
Buddhism, and
Islam.
[258][268] The indigenous Māori tend to be associated with Presbyterian and Latter-day Saint churches, but the census showed that the New Zealand-based
Ringatū and
Rātana religions had experienced considerable growth.
[269]
Culture
Late twentieth-century house-post depicting the navigator
Kupe fighting two sea creatures
Early Māori adapted the tropically based east
Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval. The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,
[271][272] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.
[273] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of
their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble
those of other Polynesian peoples.
[274] More recently
American,
Australian,
Asian and other
European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with
Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers. Modesty was expected and enforced through the "
tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism. At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.
[277] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.
[253] In the 1960s, as higher education became more available and
cities expanded[278] urban culture began to dominate.
[279] Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities, much of New Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural themes.
Art
As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.
[280] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.
[281] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.
[282] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (
wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.
[283]Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red
ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.
[284] Māori tattoos (
moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.
[285] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.
[286] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as "
noble savages", exotic beauties or friendly natives.
[286] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of
regionalism.
[287] During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.
[288] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the
Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.
[280][289]
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.
[290] Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the
hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.
[291] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.
[292] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.
[293][294] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.
[294]
Literature
Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.
[295] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.
[296] Although still largely influenced by global trends (
modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a
journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.
[297] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.
[298]
Media and Entertainment
New Zealand music has been influenced by
blues,
jazz,
country,
rock and roll and
hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.
[299] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South-East Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.
[300] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments
[301] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.
[302] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with
brass bands and
choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.
[303][304] Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.
[305] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the USA.
[299] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of
kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.
[306] The
New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by
Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by
Reckitt & Colman as the
Loxene Golden Disc awards.
[307] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly
record charts.
[308]
Radio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960.
[309] The number of
New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s.
[310] In 1978 the
New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. The highest grossing New Zealand movies
[311] include:
Boy,
The World's Fastest Indian,
Once Were Warriors, and
Whale Rider. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.
[310] New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,
[312] have encouraged some
producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand.
[313] The
New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Between 2003 and 2008,
Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty.
[314] As of 2011, New Zealand was ranked 13th worldwide in press freedom by
Freedom House, with the 2nd freest media in the Asia-Pacific region after
Palau.
[315]
Sports
Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.
[316] Rugby union is considered the national sport
[317] and attracts the most spectators.
[318] Golf,
netball,
tennis and
cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while
football (soccer) is top among young people.
[318] Victorious
rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the
late 1880s and the
early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.
[319] Horseracing was also a popular
spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.
[320] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a
haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.
[321]
New Zealand has competitive international teams in
rugby union,
netball,
cricket,
rugby league, and
softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. New Zealand participated at the
Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as
a joint team with Australia, before first participating
on its own in 1920. The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games.
[318][322][323] The
All Blacks, the national men's rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby
[324] and the reigning
World Cup champions.
[325] New Zealand is known for its
extreme sports,
adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition.
[327] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running,
tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports and surfing are also popular.
[328] The Polynesian sport of
waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.
[329]