“If we were to draw energy from a typical AA battery based on
this design, it would last for a billion years." --- Sungsik Lee, PhD,
in the journal Science
Schematic
cross-section of an Indium-gallium-zinc-oxide (IGZO) thin-film
transistor [inset: schematic illustrations of atomic structures for less
compensated (left) and more compensated (right) IGZO films,
respectively] (credit: Sungsik Lee and Arokia Nathan/Science)
Devices
based on a new ultra-low-power thin-film transistor design
by University of Cambridge engineers could function for months or even
years without a battery, by operating on scavenged energy from their
environment — ideal for the Internet of Things and for wearable or
implantable electronics.
The transistors can be produced at low temperatures and can be
printed on almost any material, such as glass, plastic, polyester
fabrics, and paper.
Similar to a computer in sleep mode, the new transistor harnesses a
tiny “leakage” of electrical current, known as “near-off-state current.”
This leak at the point of contact between the metal and semiconducting
components of a transistor, the “Schottky barrier,” is normally an
undesirable characteristic of all transistors.
The new design gets around one of the main issues preventing the
development of ultra-low-power transistors: the ability to produce them
at very small sizes. As transistors get smaller, their two electrodes
start to influence the behavior of one another, and the voltages spread,
causing the transistors to fail to function. By changing the design of
the transistors, the Cambridge researchers were able to use the Schottky
barriers to keep the electrodes independent from one another, so that
the transistors can be scaled down to very small geometries.*
The design also achieves a very high level of gain, or signal
amplification. The transistor’s operating voltage is less than one volt,
with power consumption below a billionth of a watt. This ultralow power
consumption makes them most suitable for applications where function
and longevity is more important than speed — as in the Internet of
Things.
“If we were to draw energy from a typical AA battery based on this
design, it would last for a billion years [ignoring chemical degradation
of the battery],” said Sungsik Lee, PhD, first author of the paper in
the journal Science.
* “To form a Schottky contact at the source/drain contact of the
IGZO TFT, we decreased the electron concentration of the IGZO film by
using a high oxygen-gas partial pressure against argon gas, i.e.,
Pox=O/(O2+ Ar), during the RF sputtering process, with subsequent
thermal annealing for a more reliable contact.” — Sungsik Lee and Arokia
Nathan/Science
Abstract of Subthreshold Schottky-barrier thin-film transistors with ultralow power and high intrinsic gain
The quest for low power becomes highly compelling in newly emerging
application areas related to wearable devices in the Internet of Things.
Here, we report on a Schottky-barrier indium-gallium-zinc-oxide
thin-film transistor operating in the deep subthreshold regime (i.e.,
near the OFF state) at low supply voltages (<1 a="" an="" and="" at="" by="" channel-length="" characteristics="" contacts="" current-voltage="" drain="" exhibited="" gain="" high="" independent="" infinite="" intrinsic="" it="" nanowatt="" of="" output="" power="" resistance.="" schottky-barrier="" source="" the="" transistor="" ultralow="" using="" virtually="" volt="" were="" with="">400) that was both
bias and geometry independent. The transistor reported here is useful
for sensor interface circuits in wearable devices where high current
sensitivity and ultralow power are vital for battery-less operation.1>
The term was coined as Océanie circa 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun.[15] The word Océanie is a French word derived from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός (ōkeanós), ocean. Natives and inhabitants of this region are called Oceanians or Oceanicans.[16] The term Oceania is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the nations together.[17]
Biogeographically, as a synonym for the Australasian ecozone and the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia), with New Zealand forming the south-western corner of the Polynesian Triangle. To note, New Zealand may also be considered part of Australasia, despite being traditionally part of Polynesia.[18]
A 19th-century engraving of an Aboriginal Australian encampment
Indigenous Australians
are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby
islands who migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago[21] and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years ago.[22] They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa.[23]
Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia they
are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian
population.[24]
There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between
Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.[25]
They reached Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last ice age.[26] It is believed that the first early human migration to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the Sahul continent, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge.[27] The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of Queensland near Papua New Guinea.[28] The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old.[29]
Melanesia
Distribution of Melanesians
The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking
people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied
these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.[30]
Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people,
who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came
into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking
peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period
of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics,
languages, and culture among the peoples.[31]
The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic,
archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia,[32][33][34] as tribes whose natives
were thought to have arrived through South China about 8,000 years ago
to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia.
In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of
this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated
with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC,[35] "Lapita Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of north-west Melanesia.[36][37]
Easter Islanders claimed that a chief Hotu Matu'a[38] arrived on the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family.[39] They are believed to have been Polynesian.
Published literature suggests the island was settled around AD 300–400,
or at about the time of the arrival of the earliest settlers in Hawaii.
Around 1200, Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area. This date range is based on glottochronological calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities.[40]
Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is
thought to be very early material suggests that the island was settled
as recently as 1200.[41]
Micronesia
Stone money transport to Yap Island in Micronesia (1880)
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there
are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first
settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological
excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and
storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic
analysis.[42]
The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan,
dated to 1500 BC or slightly before. The ancestors of the Micronesians
settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based
system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious
culture centered on Yap and Pohnpei.[43] The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.[44]
The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period between 4000 BC to 2000 BC from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros, and spoke an Austronesian language called Chamorro. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch, or Carolinian, people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.[45]
European exploration
1852 map of Oceania by J. G. Barbie du Bocage. Includes regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia and Malaysia.
On 23 April 1770 British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point.[50] On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.[51]
Colonization
New Guinea from 1884 to 1919. The Netherlands controlled the western half of New Guinea, Germany the north-eastern part, and Britain the south-eastern part.
In 1789 the Mutiny on the Bounty against William Bligh led to several of the mutineers escaping the Royal Navy and settling on Pitcairn Islands, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire. The Gilbert Islands (now known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (now known as Tuvalu) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.[52][53]
French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their
expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842,
Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843.[54] On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854.[55]
The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorerJohn Marshall, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from Botany Bay to Canton (two ships of the First Fleet).
In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative
responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed
the area "Territory of Papua");
and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The
Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established
colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory in 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.[56]
One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the Occupation of German Samoa in August 1914 by New Zealand forces.
The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New
Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea
in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship
besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German
surrender.[57]
Australia and New Zealand became dominions in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynésie Française (French Polynesia). Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the Pacific Islands Forum in 2000.[57]
Puncak Jaya / Carstensz Pyramid, highest summit in Oceania
Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the Strait of Malacca to the coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia (now called the Malay Archipelago), and Melanesia.[63] Today, parts of three geological continents are included in the term "Oceania": Eurasia, Australia, and Zealandia, as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the Philippines, Wallacea, and the open Pacific.
Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.[65]
Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania
which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian
islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to
the Pacific Ocean — Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean.[66]
The coral reefs
of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on
basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic
is the Great Barrier Reef
off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island
type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually
slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.[67][68]
Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Most of Australasia lies on the southern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south.[73] The bulk of Australasia sits on the Indo-Australian Plate, together with India.[74]
The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate
that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres
(40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains
an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands.[75] It is almost entirely oceanic crust.[76] The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).[77]
Australia, being part of the Indo-Australian plate, is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth[78] and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift
of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly
in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism.[79]
The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia
was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only
shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north.
The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.
The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre.[84]Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land.[85] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.[86] The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.[87][88][89][90][91]
New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps.
There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South
Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain
that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which
is Aoraki/Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year.[93] There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.[94]
In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct.[95] The two species of Brighamia—B. rockii and B. insignis—are
represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure
these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 3,000-foot (910 m) cliffs
to brush pollen onto their stigmas.[96]
Fauna
The Pacific robin inhabits the islands of the south western Pacific.[97]
The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic
species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird
diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that
the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kakapo which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek breeding
parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land
areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New
Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahe, kakapo, mohua, tui and the bellbird.[114] The tuatara is a notable reptileendemic to New Zealand.[115]
Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 4,028 square miles (10,430 km2) according to the Köppen climate types:
tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most
of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).[124] A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season.[125]
The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F).[126] The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C (−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir.[127]Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia
is the wettest place in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on
earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 millimetres
(300 in) each year in certain mountainous locations.[128] The summit of Mount Waialeale received 460.0 inches (11,684 mm) in the 1912–45 averages.[129][130]
Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania
Australia
Hawaii
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Australasia and adjacent islands
Demographics
The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to
the following table (there are no political boundaries that can be drawn
on a map of the Pacific at this scale).
The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of
geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are
categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by
the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in
cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been
clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various
additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each
description.
According
to the Act of Papua Autonomy (Undang-Undang Otonomi Khusus bagi
Provinsi Papua) section 2 verse 2, the province itself has its own flag
and arms, similar to other provinces. However, the flag and arms are not
representations of sovereignty over the Republic of Indonesia
West Papua was split from Papua province in 2003 but still retain autonomous status
The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity (73%).[140][141] A 2011 survey found that 92% in Melanesia,[140] 93% in Micronesia[140] and 96% in Polynesia described themselves as Christians.[140] Traditional religions are often animist, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces.[142] In the 2013 census, 48% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 42% declared no religion.[143] In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion".[144]
Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as Mandarin, Italian, Arabic, Polish, Hindi, German, Spanish, Korean, Cantonese and Greek, among others, namely in Australia and New Zealand,[147] or Fiji Hindi in Fiji.
The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of immigration,
are Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million
people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a
significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European
countries, making Australia a multicultural country.[148]
Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home.[149] Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others.[150][151]Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe,[152] and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney.[153][154][155]
European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi
in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British
Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and
Asia.[156][157]Auckland
is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born
population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born
population, 64 percent of its Asian-born population, and 56 percent of its Middle Eastern and African born population.[158]
Hawaii is a majority-minority state.[159]Chinese
workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In
1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity
and teach the Hawaiians Western ways.[160] As of 2015, a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry—especially Filipino, Japanese, Korean
and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the
sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations.[161]Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii
began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two
hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for
sugar from Hawaii.[162]
Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies
indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The
first migration took place approximately 40 thousand years ago, and
these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of Near Oceania. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising Remote Oceania.[164]
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz,
a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme
frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.[164]
Large areas of New Guinea are unexplored by scientists and anthropologists due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in Papua New Guinea have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[165]
New Zealand and Australia are the only developed nations in the region, although the economy of Australia
is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one
of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity.[166] New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.[167][168]
The majority of people living in Australia and to a lesser extent, New Zealand work in mining, electrical and manufacturing sectors also. Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothes.
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands
work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and
financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan,
China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations
rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for
exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New
Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS.
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector.[180] Agriculture accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. Sugar
exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of
foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial
activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant.
The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood,[181]whaling,[182] sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education.[183]
Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a
small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to
viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The
state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple,
livestock, sugarcane and honey.[184] As of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.[185][186]
Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Fiji
currently draws almost half a million tourists each year; more than a
quarter from Australia. This contributes $1 billion or more since 1995
to Fiji's economy but the Government of Fiji islands underestimate these
figures due to invisible economy inside tourism industry.
Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs
of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by
Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of
the reality TV series Survivor was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled Survivor: Vanuatu—Islands of Fire. Two years later, Australia's Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the same location used by the US version.[187]
Tourism in New Zealand contributes NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's GDP
in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent
jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist
spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly
NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in
total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide.[191]Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.[192]
In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10.6 billion.[193]
Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular
throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaii saw increasing arrivals and share
of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia and China increasing 13%, 24%
and 21% respectively from 2010.[194]
Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government:
executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is the only state
public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the
governor. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol.
Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres.[224] Australia and New Zealand were responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker.[225][226] The first settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast.[227][228]
Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World
War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to
build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll.[229]
The ʻIolani Palace in Honolulu, formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978.
Hawaii
The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar.[230] The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and animistic,
with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that
spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the
waves, and the sky.[231]
New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous Māori and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the British colonisation of New Zealand.
Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The
country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration from the
Pacific Islands, East Asia and South Asia.[234] New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates holidays during or close to the anniversaries of the founding dates of each province.[235]
The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940
onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain
and the United States.[236] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[237] The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,[238] have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai.[239]
The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia.[240]
New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock,
such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early
European settlers.[241] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, koura (crayfish),[242]dredge oysters, whitebait, paua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish),[243]kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova (considered a national dish).[244][240]
The fa'a Samoa,
or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and
politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its
historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga.
The Samoan word for dance is siva
with unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which
tell a story, although the Samoan male dances can be more snappy.[245] The sasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos.[246]
The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout
the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of
fertility or the supernatural.
Petroglyphs, Tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving and textile work are other common art forms.[247] Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands.[248] These early peoples lacked a writing system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.[249]
Indigenous Australian rock art
is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world,
dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of
thousands of sites.[250][251]
These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic,
others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were
simply for amusement.[252]
Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone
figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous
highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in
most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to 1500 BC.[253]
By 1500 BC the Lapita
culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and
spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began
to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in
Oceania. Starting around 1100 AD, the people of Easter Island would
begin construction of nearly 900 moai
(large stone statues). At about 1200 AD, the people of Pohnpei, a
Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction,
building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals.[254] Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific) and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth.[255]
Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports,[256] and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular sport in Australia is cricket, the most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings.[257][258][259] Rugby is the most popular sport among New Zealanders.[260] In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league.[261]
Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru[262] and is the most popular football code in Australia in terms of attendance.[263] It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League.[264][265][266] It attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.[267]Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's.[268]
Australia has hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000. Also, Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (Sydney 1938, Perth 1962, Brisbane 1982, Melbourne 2006, Gold Coast 2018). Meanwhile, New Zealand has hosted the Commonwealth Games three times: Auckland 1950, Christchurch 1974 and Auckland 1990. The Pacific Games
(formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event,
much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation
exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four
years and began in 1963.
Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in
2015.