From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Human sexuality is the way people experience and express themselves
sexually. This involves
biological,
erotic,
physical,
emotional,
social, or
spiritual feelings and behaviors. Because it is a broad term, which has varied over time, it lacks a precise definition. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the
human reproductive functions, including the
human sexual response cycle. Someone's
sexual orientation can influence that person's sexual interest and attraction for another person.
Physical and emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between
individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical
manifestations of
love,
trust, and care. Social aspects deal with the effects of human society
on one's sexuality, while spirituality concerns an individual's
spiritual connection with others. Sexuality also affects and is affected
by cultural, political, legal, philosophical,
moral,
ethical, and religious aspects of life.
Interest in sexual activity typically increases when an individual reaches
puberty.
[6]
Opinions differ on the origins of an individual's sexual orientation
and sexual behavior. Some argue that sexuality is determined by
genetics,
while others believe it is molded by the environment, or that both of
these factors interact to form the individual's sexual orientation.
[5] This pertains to the
nature versus nurture
debate. In the former, one assumes that the features of a person
innately correspond to their natural inheritance, exemplified by drives
and instincts; the latter refers to the assumption that the features of a
person continue to change throughout their development and nurturing,
exemplified by ego ideals and formative identifications.
Evolutionary perspectives on human coupling, reproduction and
reproduction strategies, and
social learning theory provide further views of sexuality.
[7]
Socio-cultural aspects of sexuality include historical developments and
religious beliefs. Examples of these include Jewish views on sexual
pleasure within marriage and some views of other religions on avoidance
of sexual pleasures.
Some cultures have been described as sexually repressive. The study of
sexuality also includes human identity within social groups,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), and
birth control methods.
Development
Nature versus nurture
Certain characteristics may be innate in humans; these
characteristics may be modified by the physical and social environment
in which people interact.
[9] Human sexuality is driven by genetics and
mental activity. The sexual drive affects the development of
personal identity and social activities.
[10][11] An individual's
normative, social, cultural, educational, and environmental characteristics moderate the sexual drive.
[10] Two well-known schools in psychology took opposing positions in the nature-versus-nurture debate: the
Psychoanalytic school led by
Sigmund Freud and the
Behaviorist school which traces its origins to
John Locke.
Freud believed sexual drives are instinctive. He was a firm
supporter of the nature argument; he said there are a large number of
instincts but they are reduced into two broad groups:
Eros (the life instinct), which comprises the self-preserving and erotic instincts, and
Thanatos (the death instinct), which comprises instincts invoking aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty.
[12]
He gave sexual drives a centrality in human life, actions, and
behaviors that had not been accepted before his proposal. His instinct
theory said humans are driven from birth by the desire to acquire and
enhance bodily pleasures, thus supporting the nature debate. Freud
redefined the term
sexuality to make it cover any form of pleasure that can be derived from the human body.
[12]
He also said pleasure lowers tension while displeasure raises it,
influencing the sexual drive in humans. His developmentalist perspective
was governed by inner forces, especially biological drives and
maturation, and his view that humans are biologically inclined to seek
sexual gratification demonstrates the nature side of the debate.
[13]
The nurture debate traces back to
John Locke and his theory of the mind as a "
tabula rasa" or blank slate. Later,
behaviorists would apply this notion in support of the idea that the environment is where one develops one's sexual drives.
[13]
Gender differences
Psychological theories exist regarding the development and expression
of gender differences in human sexuality. A number of them, including
neo-analytic theories,
sociobiological theories,
social learning theory,
social role theory, and
script theory,
agree in predicting that men should be more approving of casual sex
(sex happening outside a stable, committed relationship such as
marriage) and should also be more
promiscuous
(have a higher number of sexual partners) than women. These theories
are mostly consistent with observed differences in males' and females'
attitudes toward casual sex before marriage in the United States; other
aspects of human sexuality, such as sexual satisfaction, incidence of
oral sex, and attitudes toward
homosexuality and
masturbation,
show little to no observed difference between males and females.
Observed gender differences regarding the number of sexual partners are
modest, with males tending to have slightly more than females.
[14]
Biological and physiological aspects
Like other
mammals, humans are primarily grouped into either the
male or
female sex,
[15] with a small proportion (around 1%) of
intersex individuals, for whom sexual classification may not be as clear.
[16][page needed] The biological aspects of humans' sexuality deal with the reproductive system, the
sexual response cycle,
and the factors that affect these aspects. They also deal with the
influence of biological factors on other aspects of sexuality, such as
organic and neurological responses,
[17] heredity, hormonal issues, gender issues, and sexual dysfunction.
[18][page needed]
Physical anatomy and reproduction
Males and females are anatomically similar; this extends to some degree to the
development of the reproductive system.
As adults, they have different reproductive mechanisms that enable them
to perform sexual acts and to reproduce. Men and women react to sexual
stimuli in a similar fashion with minor differences. Women have a
monthly reproductive cycle, whereas the male sperm production cycle is
more continuous.
[8][page needed]
Brain
The
hypothalamus
is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is
a small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of
nerve cell bodies that receives input from the limbic system. Studies
have shown that within lab animals, destruction of certain areas of the
hypothalamus causes the elimination of sexual behavior.
[citation needed] The hypothalamus is important because of its relationship to the
pituitary gland,
which lies beneath it. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that are
produced in the hypothalamus and itself. The four important sexual
hormones are
oxytocin,
prolactin,
follicle-stimulating hormone, and
luteinizing hormone. Oxytocin, sometimes referred to as the "love hormone,"
[citation needed] is released in both sexes during sexual intercourse when an
orgasm is achieved.
[citation needed] Oxytocin has been suggested as critical to the thoughts and behaviors required to maintain close relationships. The hormone is also released in women when they give birth or are breastfeeding.
[21] Both prolactin and oxytocin stimulate milk production in women.
[citation needed]
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is responsible for ovulation in
women, which acts by triggering egg maturity; in men it stimulates sperm
production.
[22] Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation, which is the release of a mature egg.
[8][page needed]
Male anatomy and reproductive system
Males also have both internal and external genitalia that are
responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Production of
spermatozoa (sperm) is also cyclic, but unlike the female ovulation
cycle, the sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of
sperm daily.
[8][page needed]
External male anatomy
External male genitals (depilated).
The male genitalia are the penis and the scrotum. The penis provides a
passageway for sperm and urine. An average-sized flaccid penis is about
3 3⁄4 inches (9.5 cm) in length and
1 1⁄5 inches (3.0 cm) in diameter. When erect, the average penis is between
4 1⁄2 inches (11 cm) to 6 inches (15 cm) in length and
1 1⁄2 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter. The penis's internal structures consist of the
shaft,
glans, and the
root.
[8][page needed]
The shaft of the penis consists of three cylindrical bodies of
spongy tissue filled with blood vessels along its length. Two of these
bodies lie side-by-side in the upper portion of the penis called corpora
cavernosa. The third, called the
corpus spongiosum, is a tube that lies centrally beneath the others and expands at the end to form the tip of the penis (glans).
[23]
The raised rim at the border of the shaft and glans is called the
corona. The urethra runs through the shaft, providing an exit for sperm
and urine. The root consists of the expanded ends of the cavernous
bodies, which fan out to form the crura and attach to the pubic bone and
the expanded end of the spongy body (bulb). The root is surrounded by
two muscles; the
bulbocavernosus muscle and the
ischiocavernosus muscle, which aid urination and ejaculation. The penis has a
foreskin that typically covers the glans; this is sometimes removed by
circumcision for medical, religious or cultural reasons.
[8][page needed]
In the scrotum, the testicles are held away from the body, one possible
reason for this is so sperm can be produced in an environment slightly
lower than normal body temperature.
Internal male anatomy
The male reproductive system.
[26]
Male internal reproductive structures are the testicles, the duct system, the prostate and seminal vesicles, and the
Cowper's gland.
[8][page needed]
The testicles are the male gonads where sperm and male hormones
are produced. Millions of sperm are produced daily in several hundred
seminiferous tubules. Cells called the
Leydig cells lie between the tubules; these produce hormones called androgens; these consist of
testosterone and
inhibin.
The testicles are held by the spermatic cord, which is a tubelike
structure containing blood vessels, nerves, the vas deferens, and a
muscle that helps to raise and lower the testicles in response to
temperature changes and sexual arousal, in which the testicles are drawn
closer to the body.
[8][page needed]
Sperm are transported through a four-part duct system. The first part of this system is the
epididymis. The testicles converge to form the
seminiferous tubules, coiled tubes at the top and back of each testicle. The second part of the duct system is the
vas deferens, a muscular tube that begins at the lower end of the epididymis.
[8][page needed] The vas deferens passes upward along the side of the testicles to become part of the spermatic cord.
[23]
The expanded end is the ampulla, which stores sperm before ejaculation.
The third part of the duct system is the ejaculatory ducts, which are
1-inch (2.5 cm)-long paired tubes that pass through the prostate gland,
where semen is produced.
[8][page needed]
The prostate gland is a solid, chestnut-shaped organ that surrounds the
first part of the urethra, which carries urine and semen.
[8][page needed][23] Similar to the female G-spot, the prostate provides sexual stimulation and can lead to
orgasm through
anal sex.
[27]
The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid that is mixed with sperm to create semen.
[8][page needed]
The prostate gland lies under the bladder and in front of the rectum.
It consists of two main zones: the inner zone that produces secretions
to keep the lining of the male urethra moist and the outer zone that
produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen.
[23]
The seminal vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and
mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine contractions that aid
movement through the uterus, and bases that help neutralize the acidity
of the vagina. The Cowper's glands, or bulbourethral glands, are two pea
sized structures beneath the prostate.
Female anatomy and reproductive system
External female anatomy
External female genitals (depilated).
The mons veneris, also known as the
Mound of Venus, is a soft layer of fatty tissue overlaying the pubic bone.
[28] Following puberty, this area grows in size. It has many nerve endings and is sensitive to stimulation.
[8][page needed]
The labia minora and labia majora are collectively known as the
lips. The labia majora are two elongated folds of skin extending from
the mons to the perineum. Its outer surface becomes covered with hair
after puberty. In between the labia majora are the labia minora, two
hairless folds of skin that meet above the clitoris to form the clitoral
hood, which is highly sensitive to touch. The labia minora become
engorged with blood during sexual stimulation, causing them to swell and
turn red.
[8][page needed]
The labia minora are composed of connective tissues that are richly
supplied with blood vessels which cause the pinkish appearance. Near the
anus, the labia minora merge with the labia majora.
[29] In a sexually unstimulated state, the labia minora protects the vaginal and urethral opening by covering them.
[30] At the base of the labia minora are the
Bartholin's glands,
which add a few drops of an alkaline fluid to the vagina via ducts;
this fluid helps to counteract the acidity of the outer vagina since
sperm cannot live in an acidic environment.
[8][page needed]
The clitoris is developed from the same embryonic tissue as the penis; it or its
glans
alone consists of as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as the
human penis or glans penis, making it extremely sensitive to touch.
[31][32][33]
The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile structure, has
only one known function—sexual sensations. It is the main source of
orgasm in women. Thick secretions called
smegma collect in the clitoris.
[8][page needed]
The vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible
when the labia minora are parted. These opening have many nerve endings
that make them sensitive to touch. They are surrounded by a ring of
sphincter muscles called the
bulbocavernosus muscle.
Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are
the vestibular bulbs, which help the vagina grip the penis by swelling
with blood during arousal. Within the vaginal opening is the
hymen, a thin membrane that partially covers the opening in many
virgins.
Rupture of the hymen has been historically considered the loss of
one's virginity, though by modern standards, loss of virginity is
considered to be the first sexual intercourse. The hymen can be ruptured
by activities other than sexual intercourse. The urethral opening
connects to the bladder with the urethra; it expels urine from the
bladder. This is located below the clitoris and above the vaginal
opening.
[8][page needed]
The
breasts
are external organs used for sexual pleasure in some cultures. Western
culture is one of the few in which they are considered erotic.
[8][page needed] The breasts are the subcutaneous tissues on the front thorax of the female body.
[29]
Breasts are modified sweat glands made up of fibrous tissues and fat
that provide support and contain nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic
vessels.
[29]
Their purpose is to provide milk to a developing infant. Breasts
develop during puberty in response to an increase in estrogen. Each
adult breast consists of 15 to 20 milk-producing
mammary glands, irregularly shaped lobes that include
alveolar glands
and a lactiferous duct leading to the nipple. The lobes are separated
by dense connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to
the tissues on the underlying pectoral muscles.
[29]
Other connective tissue, which forms dense strands called suspensory
ligaments, extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral
tissue to support the weight of the breast.
[29] Heredity and the quantity of fatty tissue determine the size of the breasts.
Internal female anatomy
The female reproductive system.
[38]
The female internal reproductive organs are the
vagina,
uterus,
Fallopian tubes, and
ovaries.
The vagina is a sheath-like canal that extends from the vulva to the
cervix. It receives the penis during intercourse and serves as a
depository for sperm. The vagina is also the
birth canal; it can expand to 10 cm (3.9 in) during labor and delivery. The vagina is located between the
bladder and the
rectum. The vagina is normally collapsed, but during
sexual arousal
it opens, lengthens, and produces lubrication to allow the insertion of
the penis. The vagina has three layered walls; it is a self-cleaning
organ with natural bacteria that suppress the production of yeast.
[8][page needed] The
G-spot, named after the
Ernst Gräfenberg
who first reported it in 1950, may be located in the front wall of the
vagina and may cause orgasms. This area may vary in size and location
between women; in some it may be absent. Various researchers dispute its
structure or existence, or regard it as an extension of the clitoris.
[39][40][41]
The uterus or womb is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg (ovum) will implant itself and grow into a fetus.
[8][page needed] The uterus lies in the pelvic cavity between the bladder and the
bowel,
and above the vagina. It is usually positioned in a 90-degree angle
tilting forward, although in about 20% of women it tilts backwards.
[29] The uterus has three layers; the innermost layer is the
endometrium,
where the egg is implanted. During ovulation, this thickens for
implantation. If implantation does not occur, it is sloughed off during
menstruation. The cervix is the narrow end of the uterus. The broad part
of the uterus is the
fundus.
[8][page needed]
During
ovulation,
the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. These extend
about four inches (10 cm) from both sides of the uterus. Finger-like
projections at the ends of the tubes brush the ovaries and receive the
ovum once it is released. The ovum then travels for three to four days
to the uterus.
[8][page needed]
After sexual intercourse, sperm swim up this funnel from the uterus.
The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain the egg and the sperm,
encouraging
fertilization and nourishing the ovum until it reaches the uterus. If the ovum divides after fertilization,
identical twins are produced. If separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm, the mother gives birth to non-identical or
fraternal twins.
[29]
The ovaries are the female gonads; they develop from the same embryonic tissue as the
testicles.
The ovaries are suspended by ligaments and are the source where ova are
stored and developed before ovulation. The ovaries also produce female
hormones
progesterone and
estrogen.
Within the ovaries, each ovum is surrounded by other cells and
contained within a capsule called a primary follicle. At puberty, one or
more of these follicles are stimulated to mature on a monthly basis.
Once matured, these are called
Graafian follicles.
[8][page needed]
The female reproductive system does not produce the ova; about 60,000
ova are present at birth, only 400 of which will mature during the
woman's lifetime.
[29]
Ovulation is based on a monthly cycle; the 14th day is the most
fertile. On days one to four, menstruation and production of estrogen
and progesterone decreases, and the endometrium starts thinning. The
endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once
menstruation ends, the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the
pituitary gland. Days five to thirteen are known as the pre-ovulatory
stage. During this stage, the pituitary gland secretes
follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH). A negative feedback loop is enacted when estrogen is secreted to
inhibit the release of FSH. Estrogen thickens the endometrium of the
uterus. A surge of
Luteinizing Hormone
(LH) triggers ovulation. On day 14, the LH surge causes a Graafian
follicle to surface the ovary. The follicle ruptures and the ripe ovum
is expelled into the abdominal cavity. The fallopian tubes pick up the
ovum with the
fimbria.
The cervical mucus changes to aid the movement of sperm. On days 15 to
28—the post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian follicle—now called the
corpus luteum—secretes
estrogen. Production of progesterone increases, inhibiting LH release.
The endometrium thickens to prepare for implantation, and the ovum
travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the ovum is not
fertilized and does not implant, menstruation begins.
[8][page needed]
Sexual response cycle
The
sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological
responses that occur during sexual activity. This model was created by
William Masters and
Virginia Johnson.
According to Masters and Johnson, the human sexual response cycle
consists of four phases; excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution,
also called the EPOR model. During the excitement phase of the EPOR
model, one attains the intrinsic motivation to have sex. The plateau
phase is the precursor to orgasm, which may be mostly biological for men
and mostly psychological for women. Orgasm is the release of tension,
and the resolution period is the unaroused state before the cycle begins
again.
The male sexual response cycle starts in the excitement phase;
two centers in the spine are responsible for erections. Vasoconstriction
in the penis begins, the heart rate increases, the scrotum thickens,
the spermatic cord shortens, and the testicles become engorged with
blood. In the plateau phase, the penis increases in diameter, the
testicles become more engorged, and the Cowper's glands secrete
pre-seminal fluid. The orgasm phase, during which rhythmic contractions
occur every 0.8 seconds
[verification needed],
consists of two phases; the emission phase, in which contractions of
the vas deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles encourage ejaculation,
which is the second phase of orgasm. Ejaculation is called the expulsion
phase; it cannot be reached without an orgasm. In the resolution phase,
the male is now in an unaroused state consisting of a
refactory (rest) period before the cycle can begin. This rest period may increase with age.
[8][page needed]
The female sexual response begins with the excitement phase,
which can last from several minutes to several hours. Characteristics of
this phase include increased heart and respiratory rate, and an
elevation of blood pressure. Flushed skin or blotches of redness may
occur on the chest and back; breasts increase slightly in size and
nipples may become hardened and erect. The onset of
vasocongestion
results in swelling of the clitoris, labia minora, and vagina. The
muscle that surrounds the vaginal opening tightens and the uterus
elevates and grows in size. The vaginal walls begin to produce a
lubricating liquid. The second phase, called the plateau phase, is
characterized primarily by the intensification of the changes begun
during the excitement phase. The plateau phase extends to the brink of
orgasm, which initiates the resolution stage; the reversal of the
changes begun during the excitement phase. During the orgasm stage the
heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and breathing rates peak.
The pelvic muscle near the vagina, the anal sphincter, and the uterus
contract. Muscle contractions in the vaginal area create a high level of
pleasure, though all orgasms are centered in the clitoris.
Evolution of the neurobiological factors of human sexuality
From
rodent
to human, the corticalization of the brain induces several changes in
the control of sexual behavior, including lordosis behavior. These
changes induce a "difference between the stereotyped sexual behaviors in
non-human mammals and the astounding variety of human sexual
behaviors".
Evolution of the main neurobiological factors that control the
sexual behavior of mammals.
Sexual reflexes, such as the motor reflex of lordosis, become
secondary. In particular, lordosis behavior, which is a motor reflex
complex and essential to carry out
copulation in non-primate mammals (
rodents,
canines,
bovids
...), is apparently no longer functional in women. Sexual stimuli on
women do not trigger any more neither immobilization nor the reflex
position of lordosis. On the level of olfactory systems, the
vomeronasal organ is altered in
hominids[49] and 90% of the pheromone
receptor genes become
pseudogenes in humans.
[46]
Concerning hormonal control, sexual activities are gradually
dissociated from hormonal cycles. Humans can have sex anytime during the
year and
hormonal cycles. On the contrary, the importance of
rewards / reinforcements and
cognition became major. Especially in humans, the extensive development of the
neocortex allows the emergence of
culture, which has a major influence on behavior.
[50] For all these reasons, the dynamics of
sexual behavior was modified.
Multifactorial dynamics of human sexuality
[47]
In human beings, sexuality is multifactorial, with several factors
that interact (genes, hormones, conditioning, sexual preferences,
emotions, cognitive processes, cultural context). The relative
importance of each of these factors is dependent both on individual
physiological characteristics, personal experience and aspects of the
sociocultural environment.
[48]
Sexual dysfunction and sexual problems
Sexual disorders, according to the DSM-IV-TR, are disturbances in
sexual desire and psycho-physiological changes that characterize the
sexual response cycle and cause marked distress, and interpersonal
difficulty. The sexual dysfunctions is a result of physical or
psychological disorders. The physical causes include, hormonal
imbalance, diabetes, heart disease and more. The psychological causes
includes but are not limited to, stress, anxiety, and depression.
[51]
The sexual dysfunction affects men and women. There are four major
categories of sexual problems for women: desire disorders, arousal
disorders, orgasmic disorders, and sexual pain disorders.
[8][page needed]
The sexual desire disorder occurs when an individual lacks the sexual
desire because of hormonal changes, depression, and pregnancy.The
arousal disorder is a female sexual dysfunction. Arousal disorder means
lack of vaginal lubrication. In addition, blood flow problems may affect
arousal disorder. Lack of orgasm, also known as, anorgasmia is another
sexual dysfunction in women. The anorgasmia occurs in women with
psychological disorders such as guilt and anxiety that was caused by
sexual assault. The last sexual disorder is the painful intercourse. The
sexual disorder can be result of pelvic mass, scar tissue, sexually
transmitted disease and more.
[52]
There are also three common sexual disorders for men including, sexual
desire, ejaculation disorder, and erectile dysfunction. The lack of
sexual desire in men is because of loss of libido, low testosterone.
There are also psychological factors such as anxiety, and depression.
[53]
The ejaculation disorder has three types, Retrograde ejaculation,
retarded ejaculation, premature ejaculation. The erectile dysfunction is
a disability to have and maintain an erection during intercourse.
[54]
Psychological aspects
Sexuality
in humans generates profound emotional and psychological responses.
Some theorists identify sexuality as the central source of human
personality.
[55] Psychological studies of sexuality focus on psychological influences that affect sexual behavior and experiences.
[18][page needed] Early psychological analyses were carried out by
Sigmund Freud, who believed in a
psychoanalytic approach. He also proposed the concepts of
psychosexual development and the
Oedipus complex, among other theories.
[56]
Gender identity
is a person's sense of self-identification as female, male, both,
neither, or somewhere in between. The social construction of gender has
been discussed by many scholars, including
Judith Butler. More recent research has focused upon the influence of feminist theory and courtship.
[57][58]
Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced by a person's sexual orientation.
[59] Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of
romantic or
sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes.
[59]
Heterosexual people are romantically/sexually attracted to the members
of the opposite sex, gay and lesbian people are romantically/sexually
attracted to people of the same sex, and those who are bisexual are
romantically/sexually attracted to both sexes.
[5]
Before the
High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the Christian church.
[60]
During the 12th century, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread
throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th
century, it was viewed as a pathology.
[60] Havelock Ellis
and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances; Ellis said
homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, not a disease, and
that many homosexuals made significant contributions to society.
[60]
Freud wrote that all human beings as capable of becoming either
heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be
innate.
According to Freud, a person's orientation depended on the resolution
of the Oedipus complex. He said male homosexuality resulted when a young
boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his father for
love and affection, and later to men in general. He said female
homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with
her father, and became fixated at that stage.
[61][page needed]
Freud and Ellis said homosexuality resulted from reversed gender
roles. In the early 21st century, this view is reinforced by the media's
portrayal of male homosexuals as effeminate and female homosexuals as
masculine.
[61][page needed]
A person's conformity or non-conformity to gender stereotypes does not
always predict sexual orientation. Society believes that if a man is
masculine he is heterosexual, and if a man is feminine he is homosexual.
There is no strong evidence that a homosexual or bisexual orientation
must be associated with atypical gender roles. By the early 21st
century, homosexuality was no longer considered to be a pathology.
Theories have linked many factors, including genetic, anatomical, birth
order, and hormones in the prenatal environment, to homosexuality.
[61][page needed]
Other than the need to procreate, there are many other reasons
people have sex. According to one study conducted on college students
(Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main reasons for sexual activities
are; physical attraction, as a means to an end, to increase emotional
connection, and to alleviate insecurity.
[62]
Sexuality and age
Child sexuality
In the past,
children were often assumed not to have sexuality until later
development. Sigmund Freud was one of the first researchers to take
child sexuality seriously. His ideas, such as psychosexual development
and the Oedipus conflict, have been much debated but acknowledging the
existence of child sexuality was an important development.
[63]
Freud gave sexual drives an importance and centrality in human life,
actions, and behavior; he said sexual drives exist and can be discerned
in children from birth. He explains this in his theory of
infantile sexuality, and says sexual energy (
libido)
is the most important motivating force in adult life. Freud wrote about
the importance of interpersonal relationships to one's sexual and
emotional development. From birth, the mother's connection to the infant
affects the infant's later capacity for pleasure and
attachment.
[64]
Freud described two currents of emotional life; an affectionate
current, including our bonds with the important people in our lives; and
a sensual current, including our wish to gratify sexual impulses.
During adolescence, a young person tries to integrate these two
emotional currents.
[65]
Alfred Kinsey also examined child sexuality in his
Kinsey Reports.
Children are naturally curious about their bodies and sexual functions.
For example, they wonder where babies come from, they notice the
differences between males and females, and many engage in
genital play, which is often mistaken for masturbation. Child sex play, also known as
playing doctor, includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends.
[63]
Sex play with others usually decreases as children grow, but they may
later possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain
high during these years, but the main surge in sexual interest occurs in
adolescence.
[63]
Sexuality in late adulthood
Adult sexuality originates in childhood. However, like many other
human capacities, sexuality is not fixed, but matures and develops. A
common stereotype associated with old people is that they tend to lose
interest and the ability to engage in sexual acts once they reach late
adulthood. This misconception is reinforced by Western popular culture,
which often ridicules older adults who try to engage in sexual
activities. Age does not necessarily change the need or desire to be
sexually expressive or active. A couple in a long-term relationship may
find that the frequency of their sexual activity decreases over time and
the type of sexual expression may change, but many couples experience
increased intimacy and love.
[66]
Sociocultural aspects
A
Women's Liberation march in the U.S. Washington, D.C., August 1970. March was from Farrugut Square to Lafayette Park.
A
Gay Liberation march in the
U.K.. London, England, ca. 1972. A Gay Liberation Front banner is visible. Location is believed to be Trafalgar Square.
Human sexuality can be understood as part of the social life of
humans, which is governed by implied rules of behavior and the status
quo. This narrows the view to groups within a society.
[18][page needed]
The socio-cultural context of society, including the effects of
politics and the mass media, influences and forms social norms. Before
the early 21st century, people fought for their civil rights. The civil
rights movements helped to bring about massive changes in social norms;
examples include the sexual revolution and the rise of feminism.
[69][70]
The link between constructed sexual meanings and racial
ideologies has been studied. Sexual meanings are constructed to maintain
racial-ethnic-national boundaries by denigration of "others" and
regulation of sexual behavior within the group. According to Joane
Nagel, "both adherence to and deviation from such approved behaviors,
define and reinforce racial, ethnic, and nationalist regimes". Scholars also study the ways in which
colonialism has effected sexuality today and argue that due to
racism and
slavery it has been dramatically changed from the way it had previously been understood.
[73] These changes to sexuality are argued to be largely effected by the enforcement of the
gender binary and
heteropatriarchy as tools of colonization on colonized communities as seen in nations such as
India,
Samoa, and the
First Nations
in the Americas, resulting in the deaths and erasure of non-western
genders and sexualities. In the United States people of color face the
effects of colonialism in different ways with stereotypes such as the
Mammy, and Jezabel for Black women;
lotus blossom, and dragon lady for Asian women; and the "spicy" Latina.
[74]
The age and manner in which children are informed of issues of
sexuality is a matter of sex education. The school systems in almost all
developed countries have some form of sex education, but the nature of
the issues covered varies widely. In some countries, such as Australia
and much of Europe, age-appropriate sex education often begins in
pre-school, whereas other countries leave sex education to the
pre-teenage and teenage years.
[75]
Sex education covers a range of topics, including the physical, mental,
and social aspects of sexual behavior. Geographic location also plays a
role in society's opinion of the appropriate age for children to learn
about sexuality. According to
TIME magazine and CNN,
[full citation needed]
74% of teenagers in the United States reported that their major sources
of sexual information were their peers and the media, compared to 10%
who named their parents or a sex education course.
Religious sexual morality
In some religions, sexual behavior is regarded as primarily
spiritual. In others it is treated as primarily physical. Some hold that
sexual behavior is only spiritual within certain kinds of
relationships, when used for specific purposes, or when incorporated
into religious ritual. In some religions there are no distinctions
between the physical and the spiritual, whereas some religions view
human sexuality as a way of completing the gap that exists between the
spiritual and the physical.
[76]
Many religious conservatives, especially those of
Abrahamic religions and
Christianity in particular, tend to view sexuality in terms of behavior (
i.e. homosexuality or heterosexuality is what someone does) and certain sexualities such as
bisexuality tend to be ignored as a result of this.
[citation needed] These conservatives tend to promote
celibacy for gay people, and may also tend to believe that sexuality can be changed through
conversion therapy[77] or
prayer to become an
ex-gay.
They may also see homosexuality as a form of mental illness, something
that ought to be criminalised, an immoral abomination, caused by
ineffective parenting, and view
same-sex marriage as a threat to society.
[78]
On the other hand, most religious liberals define sexuality-related labels in terms of
sexual attraction and self-identification.
[77]
They may also view same-sex activity as morally neutral and as legally
acceptable as opposite-sex activity, unrelated to mental illness,
genetically or environmentally caused (but not as the result of bad
parenting), and fixed. They also tend to be more in favor of same-sex
marriage.
[78]
Attitude by religion
According to
Judaism, sex between man and woman within marriage is sacred and should be enjoyed; celibacy is considered sinful.
The
Roman Catholic Church teaches that sexuality is "noble and worthy"
[79]
but that it must be used in accordance with natural law. For this
reason, all sexual activity must occur in the context of a marriage
between a man and a woman, and must not be divorced from the possibility
of conception. Most forms of sex without the possibility of conception
are considered intrinsically disordered and sinful, such as the use of
contraceptives,
masturbation, and homosexual acts.
[80]
In
Islam,
sexual desire is considered to be a natural urge that should not be
suppressed, although the concept of free sex is not accepted; these
urges should be fulfilled responsibly. Marriage is considered to be a
good deed; it does not hinder spiritual wayfaring. The term used for
marriage within the
Quran is
nikah, which literally means sexual intercourse. Although Islamic sexuality is restrained via
Islamic sexual jurisprudence,
it emphasizes sexual pleasure within marriage. It is acceptable for a
man to have more than one wife, but he must take care of those wives
physically, mentally, emotionally, financially, and spiritually.
[81][full citation needed]
Muslims believe that sexual intercourse is an act of worship that
fulfils emotional and physical needs, and that producing children is one
way in which humans can contribute to God's creation, and Islam
discourages celibacy once an individual is married. However,
homosexuality is strictly forbidden in Islam, and some Muslim lawyers
have suggested that gay people should be put to death.
[82] On the other hand, some have argued that Islam has an open and playful approach to sex
[83][84] so long as it is within marriage, free of lewdness, fornication and adultery. For many Muslims,
sex with reference to the Quran indicates that – bar anal intercourse and adultery – a Muslim marital home bonded by
Nikah
marital contract between husband and his wife(s) should enjoy and even
indulge, within the privacy of their marital home, in limitless scope of
heterosexual sexual acts within a
monogamous or
polygamous marriage.
[85]
Hinduism
emphasizes that sex is only appropriate between husband and wife, in
which satisfying sexual urges through sexual pleasure is an important
duty of marriage. Any sex before marriage is considered to interfere
with intellectual development, especially between birth and the age of
25, which is said to be brahmacharya and this should be avoided.
Kama (sensual pleasures) is one of the four purusharthas or aims of life (dharma, artha, kama, and moksha).
[86] The Hindu
Kama Sutra deals partially with sexual intercourse; it is not exclusively a sexual or religious work.
Sikhism views
chastity as important, as Sikhs believe that the divine spark of
Waheguru
is present inside every individual's body, therefore it is important
for one to keep clean and pure. Sexual activity is limited to married
couples, and extramarital sex is forbidden. Marriage is seen as a
commitment to
Waheguru and should be viewed as part of spiritual companionship, rather than just sexual intercourse, and
monogamy
is deeply emphasised in Sikhism. Any other way of living is
discouraged, including celibacy and homosexuality. However, in
comparison to other religions, the issue of sexuality in Sikhism is not
considered one of paramount importance.
[90]
Sexuality in history
Sexuality has been an important, vital part of human existence throughout history. All civilizations have managed sexuality through sexual standards, representations, and behavior.
Before the rise of agriculture, groups of hunter/gatherers (H/G)
and nomads inhabited the world. Within these groups, some implications
of male dominance existed, but there were signs that women were active
participants in sexuality, with bargaining power of their own. These
hunter/gatherers had less restrictive sexual standards that emphasized
sexual pleasure and enjoyment, but with definite rules and constraints.
Some underlying continuities or key regulatory standards contended with
the tension between recognition of pleasure, interest, and the need to
procreate for the sake of social order and economic survival. H/G groups
also placed high value on certain types of sexual symbolism. Two common
tensions in H/G societies are expressed in their art, which emphasizes
male sexuality and prowess, with equally common tendencies to blur
gender lines in sexual matters. One example of these male-dominated
portrayals is the
Egyptian creation myth, in which the sun god
Atum masturbates in the water, creating the
Nile River. In
Sumerian myth, the Gods' semen filled the
Tigris.
Once agricultural societies emerged, the sexual framework shifted
in ways that persisted for many millennia in much of Asia, Africa,
Europe, and parts of the Americas. One common characteristic new to
these societies was the collective supervision of sexual behavior due to
urbanization, and the growth of population and population density.
Children would commonly witness parents having sex because many families
shared the same sleeping quarters. Due to landownership, determination
of children's paternity became important, and society and family life
became patriarchal. These changes in sexual ideology were used to
control female sexuality and to differentiate standards by gender. With
these ideologies, sexual possessiveness and increases in jealousy
emerged. With the domestication of animals, new opportunities for
bestiality
arose. Males mostly performed these types of sexual acts and many
societies acquired firm rules against it. These acts also explain the
many depictions of half-human, half-animal mythical creatures, and the
sports of gods and goddesses with animals.
[91]
While retaining the precedents of earlier civilizations, each classical
civilization established a somewhat distinctive approach to gender,
artistic expression of sexual beauty, and to behaviors such as
homosexuality. Some of these distinctions are portrayed in sex manuals,
which were also common among civilizations in China, Greece, Rome,
Persia, and India; each has its own sexual history.
During the beginning of the
industrial revolution
of the 18th and 19th centuries, many changes in sexual standards
occurred. New, dramatic, artificial birth control devices such as the
condom and
diaphragm
were introduced. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters,
urging that their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. New
pornographic industries grew and Japan adopted its first laws against
homosexuality. In western societies, the definition of homosexuality was
constantly changing; western influence on other cultures became more
prevalent. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and
sexual traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior.
During this period, puberty began occurring at younger ages, so a new
focus on adolescence as a time of sexual confusion and danger emerged.
There was a new focus on the purpose of marriage; it was increasing
regarded as being for love rather than only for economics and
reproduction.
Alfred Kinsey initiated the modern era of sex research. He collected data from questionnaires given to his students at
Indiana University,
but then switched to personal interviews about sexual behaviors. Kinsey
and his colleagues sampled 5,300 men and 5,940 women. He found that
most people masturbated, that many engaged in
oral sex,
that women are capable of having multiple orgasms, and that many men
had had some type of homosexual experience in their lifetimes. Many
[who?] believe he was the major influence in changing 20th century attitudes about sex.
Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction at Indiana University continues to be a major center for the study of human sexuality.
[8][page needed] Before
William Masters, a physician, and
Virginia Johnson, a
behavioral scientist,
the study of anatomy and physiological studies of sex was still limited
to experiments with laboratory animals. Masters and Johnson started to
directly observe and record the physical responses in humans that are
engaged in sexual activity under laboratory settings. They observed
10,000 episodes of sexual acts between 312 men and 382 women. This led
to methods of treating clinical problems and abnormalities. Masters and
Johnson opened the first sex therapy clinic in 1965. In 1970, they
described their therapeutic techniques in their book,
Human Sexual Inadequacy.
Reproductive and sexual rights
Reproductive and sexual rights encompass the concept of applying
human rights to issues related to reproduction and sexuality.
[92]
This concept is a modern one, and remains controversial, especially
outside the West, since it deals, directly and indirectly, with issues
such as
contraception,
LGBT rights,
abortion,
sex education,
freedom to choose a partner, freedom to decide whether to be sexually
active or not, right to bodily integrity, freedom to decide whether or
not, and when, to have children. According to the Swedish government, "sexual rights include the right
of all people to decide over their own bodies and sexuality" and
"reproductive rights comprise the right of individuals to decide on the
number of children they have and the intervals at which they are born."
[96]
Such rights are not accepted in all cultures, with practices such
criminalization of consensual sexual activities (such as those related
to homosexual acts and sexual acts outside marriage), acceptance of
forced marriage and
child marriage, failure to criminalize all non-consensual sexual encounters (such as
marital rape),
female genital mutilation, or restricted availability of contraception, being common around the world.
Sexual behavior
General activities and health
In humans, sexual intercourse and sexual activity in general have
been shown to have health benefits, such as an improved sense of smell,
[citation needed] stress and blood pressure reduction,
[99][100] increased
immunity,
[101] and decreased risk of
prostate cancer.
[102][103][104] Sexual intimacy and orgasms increase levels of oxytocin, which helps people bond and build trust.
[105][106][107]
A long-term study of 3,500 people between ages 30 and 101 by clinical
neuropsychologist David Weeks, MD, head of old-age psychology at the
Royal Edinburgh Hospital
in Scotland, said he found that "sex helps you look between four and
seven years younger", according to impartial ratings of the subjects'
photographs. Exclusive causation, however, is unclear, and the benefits
may be indirectly related to sex and directly related to significant
reductions in stress, greater contentment, and better sleep that sex
promotes.
Sexual intercourse can also be a
disease vector.
[111] There are 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) every year in the U.S.,
[112] and worldwide there are over 340 million STD infections each year.
[113] More than half of these occur in adolescents and young adults aged 15–24 years.
[114] At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease.
[112][115]
In the U.S., about 30% of 15- to 17-year-olds have had sexual
intercourse, but only about 80% of 15- to 19-year-olds report using
condoms for their first sexual intercourse.
[116] In one study, more than 75% of young women age 18–25 years felt they were at low risk of acquiring an STD.
[117]
Creating a relationship
People both consciously and subconsciously seek to attract others
with whom they can form deep relationships. This may be for
companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship. This involves
interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners
and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting
one or more partners and maintaining sexual interest, can include:
- Flirting, the attraction of the sexual attention of another to encourage romance or sexual relations. It can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact.[119]
Flirting is a socially acceptable way of attracting someone you may
like. There are different types of flirting, and most people usually
have one way of flirting that makes them most comfortable. When
flirting, people can be polite, playful, physical, etc. Sometimes it is
difficult to know whether or not the person you are flirting with is
actually interested in you.[120]
Flirting styles vary according to culture. Different cultures have
different social etiquette. For example, how long you can make eye
contact with someone, or how closely you can stand by someone.[121]
- Seduction, the process whereby one person deliberately entices another to engage in sexual behavior.[122]
This behavior is one that the person you are seducing would not usually
do, unless sexually aroused. Seduction can be seen as both a positive
and a negative. Since the word seduction has a Latin meaning, which is
"to lead astray" it can be viewed negatively.[123]
Sexual attraction
Sexual attraction is
attraction on the basis of
sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract the sexual or
erotic interest of another person, and is a factor in
sexual selection or
mate choice. The attraction can be to the
physical
or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the
context in which they appear. The attraction may be to a person's
aesthetics
or movements or to their voice or smell, besides other factors. The
attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume,
hair length and
style, and anything else which can attract the sexual interest of another person. It can also be influenced by
individual genetic,
psychological,
or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities of the
person. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that
depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and also on
the criteria of the person who is attracted.
Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness, and measure it as
one of several bodily forms of capital asset (
see erotic capital),
a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective
measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and
sexual orientation. For example, a
gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the
same sex to be more attractive than one of the other sex. A
bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. In addition, there are
asexual
people, who usually do not experience sexual attraction for either sex,
though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or
heteroromantic).
Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as
physical or psychological similarity,
familiarity or possessing a preponderance of
common or familiar features,
similarity,
complementarity,
reciprocal liking, and
reinforcement.
[126]
The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in
advertising,
music video,
pornography,
film, and other visual media, as well as in
modeling,
sex work and other occupations.
Legal issues
Globally, laws regulate human sexuality in several ways, including
criminalizing particular sexual behaviors, granting individuals the
privacy or
autonomy
to make their own sexual decisions, protecting individuals with regard
to equality and non-discrimination, recognizing and protecting other
individual rights, as well as legislating matters regarding marriage and
the family, and creating laws protecting individuals from violence,
harassment, and persecution.
[127]
In the United States, there are two fundamentally different
approaches, applied in different states, regarding the way the law is
used to attempt to govern a person's sexuality. The “black letter”
approach to law focuses on the study of pre-existing legal precedent,
and attempts to offer a clear framework of rules within which lawyers
and others can work.
[127]
In contrast, the socio-legal approach focuses more broadly on the
relationship between the law and society, and offers a more
contextualized view of the relationship between legal and social change.
[127] Both approaches are used to guide changes in the legal system of states, and both have an effect.
[citation needed]
Issues regarding human sexuality and human sexual orientation
have come to the forefront in Westerm law in the latter half of the
twentieth century, as part of the
gay liberation movement's encouragement of LGBT individuals to "
come out of the closet"
and engaging with the legal system, primarily through courts.
Therefore, many issues regarding human sexuality and the law are found
in the opinions of the courts.
[128]
Sexual privacy
While the issue of privacy has been useful to sexual rights claims,
some scholars have criticized its usefulness, saying that this
perspective is too narrow and restrictive. The law is often slow to
intervene in certain forms of coercive behavior that can limit
individuals' control over their own sexuality (such as
female genital mutilation,
forced marriages
or lack of access to reproductive health care). Many of these
injustices are often perpetuated wholly or in part by private
individuals rather than state agents, and as a result, there is an
ongoing debate about the extent of state responsibility to prevent
harmful practices and to investigate such practices when they do occur.
[127]
State intervention with regards to sexuality also occurs, and is
considered acceptable by some, in certain instances (e.g. same-sex
sexual activity or
prostitution).