Agricultural education

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_education

 

Agricultural education is the systematic and organized teaching, instruction and training (theoretical as well as hands-on, real-world fieldwork-based) available to students, farmers or individuals interested in the science, business and technology of agriculture (animal and plant production) as well as the management of land, environment and natural resources.

Agricultural education is part of the curriculum of primary and secondary schools along with tertiary institutions such as colleges, universities and vocational and technical schools. Agricultural education resources is provided by youth organizations, farm apprenticeships/internships, non-profit organizations, and government agencies/ministries. As well as agricultural workshops, trainings, shows, fairs, and research institutions. Online/distance learning programs are also available. In institutions, agricultural education serves as preparation for employment or careers in the farming and agricultural sector.

Students learn about general principles of land management, soil science, pasture management. As well as the principles of agricultural economics, plant growth (plant physiology and how plants transport materials, reproduce and germinate), crop production (land preparation, cultivation of cash crops, crop selection, planting and maintenance), and protection (weed, pest and disease control, integrated pest management and the responsible use of farm chemicals). In addition to livestock anatomy and physiology, production (livestock housing, nutrition and health management for the well-being of animals and optimal production), and breeding.

Students who pursue higher education in colleges and universities are provided with more in-depth and focused education so that they can develop expertise in specialized areas such as animal science (physiology, nutrition, reproduction and health aspects of domesticated animals such as dairy cattle, sheep, poultry, etc.), food science (sustainable food, food safety, physiochemical and biological aspects of food, etc.), genetics (animal and plant genetics and genomics and their application in breeding and biotechnology), international agriculture (global perspective on international agribusiness, global food systems, water and energy issues, cropping systems in different regions), Farm business management (budgeting, marketing, planning and other skills necessary to manage the financial and business aspects of agricultural operations), sustainable and organic agriculture. Horticulture, turf grass management, small animal welfare, etc. can also be taught.

The main purposes of agricultural education encompass building a skilled agricultural workforce through training and preparation of future farmers and agricultural professionals, promotion of sustainable and responsible agricultural practices, enhancement of food security, development of cutting-edge agricultural technologists, innovators and leaders, improvement of awareness and understanding of agriculture to bridge the gap between the source of food and the broader community of consumers, contribution to rural economic development and growth, and strengthening the connection between urban and rural agricultural communities.

Historically, farming techniques and knowledge were passed down through oral traditions. In 19th century, agricultural education was formalized as an academic discipline through the Morrill Acts in the United States. Over the years, it slowly subsumed a broad range of scientific subjects related to animals, plants and crops, soil, business, food, land, natural resources and environment. In recent decades agricultural education has been adapted to address the issues of new technology, global perspectives and food security. Recent technological advancements discussed in agricultural education include the integration of precision agriculture, biotechnology, advanced machinery and data-driven approaches to optimize production, reduce resource wastage, improve overall efficiency, and minimize agriculture's ecological footprint. In the future, online learning, interdisciplinary research, community outreach and preparation for diverse career opportunities will also play a crucial role in addressing the evolving challenges of the agricultural sector.

Disciplines closely tied to agricultural education include agricultural communications, agricultural leadership, and extension education.

In the United States

The chief sources of agriculture education in the United States are high schools, community colleges, four-year colleges and universities, youth organizations, and the 10x15 program.

History

The rapid growth of agricultural education began during the late 19th century. In 1862, the United States Congress created the Department of Agriculture to gather and distribute agricultural information. The Morrill Act, which provided the land-grant schools, became law that same year. The Hatch Act of 1887 gave federal funds to establish agricultural experiment stations. The first dairy school in the U.S. was created at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1891.

Government support for agricultural education has increased during the 20th century. For example, the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 created what is now the Cooperative Extension System (1988). The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the George-Barden Act of 1946 financed high-school instruction in farming. Woodlawn High School (Woodlawn, Virginia) was the first public high school in the United States to offer agricultural education classes under the Smith-Hughes Act. The Vocational Education Act of 1963 funded training in other fields of agriculture.

Agricultural science and education expanded after 1900 in response to a need for more technical knowledge and skill in the use of newly developed agricultural technologies. This development led to the use of modern farming methods that required fewer farmworkers, resulting in larger, corporatized farms and ranches. This development increased the need for more agriculture science and education.

Other legislation influenced the development of agricultural education into what the field is today. It has developed throughout the last century from various laws and pieces of legislation.

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 required all public schools to provide a free and appropriate education to all students with disabilities. Under this provision, children with disabilities were now allowed to enroll in agricultural classes. The Americans with Disabilities Act, enacted in 1990, further required public schools to give students with disabilities equal opportunity for education to all other children in the country, and as a result, it increased opportunities for students with disabilities participate in agricultural classes.

Educate America Act of 1994 raised benchmark standards for public education at the districts level, increasing curriculum and development requirements for all classes, including agricultural ones. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act, also of 1994, required teachers to teach students tasks and disciplines that would help their students prepare for employment once they graduated, of which practical education in agriculture was a major part. Finally, No Child Left Behind (Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001) further raised standards for students in public schools and increased requirements of teachers in order to reach these standards, affecting agricultural education as part of the general curriculum of many schools.

Elementary school

In 2006, Walton Rural Life Center in Walton, Kansas was the first public elementary school in the United States to base its curriculum around agriculture. Integrating agricultural components into the classroom is one of the challenges that elementary teachers face. They are also expected to teach with outdated teaching substances. John Block, who was a previous Secretary of Agriculture for the United States, encouraged agricultural competence. Agriculture in the Classroom was one of Block's achievements to stress agricultural literacy in 1981. Agriculture in the Classroom soon became utilized in each state. Though Agriculture in the Classroom was the beginning of agriculture education in all fifty states, elementary instruction began in some schools possibly before the 1900s. After elementary agriculture education began to grow, twenty-one states began to require it by 1915. The required curriculum was evenly split between urban and rural schools. The states that required agricultural education at the elementary level were all midwestern states or southern states; both of which are rich in agriculture.

High schools

Agricultural education at the high school level focuses on three main categories: classroom instruction, supervised agricultural experience (SAE), and active involvement in the National FFA Organization (Future Farmers of America).

Classroom instruction of an agricultural class teaches the students the basic concepts of the particular course through hands on learning and experience. Students will be taught the information in the curriculum in order for them to understand and develop skills in the application and problem solving issues that would occur in an agricultural setting.

The Supervised Agricultural Experience (SAE) portion of the agricultural curriculum is when a student must use the knowledge they have gained in the classroom instruction and use it in real life situations. Several topic choices are available for the student to choose between, whether it is on a farm setting, exploratory setting, entrepreneurship, agribusiness, or research projects. The student will choose a task from one of these topic areas and conduct a research experiment throughout the course of the agricultural class. The teacher is involved in the process and will help guide the student along the way. SAE programs give students the opportunity to take the information learned in the classroom setting and use it on an agricultural topic that interests them. This portion of an agricultural education will give students an idea of how it is working out in the real world and solving problems that will arise in the work field.

The FFA is a national organization that all agricultural classes at the high school level are involved in. The agricultural teacher is the leader of that particular schools FFA chapter, and will guide students’ activities and programs held throughout the year. FFA is an educational program designed to teach students leadership skills in both agricultural settings and everyday life, encourages personal growth in students, boosts self-confidence, builds character, encourage healthy lifestyles, and give students opportunities to be a part of the agricultural economy. FFA chapters will volunteer in communities, conduct banquets for FFA members and their families, raise awareness of agriculture, compete in FFA competitions, and attend national FFA conventions.

In some states, the agriculture teacher leads a local Young Farmers Association in monthly meetings. The group may comprise local farmers, citizens, and anyone interested in learning about agriculture and new farming methods. The Young Farmers Association is designed to aid the adoption of agricultural technologies, and it gives agriculture teachers the opportunity to meet local citizens and reach out to the community.

Colleges and universities

College of Agriculture at the University of Florida

Land-grant universities awarded more than three-quarters of all agricultural degrees in 1988. These state schools receive federal aid under legislation that followed the Morrill Act of 1862, which granted public lands to support agricultural or mechanical education. Land-grant universities have three chief functions: teaching, research, and outreach, or extension.

Teaching

A bachelor's degree in agricultural education generally leads to employment teaching agriculture up to the high school level or in the agricultural sector. Students are required to complete agriculture classes as well as education classes in order to become qualified to teach. A master's degree is required in order to teach at the college level. The Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE), the largest national education association dedicated to the advancement of education that prepares youth and adults for careers, provides resources for agricultural education. An agricultural education degree also gives the qualifications to do extension work for universities and agricultural companies and organizations.

The following universities provide pathways to complete certification requirements of their home states in secondary agricultural education:

• Alcorn State University
• Angelo State University - Texas
• Auburn University 
• Clemson University
• Cornell University
• Colorado State University, Degree Requirements
• Illinois State University, Degree Requirements
• Louisiana State University
• Delaware Valley University
• Michigan State University, 
• Middle Tennessee State University
• Montana State University
• North Carolina State University
• North Dakota State University
• Oregon State University
• The Pennsylvania State University, Degree Requirements
• South Dakota State University, Degree Requirements
• The University of Idaho
• Sam Houston State University - Texas
• Sul Ross State University - Texas
• Texas A & M - Kingsville
• Texas A & M - Commerce
• Texas A&M University
• Texas State University
• Texas Tech University
• Tarleton State University -Texas
• University of Arkansas
• University of Georgia
• University of Missouri, Degree Requirements
• Utah State University
• Washington State University
• West Virginia University
• West Texas A & M - Texas

Colleges of agriculture additionally prepare students for careers in all aspects of the food and agricultural system. Some career choices include food science, veterinary science, farming, ranching, teaching, marketing, agricultural communication, management, and social services. Colleges and universities awarded about 21,000 bachelor's degrees in agriculture per year in 1988, and about 6,000 master's or doctor's degrees.

Research

Each land-grant university has an agricultural experiment station equipped with laboratories and experimental farms. There, agricultural scientists work to develop better farming methods, solve the special problems of local farmers, and provide new technology. Research published in scholarly journals about agricultural safety is available from the NIOSH-supported National Agricultural Safety Database. The American Dairy Science Association provides research and education scholarships focused on the dairy farm and processing industries.

Extension service

The Cooperative Extension System is a partnership of the federal, state, and county governments. This service distributes information gathered by the land-grant universities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture to farmers, families, and young people. County extension agents, located in most countries (1988), train and support about 3 million (1988) volunteer leaders. Agents and volunteers carry out extension programs through meetings, workshops, newsletters, radio, television, and visits.

Related Organizations

Professional organizations in the United States related to agricultural education include the American Association for Agricultural Education (AAAE), the Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE), the National Association of Agricultural Educators (NAAE), and The National Council for Agricultural Education (The council).

4H Club is considered a youth development program that teaches children about sciences, leadership, research, etc. 4H club has over 6 million members nationwide and is the largest youth development organization in the United States. 4H members use hands on learning to reach goals and help in communities. Members of 4-H carry out group and individual projects dealing with conservation, food and agriculture, health and safety, and other subjects. The 4-H program in the United States is part of the Cooperative Extension service.

Somewhat similarly, the FFA is a national organization that teaches students leadership skills and is designed to help members become more well rounded citizens in the agricultural field. The FFA is an integral part of the program of agricultural education in many high schools as a result of Public Law 740 in 1950 (Currently revised as Public Law 105-225 of the 105th Congress of the United States), with 649,355 FFA members (2016-2017). Local chapters participate in Career Development Events (individually and as a team), each student has a Supervised Agricultural Experience program (SAE), and participates in many conferences and conventions to develop leadership, citizenship, patriotism and excellence in agriculture. The National FFA Organization is structured from the local chapter up, including local districts, areas, regions, state associations, and the national level. The FFA Mission is to make a positive difference in the lives of students by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal growth, and career success through agricultural education.

Outside the US

Hurlstone Agricultural High School in Australia maintains a dairy with 42 head of cattle.

The history of agricultural education predates US activities and initially developed in Scottish, Italian and German colleges. The land grant approach of the USA owes much to the Scottish system in particular. Changes in higher agricultural education around the world today are highlighting implicit approaches that have hampered development and exceptional advances that have fed the world. the process has been described in one text (below) which takes a global perspective.

Agricultural education in other countries resembles that in the United States. Canada has its own 4-H program. Agriculture Canada distributes information on new farming methods and maintains experimental farms, research stations, and research institutions throughout the country. BC Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation operates in the province of British Columbia. In Australia, each state has several agricultural research stations and an extension service. Great Britain has a program of youth clubs called Young Farmer's Clubs that resemble 4-H. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations works to train people throughout the world in modern farming methods. The United States gives technical assistance to farmers in developing nations through its Agency for International Development (AID).

The Green School Alliance (GSA) founded in 2007 has been working globally to expand it's network of peer-to-peer Green Schools which focus on teaching sustainability and environmental education. It is a non-profit organization with free and voluntary membership. It has accrued 8,087 member schools from 48 states and 91 countries.

Australia

Farrer Memorial Agricultural High School

As of February 2015 Agriculture in Australia employs over 235,300 people in the agriculture, fishing and forestry and fishing industry. This industry alone equates to 12% share of the GDP earning close to $155 billion a year. The farmers own a combined 135,997 farms covering approximately 61% of the land mass.

Given these figures the agricultural programs in place in school and universities in very important to the future of the county. Several high schools operate across the country specifying in agriculture education. Predominantly these high schools are set in the rural areas with access to land. On the majority of cases the students often travel 1000 km to attend schools, taking up residence at the schools as boarders for the school term. One of the biggest in Australia is Farrer Memorial Agricultural High School in central New South Wales.

The Agriculture in Education programme launched by the Australian government in 2015 helps teachers better understand the products and processes associated with food and fibre production and gives students an opportunity to understand the importance of agriculture in the Australian economy. Topics covered by the materials include: designing and making a financial plan for a market garden, free range chicken farming, food security, and sustainable production practices in food and fibre. The agricultural environment has changed enormously over the past 15 years, with greater emphasis on product quality issues, vertical integration from production to consumer, diversity in demand options, and environmental namely drought, welfare and ethical issues.

Western Australia

In Western Australia, The Western Australian College of Agriculture is the primary provider of high schools in the state providing excellent educational opportunities at six campuses located near Cunderdin, Denmark, Esperance, Harvey, Morawa and Narrogin.

Each Campus has modern facilities on commercial sized farms and offers Year 10, 11 and 12 programs for male and female students. The students study a range of School Curriculum and Standards Authority subjects leading to Secondary Graduation and the Western Australian Certificate of Education and also complete vocational qualifications from Industry Training Packages. The major focus is on the study of agriculture but the program may also include horticulture, viticulture, equine, aquaculture, forestry, building construction, metals and engineering and automotive. Each Campus offers some specialist programs that can lead to tertiary study and apprenticeships and careers in a range of agriculture related vocations.

Tertiary studies located in Perth are available at Curtin University, Murdoch University and Muresk Institute offering degrees in Agriculture including Agricultural Business Management and Agricultural Science.

Western Australian is in a precarious position and faces several challenges, fact that agriculture in Australia is affected by an ongoing shortage of labour and of skills. Labour supply is being adversely affected by an ageing workforce, retirements by baby boomers, seasonal nature of the lower skilled workforce and an inability to attract sufficient young people to work in the industry.

Agricultural educators

• Otto Frederick Hunziker, Purdue University
• John Wrightson, Downton Agricultural College
• Raymond A. Pearson, Cornell University
• HAS University of Applied Sciences
• Kasetsart University
• King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
• Wageningen University

Agricultural safety and health

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_safety_and_health

Agricultural safety and health is an aspect of occupational safety and health in the agricultural workplace. It specifically addresses the health and safety of farmers, farm workers, and their families.

A Fordson Dexta tractor with a rollover protection structure bar retro-fitted.

Contrary to perceived beliefs and notions of work in the agricultural landscape, agriculture is one of the most dangerous industries in the US, with a variety of factors causing injuries and death in the workplace. Many of the injuries, long-term or short, prevalent in the occupation are hearing loss, musculoskeletal disorders, respiratory diseases, poisoning from pesticides and chemicals, reproductive issues, and many other ailments. These injuries are caused mainly by loud noises from machinery, stress from transporting heavy objects, gases and fumes like methane and from chemicals, and other various causes, respectively.

Overview

The agriculture industry is one of the most dangerous occupations and has led to thousands of deaths due to work-related injuries in the US. In 2011 the fatality rate for farmworkers was 7 times higher than that of all the workers in the private industry, a difference of 24.9 deaths for every 100,000 people as opposed to 3.5 deaths for every 100,000 people in the private industry. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) estimated that 374 farmers and farmworkers died due to a work-related injury in 2012, tractor overturns being the number one cause of death. An average of 113 youth between the ages of 16–19 years die annually from agriculture-related injuries (1995-2002). About 167 farmworkers each day are affected by a lost-work-time injury in which 5% of them suffer from permanent damage. Non-fatal injuries that farmworkers are at high risk for include work-related lung problems, hearing loss due to noise, skin diseases, various cancers due to exposure to certain chemicals as well as prolonged exposure to the sun.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has stressed that while the industry produces a necessary product needed by everyone, the industry is diminishing in prevalence and only recently, has been viewed as an occupation needed of further knowledge and development of safety measures and standards. Following a 1988 national conference held at Ohio State University and University of Ohio, the report Agriculture at risk was published in the Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. This report was funded by NIOSH, who assisted with the initiation of research and implementation regarding agricultural health issues, illnesses, and safety measures in the workplace.

The demographics behind agricultural work have been changing throughout the years, with the rise of more private, family owned farm industries, as well as the increasing prevalence of young farm workers and changes in workforce gender. Young farm workers are at a greater risk than older or adult farm workers of injury, but this issue is not addressed to the full extent due to nonexistence in the statistics of the Bureau of Labor, which only regards those of age 16 and older. Increase of young farm workers could be attributed to the rising trend of "return to farming". Not only young workers, but women farm workers are increasing at a steady rate as the lead operators of the farm industries.

Hazards and outcomes

Illnesses and injuries regarding agriculture can vary from one farm to another, according to which industry or sector the farm specializes in. This becomes more apparent as the environment of each farm is different according to these specialties, which in turn poses different areas of risk factors leading to injuries and ailments. In all though, there are similarities in the risk factors and illnesses that agricultural workers face on a day to day basis as in injuries from machinery, large animals, pesticides, respiratory illness-causing factors, musculoskeletal disorders, hearing loss, reproductive issues regarding women, and many more. The most common illnesses seem to be musculoskeletal disorders, pesticide poisoning, and respiratory diseases.

According to a 2011 study by the National Agricultural Statistics Service, a major cause of injury and deaths in the workplace comes from farm machinery/vehicles, specifically tractor overturns.

Physical hazards

Machinery and livestock

Musculoskeletal disorders can arise from a number of factors, but the main causes seem to be from livestock and large machinery/equipment. Machinery are usually devoid of safety measures and pose a greater threat, since agricultural workers fix and operate these machines themselves for utilization in the fields. These machines may also be run while repairs are under way, causing even more instances of potential injuries Bending, twisting, and stretching motions that are apparent when operating these equipment causes much back and neck strain, leading to more exacerbated conditions over time. This is in regards to not only agricultural workers operating machinery, but also workers in the fields, who experience pain and strains in the wrists, back, hips, and knees.

Livestock can also pose a threat to the musculoskeletal systems of the body due to their large weight and varied behaviour, possibly leading to kicking and unintentional blows by the animal to the agricultural worker. No matter the cause, it is apparent that musculoskeletal disorders are common in the agricultural industry and need to be addressed to treat the ailment as quickly as possible.

Handling livestock involves a risk of injury. Large livestock, especially, have the ability to crush the handler, and without proper training and competent workers, unrestrained cattle can seriously injure workers, visitors, and even vets. Proper handling facilities that are kept in working order are suggested when dealing with larger livestock. A suitable race and crush may be helpful, but makeshift equipment has more hazards and risk of injury. When keeping bulls, most accidents occur because of the lack of precaution when handling the bull. Because bulls are temperamental, training will be helpful when exposing the bull to others. Bulls who are willing to be trained can be taught to associate people will their needs, such as feeding, exercise, and grooming. Training will then make a less hazardous workplace if the bull is docile. At 10 months, it is suggested to ring bulls, and the ring must be inspected regularly. Competent workers and proper handling will avoid fatal injuries.

In a study regarding agricultural work safety climate of approximately 300 North Carolina migrant farmworkers, 40% had musculoskeletal ailments and many reported numerous days working while ill. Many underestimated the safety measures they were able to obtain and thought that risks were inevitable due to the risks involved in agriculture. Musculoskeletal disorders are categorized into acute or first time injuries and chronic long-term ailments according to many acute injuries.

Musculoskeletal problems control guidelines

Guideline for handwork

• Avoid placing needed tools or other items above shoulder height.
• When movements are repeated over and over, as in picking or weeding, allow enough time in between for adequate recovery, by having the worker alternate with a low-repetition task. For example, a worker who performs a high repetition weeding task should be given other tasks that don't require repetitive hand motions, like carrying the finished boxes to the loading area.
• Provide seated jobs. Sitting down while working reduces the strain on the lower back and legs. Standing causes legs to swell (more than walking does). The best jobs are ones that allow workers to do different types of work, changing from sitting to standing to walking and back again.
• Allow foot and knee clearances for both standing and sitting workers, so they can get close to the work.
• Provide floor mats for standing work stations, to reduce fatigue.
• For standing work, use the proper work station height.

Guidelines for hand tools

• When tools require force, handle size should allow the worker to grip all the way around the handle so that the forefinger and thumb overlap by 3/8". Handle diameter should range from 1-3/8" for small hands to 2-1/8" for large hands, with an average of 1-3/4".
• Handles should be covered with smooth, slip-resistant material (plastic or rubber). Dual-handled tools (like shears or pliers) should have a handle length of at least 4" and preferably 5". They should have a spring return to maintain an open position, and handles that are almost straight without finger grooves.

Guidelines for lifting

• Keep lifts between hand level and shoulder level. Avoid lifts from the floor or over shoulder level.
• Provide handles on containers.
• Redesign loads so they can be lifted close to the body.
• Provide dollies, pallet trucks, or utility carts for objects that have to be carried more than a few feet. Provide roller conveyors for bags or boxes of vegetables or chemicals that are handled often. This will reduce the amount of lifting.
• Keep bag or box weight below 50 lbs. Or use the NIOSH Lifting Equation to determine an acceptable weight.

Guidelines for stooped work

• Redesign the job to avoid stooped work:
  • Attach long handles to tools.
  • Provide stools.
  • If stooped work is required, provide employees with other short tasks that require walking or sitting.

Hazardous noise

Hazardous noise can be very common in farming and result from numerous sources including machinery, livestock, and even pesticides. Reducing noise or wearing personal protective equipment is important to prevent hearing loss, tinnitus, and other conditions resulting from hearing loss.

Chemical and biological hazards

Pesticides

Main article: Pesticide poisoning

Pesticide application for chemical control of nematodes in a sunflower planted field. Karaisalı, Adana - Turkey.

Chemicals and pesticides used to control and/or kill insects, vegetation, fungi, and small animals can also be harmful to humans. Human toxicity of pesticides varies based on the type of chemical, route of exposure, the dose of the chemical, and duration of exposure. Some of the common chemicals used in agriculture are bipyridyls, organophosphates, and carbamates. There is a wide range of effects that pesticides may have on humans. Exposure may result in reproductive effects, carcinogenic effects, neurotoxicity, immunosuppression, and more.

There are two types of toxicity: acute toxicity and chronic toxicity. Acute toxicity describes the effects which appear shortly after exposure, generally within 24 hours. Chronic toxicity describes the delayed effects of a substance after exposure. Acute toxicity and chronic toxicity are not necessarily indicative of one another; a chemical that has high chronic toxicity does not necessarily have high acute toxicity, as is the same for the opposite relationship.

Exposure risk

Exposure to pesticides can occur at any point of contact, from the process of making pesticides to use in agricultural tasks like harvesting crops or irrigating fields. Agricultural workers are at an exceptionally high risk of pesticide poisoning due to their high exposure rates. Part of the problem arises from a lack of adequate safety measures as well as standardized utilization of personal protective equipment. The majority of the United States' use of pesticides is in agriculture, with 75% being used in this industry. Exposure risks can range widely and even include hearing risks from pesticides alone or in combination with noise.

Symptoms

Individual symptoms may vary based on pesticide and route of exposure, however general symptoms of pesticide poisoning include headache, fatigue, weakness, dizziness, restlessness, nervousness, perspiration, nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite, loss of weight, thirst, moodiness, soreness of joints, skin irritation, eye irritation, and irritation of the nose and throat. Moderate to severe symptoms include stomach cramps, muscle twitches, extreme weakness, mental confusion, blurred vision, difficulty breathing, fever, intense thirst, and death. If someone displays any of these signs after being exposed to a pesticide, contact a medical professional immediately.

In a study by the California Department of Pesticide Regulation and the SENSOR- Pesticides program, regarding pesticide poisoning incidence rates out of 3,271 cases, 402 individuals had medium severity illnesses from pesticide exposure with high severity cases being rare and lower severity being more common. From this study, the pesticides that were deemed to cause most cases of diseases were cholinesterase inhibitors, pyrethroids, inorganic compounds, and dithiocarbamates. Insecticides, specifically cholinesterase inhibitors (N-methyl carbamates and organophosphates) cause a majority of the illnesses in 54% of the individuals in the case. Some of the more common symptoms seen in pesticide poisoning were nervous system impairments, headaches, gastrointestinal issues, respiratory impairments, skin impairments, inflammations, and many more.

Respiratory hazards

Recently, agricultural respiratory diseases have been rising from development of animal production facilities causing toxic fumes to permeate the area. Much of the irritants involved in causing these diseases are ammonia, organic dust, hydrogen sulfide, bacterial microorganisms, mold, and various hydrocarbons.

Respiratory Diseases common to agriculture include:

• Farmer's lung (hypersensitivity pneumonitis)
• Asthma
• Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome
• Silo Filler's Disease
• Agricultural exposures can lead to the development of several diverse lung diseases, including: COPD, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and interstitial lung disease.
• Agricultural exposures can also worsen symptoms caused by pre-existing lung disease.
• Clinicians should inquire about agricultural exposures while trying to determine the etiologic of unexplained respiratory symptoms.

Recommendations to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases

Farmer's lung

• Identifying and reducing the contaminants in your work area.
• Decreasing exposure to contaminants (e.g., mould spores).
• Reducing mould spores by using commercially available mould inhibitors.
• Harvest, bale, store, and ensile grains at the recommended moisture level to reduce mould growth.
• Examine feeding system to identify ways to automate feeding to decrease the release of airborne mould spores.
• Avoid working in dusty places in confined space areas.
• Ventilate (e.g., fans, exhaust blowers, etc.) to mechanically remove air contaminants.
• Wear a double strap dust mask or organic dust filter equipped respirator rated at least N95 to reduce your exposure to contaminants.

Organic dust toxicity syndrome

To reduce your risk of contracting ODTS, following the same recommendations for the prevention of Farmer's Lungs is applied . Wearing a respirator to reduce your exposure to organic dust. Implementing best management practices to maintain good air quality in confinement buildings used for swine and poultry and always wear the appropriate respiratory protective equipment

Silo filler's disease

• Never enter the silo during the first 2 – 3 days after filling.
• If entry is required after day 3, ventilate the silo and all adjacent areas by running the silo blower for 15 to 20 minutes before and during entry.
• Use a portable gas monitor to monitor the gas and oxygen levels in the silo.
• Always have at least two people outside of the silo that you can visually communicate with at all times.
• Wear a N95 rated dust mask if entering the silo after the three week post-filling period.
• If entry is completely unavoidable during the three week period, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus.

Asthma

• Store grain at recommended moisture content levels to reduce the growth of mold spores.
• Ventilate animal housing areas to decrease the accumulation of ammonia and other gases.
• Frequently remove animal waste from the barn to decrease ammonia build-up and reduce exposure to urine and faecal allergens.
• Identify high dust hazards around the farmstead and reduce dust exposure by cleaning these areas.
• When cleaning a barn or stable, lightly water areas to reduce the risk for airborne dust.
• Wear a NIOSH approved and properly fitted N-95 or N-100 disposable particulate respirator when completing work tasks (e.g., cleaning, harvesting, grain handling, etc.) to protect yourself from dust, bacteria, fungi, insects, and animal products.

Respiratory diseases are preventable by controlling harmful exposures to organic dust, toxic gases and chemicals on farms through improvements in animal rearing techniques, ventilation of animal accommodation, careful drying and storage of animal feed-stuffs, crops and other products, and use of personal protective equipment.

Zoonotic disease

Magnified 100X, and stained with H&E (hematoxylin and eosin) staining technique, this light photomicrograph of brain tissue reveals the presence of prominent spongiotic changes in the cortex, and loss of neurons in a case of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD).

Exposure to animal with diseases are a risk for agricultural workers. Zoonosis are diseases that are transmitted from infected animals to humans. Most zoonotic diseases are caused by organisms such as parasites, bacteria, prions, fungi, protozoa, and viruses, which reside within the animal but can be pathogens to humans. Direct or indirect transmission from feces or bodily fluids can result in infection, and consuming animal products that are contaminated can also become a cause of infection. Because of their close contact with animals, farmers, veterinarians, ranchers, and other agricultural workers are more at risk for contracting zoonotic diseases.

Examples of zoonotic diseases include anthrax, avian influenza, brucellosis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, leptospirosis, mycobacterium bovis, orthohantavirus, psittacosis, rabies, tularemia, and Zika virus.

Subpopulations

Migrant farm workers

Migrant farm workers are especially at risk for workplace injury and illness with pesticide exposure causing the majority of illness. A migrant farm worker is an individual who is required to be absent from a permanent place of residence for the purpose of seeking employment in agricultural work. There is estimated to be 1 to 2.7 million farm workers in the United States and farm workers are an integral component to the U.S, agriculture industry. The majority of these workers follow the seasonal crop harvest across the country, or a state. On average, according to the BLS in 2017, a farm worker makes $11.41 per hour with an annual income of $23,730. In 2017, the US Dept. of HHS reported the federal poverty line, for a family of four, as being $24,600.

Injury and illness

Migrant farm workers are exposed to several different kinds of pesticides, tractor and mechanical injuries. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) 2015 Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses reported 36,000 farm workers experienced an injury, and approximately 420 reported work related fatalities. These numbers for deaths are four-fold higher than other comparable work related industries such as hunting, fishing, and construction. However, this does not represent the actual amount of injury and death that occurs in this industry because the majority of states do not require reporting of accidents or injuries.

Safety regulation

Because of the low SES of the migrant farmworker, and the fact that the agricultural industry is one of the least regulated commercial industries in our country, farming has been able to ignore the safety and healthy working conditions that are causing harm to these workers. For farms, the lack of regulation from OSHA to post and inform their employees about the types of chemicals and pesticides used on the job site has perpetuated the lack of knowledge and understanding that these workers and their families are exposed to daily. OSHA requires that farms with 11 or more employees must provide drinking water, toilets, and hand washing water. However, 95%, or the majority of our farms in the US, fall below the 11 or more employees, and thus are exempt from those OSHA regulations; and around 69% of the farms who were inspected that meet the 11 or more requirement, failed to be in compliance.

Contaminated water

Because many farms do not employ 11 or more workers, they are exempt from OSHA employee water provision requirements. Some of these workers resort to bathe, drink and use what they perceive to be clean water from local sources, for their personal needs, when in fact the water is often contaminated with pesticides, chemicals, and organic wastes. Unfortunately, many migrant farm workers do not realize that the water being sprayed on the crops, and next to the places they live, contains pesticide. There are stories of workers running through sprinklers of water to cool themselves off, but they are running through water mixed with pesticide. Children who play in ditches next to fields where the pesticide-contaminated water runs into are at high risk for pesticide exposure. Workers and their families are often exposed to pesticides when it is being sprayed as it drifts in the wind.

Unique considerations

Many seasonal migrant farm workers fear repercussions if they seek better work conditions because many do not have work visas and fear deportation. Additionally, when migrants are hired, they often do not come with experience, knowledge about their work, or own safety gear, and they are most often not provided with work safety training or safety equipment. When the training happens, they are not carried out in a manner that shows learning or understanding of what was taught. Many migrant workers do not report injury or illness for fear of losing their work, being deported, language barriers, inability to access healthcare, and lack of knowledge about the problem as being a result of their work. According to the 2013-2014 National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS), 75% of all agricultural workers were foreign born, 31% reported they could speak English ‘well,’ and had an average completed education of 8th grade. These demographics make farmworkers particularly at risk for work-related injury and illness because they may not be able to understand safety instructions of warning if those instructions or warnings are given. In addition, the average income of a farm worker is below the federal poverty line, which puts them at risk for further health disparities.

Youth

Incidents that occur involving farm machinery are a risk to children under the age of 13 and those who are employed in any way must be properly trained by their employer in order to use the machinery. According to the law, children under 13 cannot drive any farm machinery, and children under 16 cannot operate machinery that is equipped with mechanisms that could seriously injure them. Even if there is an adult present within the machine, children under 13 cannot sit within the cab of an agricultural vehicle. As for children or adults who are not there for labor, use of a trailer may be allowed under the condition that the trailer is in good condition, has good seating, is fitted with guard railing, and supervision is supplied at all times.

Children are also prohibited from being within the vicinity of a potentially dangerous animal. Without competent supervision, animals can exhibit behaviors that may severely injure a child in the area. Children are exposed to potential danger in the farm, so areas that chemicals are stored, reservoirs, slurry pits, grain bins, and that contain farm machinery, must be properly enclosed with fencing or locked for precaution.

Nonfatal injuries in agriculture that occur may permanently disable, injure, or kill youths over 13 on the farm in the United States. An estimation of $1 billion annually has been spent on nonfatal injuries to youths in agriculture. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health has created the Childhood Agricultural Injury Prevention Initiative for young workers and their employers to reduce the amount of injures on the job. 33,000 children have farm-related injuries each year in the United States, and 113 who are less than 20 years of age have died from farm-related injuries between 1995 and 2002.

History

In 1991, the Surgeon General's Conference in Des Moines, Iowa, was held to bring awareness to the risks that children face in production agriculture. A session titled "Intervention: Safe Behaviors Among Adults and Children," emphasized the need for children's injury prevention. This conference was followed by the Childhood Agricultural Injury Prevention symposium in Marshfield, Wisconsin, that sought to propose policies, further education on agricultural injuries among children, and demonstrate relevant research on the topic. As a result of the symposium, the National Committee for Childhood Agricultural Injury Prevention (NCCAIP) was formed. From this, the National Action Plan was finalized over 16 months, and it addressed agricultural injuries that occurred to children.

Organic farmers

Agricultural farming in our society directly relates to organic farming because the choice directly comes from the farmer and their practice. It is important to understand how choosing organic practice can positively and negatively effect the farmer. While many boycott eating non-organic for health reasons, there is very little needed by farmers to gain the approval "organic." In regard to the farmers, it is hard in many locations to ensure stable crops and a successful outcome without indeed adding pesticides and farming tactics that do not align with organic farming practice.

Regulation

Unlike other industries that impose labor laws and occupational safety and health regulations in the workplace, agriculture deals with diverse production, large labor force and an array of environmental conditions that makes it difficult to address.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the first law towards agriculture safety started in 1878 with the Threshing Machines Act 1878. As the industry mechanized, the Chaff-Cuttings Machine (Accidents) Act 1897 provided slightly more statutory protection. In 1947, the Health, Welfare, and Safety in Non-Industrial Employment Hours of Employment of Juveniles: Report by a Committee of Enquiry was presented to the Parliament, leading to two acts. These two acts, the Agriculture (Poisonous Substances) Act 1952, and the Agriculture (Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions) Act 1956. The Agriculture (Poisonous Substances) Act 1952, which protected employees against risks of poisoning, while the Agriculture (Safety, Health and Welfare Provisions) Act 1956 gave workers and children health protection and safeguards. However, it was repealed and modified in 1975 by the Agriculture (Safety, Health and Welfare Provisions) Act 1956 (Repeals and Modifications) Regulations 1975.

The most recent event has occurred in 2008 in which the Pesticide Safety Directorate (PSD) is now under the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), with the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) being the previous department to oversee the PSD.

United States

The Occupational Safety & Health Administration logo.

In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) overviews agricultural safety. as with all OSHA standards, it is covered by Section 5(a)(1) and Section 5(a)(2), which requires employers to "furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees" and to comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this act." Agriculture Safety is covered by the Agriculture (29 CFR 1928), which mostly covers farm equipment and operation, and the General Industry (29 CFR 1910) standards, which defines workplace safety for all industries. In addition to that, there are 28 OSHA-approved State Plans that have standards that are "at least as effective as OSHA's and may have different or more stringent requirements".

The Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act, passed in 1983, was created to protect seasonal migrant farm workers in the areas of transportation, housing, adequate payment, and safety protections. The law also made it mandatory for all employers using contract labor to register with the US Department of Labor, which was intended to facilitate greater enforcement of migrant workers rights. In 1995, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established the Worker Protection Standard (WPS) which establishes minimum requirements to protect workers from pesticide poisoning and injury. The WPS has since been modified and expanded. Basic protections of the WPS include safety training; notification of where and when pesticides have been sprayed; the keeping of workers out of pesticide-treated areas until safe; employers to provide protective equipment, facilities for decontamination, and facilitate emergency medical care if necessary.

Grain entrapment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_entrapment

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration illustration of grain entrapment

Grain entrapment, or grain engulfment, occurs when a person becomes submerged in grain and cannot get out without assistance. It most frequently occurs in grain bins and other storage facilities such as silos or grain elevators, or in grain transportation vehicles, but has also been known to occur around any large quantity of grain, even freestanding piles outdoors. Usually, unstable grain collapses suddenly, wholly or partially burying workers who may be within it. Entrapment occurs when victims are partially submerged but cannot remove themselves; engulfment occurs when they are completely buried within the grain. Engulfment has a very high fatality rate.

While the death rate from workplace accidents on American farms has declined in the first decades of the 21st century, grain-entrapment deaths have not, reaching an all-time annual high of 31 deaths in 2010. Many of those victims have been minors. Agricultural organizations have worked to protect them and improve rescue techniques, as well as spread awareness among farmers of prevention methods. Primary among these is a federal regulation that forbids opening an auger or other opening at the bottom of a grain storage facility while someone is known to be "walking down the grain" within.

Smaller family farms, however, are exempt from most federal labor regulation specific to agriculture, and no safety regulations govern children working for their parents. In 2011, the U.S. Department of Labor proposed sweeping new regulations that would have changed this, prohibiting underage workers from entering silos, among other provisions. They were withdrawn after protests from farmers and politicians of both U.S. parties.

Occurrence

I don't even recall how high the corn was. It came down and got me with no warning. Too fast, too much, and I don't like remembering it.

— Bodie Blissett, Mississippi farm worker, on being entrapped in grain up to his neck

At some grain-handling facilities, employees "walk down the grain" on top of it to expedite the flow of grain from the top when it is being allowed to flow out the bottom. This is the most common cause of grain entrapments. Regulations issued by the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) specifically forbid this at larger commercial facilities subject to them; most smaller farms are not. It may also be necessary to enter a grain storage facility to remove damp, clumped grain (usually from early spoilage) stuck on the walls. Entrapments have also occurred to children in grain transportation vehicles, or to those outside when grain is released from a storage facility or next to large freestanding grain piles.

Workers in the grain can become entrapped in three different ways: an apparently stable surface may in fact be a "grain bridge" over an area beneath which the grain has already settled; a vertical mass of grain settled against a wall may suddenly give way while being cleared; moving grain will not support the weight of an average person.

Once entrapment begins, it happens very quickly due to the suction-like action of the grain. Researchers in Germany found that an average person who has sunk into grain once it has stopped flowing can get out only as long as it has not reached knee level; at waist level assistance is required. Once the grain has reached the chest a formal rescue effort must be undertaken.

Half of all entrapment victims eventually become engulfed. A human body in grain takes seconds to sink, minutes to suffocate, and hours to locate and recover. Recovered bodies have shown signs of blunt force trauma from the impact of the grain; one victim was found to have a dislocated jaw.

At a depth of 1.5 metres (5 ft), the lateral pressure of grain, as experimentally measured by load cells placed against bin walls, is 5–7 kilopascals (0.73–1.02 psi); at 12 metres (40 ft) it is 20–30 kPa (2.9–4.4 psi), which appears to be its maximum. While those pressures are less than water at equivalent depths, they are measurements of active pressure against bin walls rather than the passive pressure a body would experience, which is always greater. A victim trapped horizontally faces greater pressures, 30 kPa (4.4 psi) at 1.5 metres (5 ft) and 90 kPa (13 psi) at 12 metres (40 ft).

That pressure can make it difficult to breathe even when the victim's airway is unobstructed; it increases with every inhalation, making it more critical to secure breathing space for a victim in that situation. It has been likened to concrete, cement or quicksand; and described as making it impossible to even wiggle toes inside a shoe or boot; one survivor said he felt as if an "80,000-pound (36 t) semi truck had parked on [his] chest." The compression also makes it hard for blood to circulate, reducing the oxygen that gets to cells and increasing the amount of toxins in the system.

Suffocation rarely occurs from the weight of the grain, but rather from the grain itself. If a victim's airway remains unobstructed, or they find an air pocket within the grain, they may be able to keep breathing and be rescued; the 40–60% porosity of stored grain makes it at least theoretically possible. In one instance a trapped person was able to survive for three hours. In 2013 an Iowa man wearing a battery-powered mask that filtered out dust, a result of his asthma, was engulfed two feet (61 cm) below the surface of 22,000 US bushels (780 m³) of corn in an 80,000-US-bushel (2,800 m³) bin. The respirator mask enabled him to survive, drifting in and out of consciousness for five hours until he was rescued by draining the bin slowly after efforts to pull him through the rope he was attached to failed. At that time, his heart rate was 173 beats per minute, near his maximum; he was hospitalized for two days afterwards.

Rescue

Several factors complicate the rescue of entrapment victims even if their heads remain above the grain. Most grain storage and handling facilities are located on farms in rural areas, often distant from trained rescuers such as fire or ambulance services. They are also confined spaces, posing hazards to rescuers.

Foremost among them is the air within. Carbon dioxide or toxic gases, such as nitrogen oxides, accumulate from spoiling grain. They can cause asphyxiation in great enough concentrations without proper ventilation of the area. The dust can also sometimes have molds or spores that may be toxic or cause allergic reactions. There is at least one documented instance of a first responder requiring treatment as a result of such inhalation; rescuers are advised to wear at least dust masks or even self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

North Dakota State University (NDSU) advises farmers that as soon as an entrapment occurs, in addition to immediately notifying local emergency services, the workers at the facility be required to shut off anything causing motion in the grain, or close any outlet. Turning on the aeration fan, without any heat source activated, improves ventilation. NDSU warns rescuers to take care not to make the situation worse, and not to take action that would result in they themselves becoming entrapped or engulfed. Proper safety equipment, such as lifelines, is required for a rescue. Experts advise that no more than two should walk on the surface of the grain at any time.

Most entrapments occur in grain bins similar to these

Temperature extremes can cause problems for both rescuers and victims. Stored grain is often kept fresh by blowing dry air over it. This, combined with any moisture in the grain, can chill its core to 30 to 40 °F (−1 to 4 °C). creating a risk of hypothermia for the victim, especially one fully engulfed. Conversely, the air within the bin may be warmer than usual due to the heat released by decaying grain, the lack of exterior ventilation (especially on hot days) and any rescue activity; there is thus a risk of heat illness for those trying to free the victim. During the five hours it took to rescue the man trapped in Iowa, it was estimated that temperatures in the bin reached 120 °F (49 °C), more than 30 °F (17 °C) above that day's reported high. Firefighters carrying out the rescue were monitored closely and made to take periodic breaks; even so, one experienced heat exhaustion.

Even if a living victim is roped, they cannot simply be removed that way. Grain creates friction that resists the force used to pull them out. It requires 400 pounds-force (1.8 kN) to lift a victim buried up to their waist; removing a human completely trapped in grain takes 900 pounds-force (4.0 kN). These forces are above the level that can cause permanent spinal column injury. Some rescue attempts using ropes connected to tractors to pull victims out have resulted in separated shoulders.

Rescues of an entrapped victim usually entail building makeshift retaining walls in the grain around them with plywood, sheet metal, tarpaulins, snow fences or any other similar material available. Once that has been done, the next step is creating the equivalent of a cofferdam within the grain from which grain can then be removed by hand, shovel, grain vacuum or other extraction equipment. Purpose-built plastic grain rescue tubes are also available for this purpose; using them causes an increase in pressure around the victim, possibly by increasing the bulk density of the grain within the tube, which in turn requires more force to pull them out until the grain surrounding them is removed.

While some of these techniques have been used to retrieve engulfed victims or their bodies as well, in those cases it is also common to cut a hole, or attempt to, in the side of the storage facility; this requires consulting an engineer to make sure it can be done without compromising the facility's structural integrity; usually by cutting high up and in a uniform pattern around the side of the bin. It is also possible that this can suck the trapped person deeper into the grain. This appears to be most effective in facilities with a capacity of 20,000 US bushels (700 m³) or less. There is also the possibility of a dust explosion, although none are known to have occurred yet during a rescue attempt.

Survivors of grain entrapment also may require treatment. Many develop painful contusions from the pressure of the grain they were confined in; it is not uncommon for them to lose consciousness due to the drop in blood pressure as circulation returns to normal. Glenn Blahey, president of the Canadian Agricultural Safety Association (CASA), recalls one incident where a man rescued from a Manitoba grain bin had to be immediately hospitalized as he went into a coma for several days afterwards due to the toxins that had built up in his bloodstream as a result of the oxygen deprivation that occurred during the hours it took to rescue him.

Rescued victims have also experienced psychological issues. The survivor of a 2010 Illinois entrapment that killed both his coworkers experienced survivor guilt, with accompanying insomnia, and turned to heavy alcohol and marijuana use to deal with it. Feeling himself to be his town's "Bubble Boy", he did not return to work at the facility where it happened, instead taking a job at a local grocery across the street from the bin he was entrapped in, where the holes cut during the rescue were still visible. A Brazilian entrapment survivor says he was fired by his employer after refusing to return to work in the bins and asking to be assigned elsewhere in the company's operations.

Prevention

The best way to prevent grain entrapments is zero entry: the near or complete elimination of any reasons to enter a grain storage facility. This can be accomplished primarily by storing grain properly. If kept at the proper moisture level of 14 percent or less and protected from the elements, grain will not form the kind of clumps that create grain bridges or other areas of unequal density within and require clearance.

Entrapments are more likely when grain is more spoiled. "Coring" grain by removing some of it from the center after the facility has been filled also reduces spoilage since it generally takes the broken and smaller grains where insects tend to grow within. The University of Iowa's Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health (GPCAH) advises that any clearing of clumped grain be done from outside using a long pole.

Strict policies about entering the area where grain is stored, should that be absolutely necessary, would further prevent entrapments, according to GPCAH. Foremost among them is a requirement that all gas levels be checked prior to entry. Levels of oxygen outside 19–23 percent, carbon monoxide above 25 ppm, hydrogen sulfide above 10 ppm and phosphine above 0.3 ppm, or odors associated with rotting or burning grain, or a chemical smell, indicate that there may be considerable spoilage and entry poses too great a hazard.

Purdue's experts warn that workers should not be alone, unless they have a radio or cell phone to communicate. Signs indicating the potential hazard at the entry are strongly advised, as well as a rule that anyone who does not have a good reason to be in the grain should not be there. To minimize entrapment, employers can implement training programs for working inside bins if it is necessary and make sure only those who have been trained do that work; they should also have a plan in place for how to respond to an entrapment, GPCAH suggests.

OSHA's regulations require that employees who enter stored grain do so attached to either a lifeline or boatswain's chair, that one other employee be assigned to observe them, and that rescue equipment adequate to the task be available. At farms and feedlots not subject to those regulations, it is sometimes common to tie a permanent lifeline to the inside of the storage facility. This has not been found to be effective, as the grain's suction often pulls the victim under the surface too fast for them to reach it, and most are not secured firmly enough that they would not fail under the load.

Education

Agricultural safety advocates use different means to warn farmers of the danger of grain entrapment, since they believe many underestimate the risks despite having almost experienced it themselves. Many agricultural organizations and schools, as well as government agencies, publish and disseminate grain safety information, both as documents and videos, on the Internet and off. In 2019 the Illinois-based Grain Handling Safety Coalition produced SILO, a short dramatic feature film telling the story of a fictional entrapment and successful rescue of a farm family's teenage son.

Several organizations have developed a mobile grain entrapment simulator, used for both training and educational purposes in the US and Canada. In it, a human volunteer can be strapped into place and experience both how quickly they can sink into grain without risk of becoming entrapped themselves, and how effectively the grain constrains their motions, even breathing, when they do, afterwards. "A brochure is words on paper and no opportunity to ask and answer questions", says CASA's Blahey. "A face-to-face presentation is more realistic."

Researchers in the field have called for those demonstrations to use only mannequins, however, noting that some training exercises have inadvertently turned into actual rescue operations. In 2018 several of them wrote an editorial for the Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health condemning the practice of allowing children to volunteer for demonstrations, which they had personally observed on several occasions. "Each youth was in a position [where] a simple human error could ha[ve] resulted in suffocation with dozens of first responders present who would have been nearly helpless to extricate the victim in a timely manner," they wrote. "We don't use youth as automotive crash dummies, drop them off the deep end of the pool to test the capabilities of lifeguards, or test the effectiveness of ROPS by putting youth inside the cab and rolling the tractor down a hillside. That is the purpose of mannequins or test dummies."

OSHA regulations specifically forbid the use of minors in those demonstrations for training purposes, the editorial notes. Likewise, the institutional review boards of many research institutions would not permit the use of live subjects of any age in grain entrapment research. The authors also took note of the likelihood that in the event of an injury or death arising from such an educational setting gone wrong, all involved would be held liable in a lawsuit.

Statistical trends

Since 1978, the Agricultural Health and Safety Program at Purdue University in Indiana has documented grain-entrapment incidents. Its National Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database has, as of 2019, records on 1,225 reported entrapments from 1964 onward. The program has analyzed them to find consistent patterns in the hope of improving prevention and rescue efforts. Among the statistically significant patterns it has found are the type of grain in which incidents predominantly occur, the geographic locations of incidents, the type of facility they occur in and the demographics of victims.

Most recorded grain entrapments have occurred in corn.

More than half the recorded entrapments and engulfments have occurred in corn, and overwhelmingly corn stored in bins. Other grains in which victims have become entrapped include soybeans, oats, wheat, flax and canola. Given the predominance of corn as an entrapment medium, most incidents occur in the Corn Belt states (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota and Ohio) where that grain is grown and stored in quantity. Iowa has had the most accidents in some years, but Indiana has the most total with 165 as of 2019. The Purdue researchers attribute that to more extensive efforts to document those incidents in that state; based on annual grain production and storage capacity not only Iowa but Illinois and Minnesota probably have more.

Farms in states in the Upper Midwest and West, where humidity is lower and smaller grains are preferred, report fewer incidents. Over 70 percent of entrapments have occurred on small or family farms of the type exempt from OSHA grain-handling regulations, which account for two-thirds of U.S. grain storage capacity.

Recorded victims were exclusively male until 2018, when a minor died in a grain wagon at her family's farm. Three-quarters of them have been farmers, farm workers, or members of farm families. The average age of victims is in the 40s, but a disproportionate share are under 18 (youths 16 or older can work in agriculture without any restrictions). Statistics on ages of victims may be misleading, as the Purdue researchers note that in 21 of 2018's 30 reported entrapment incidents, the age of the person trapped was not given. According to Purdue professor Bill Field, entrapments in vehicles are particularly devastating for farm families, as 95 percent of the 140 deaths that occurred that way were boys under the age of 11.

In 2010, the researchers noted that 38 incidents had occurred during 2009, when the national corn harvest set a new record. This was not only the highest since 1993, it capped a period in which the five-year average had steadily increased. This rose to a record-setting 51 in 2010, when a similarly large corn harvest had a high moisture content and low test weight. Observers speculate that the demand for ethanol fuel production has fostered the increase of corn in storage. The record entrapments ran counter to the trend of declining accidents in agriculture.

At the same time, more victims are being rescued. Before 2005, a quarter of the victims were saved. Since then, the rate has improved to half. In 2011, when entrapments declined to 27, only eight resulted in fatalities.

Outside the U.S.

In Canada, CASA's Canadian Agricultural Injury Reporting system recorded 29 grain-related suffocation deaths between 1990 and 2008; however, the organization believes there were likely more due to the paucity of information available. In 2015, it counted six deaths, including three sisters in central Alberta who were buried in canola seed while playing in a grain truck on their family's farm as it was being loaded, and two rescues, based purely on media reports. CASA president Blahey told The Western Producer in 2017 that he believes there are three or four deaths annually across Canada from grain entrapment. "We never know about close calls because they're not reported."

Grain entrapment deaths occur all over the world. A 2018 BBC Brasil report found that since 2009, the latter half of a period in which that country had been rapidly increasing its grain production and storage capacity, 109 farmworkers had died while working in grain storage facilities, most of them after being buried by the material therein, usually soybeans. That death rate makes that work one of the most likely to result in death on the job after occupations where traffic accidents are a possibility, and in the uppermost quartile overall. While the dead were mostly workers, at least one rescuer asphyxiated on the gases that had accumulated in the facility; another was a woman bringing food to her husband while he worked. Several children also died. The state of Mato Grosso, which produces most of Brazil's grain, had the most of the 13 states to record grain entrapment deaths during that period with 28; within Mato Grosso, the municipality of Sorriso had the most, with seven.

In a 2017 accident in China's Shandong province, six workers died in a grain avalanche. Elsewhere, a German farmworker died after being buried up to his chest in corn, a crop grown there in large amounts only since the 1960s, while cleaning a silo in 2008. In 1997, a 14-year-old British student doing a work placement on a farm died after falling into wheat as it was being drained from a silo. U.K. statistics record four cases of grain entrapment among the 336 agricultural deaths it notes between 2005 and 2015; Purdue identifies 16 in that period.

Seven grain entrapment deaths were reported in Australia between 1991 and 2010, with one in New Zealand. Purdue's data base identifies three deaths in Ireland, two in South Africa and one apiece in Saudi Arabia, Spain and Sweden.

2011 proposed U.S. regulations

After a 2010 entrapment at a commercial grain elevator complex in Illinois killed two workers aged 14 and 19, while a third survived with injuries, OSHA assessed fines of over half a million dollars against the operators (eventually collecting little over a quarter-million). It sent letters to other grain-handling facilities afterwards reminding them of their legal and moral obligations to prevent such deaths. A year later, after another incident in Oklahoma where two teenaged boys lost legs to a sweep auger, the agency proposed new rules on child labor in agriculture.

They were the most extensive changes proposed in that area in a half-century. Most minors working in agriculture work for farms with fewer than ten employees, which are exempt from most federal workplace-safety laws and regulations. Children who work on their parents' farm are completely outside the scope of those laws, since it is believed that their parents would not let them do hazardous work. The proposed regulations, which took up 49 pages in the Federal Register, would have changed that. In its preface to the proposed regulations, the department noted that while agriculture employs only 4 percent of the country's underage workers, those workers account for 40 percent of overall deaths on the job.

However, the regulations drew opposition. While they preserved the exemption for small family farms, many observers, even proponents, felt they had overreached in scope and would prevent children of farm families from learning important skills at an early age. Even some of the family members of teenage boys who had died in entrapments told the media that the proposed rules went too far. Opposition mounted in Congress, where it was claimed that the proposed regulations were so broad they could have prevented children from doing chores on their parents' farms. Several Democratic senators from rural states facing hotly contested elections, such as Jon Tester, Claire McCaskill and Debbie Stabenow, complained about them personally to President Barack Obama.

In 2012, the Labor Department withdrew them, taking the unusual step of indicating, as it did so, that "this regulation will not be pursued for the duration of the Obama administration." Instead, the department said it would continue to work with youth-oriented agricultural organizations like the 4-H and Future Farmers of America to increase awareness of safe work practices on farms. It has also begun levying more and heavier fines for safety violations.