Like most other regions in the world, science and technology in Korea has experienced periods of intense growth as well as long periods of stagnation.
Prehistory
At the end of the Palaeolithic, people of the Korean Peninsula adopted microlithicstone tool
technology, a highly efficient and useful way of making and maintaining
a flexible prehistoric toolkit. The Palaeolithic also marks the
beginning of a long period of plant and human interaction in which
people undoubtedly adopted a number of wild plants for medicinal use.
Archaeological evidence from Gosan-ri in Jeju-do indicates that pottery was first made c. 8500-8000 BC.[1] People depended on gathering, hunting, and fishing as the main source of food until the Middle Jeulmun Period (c. 3500 to 2000 BC) when small-scale cultivation of plants began.[2][3]
The earliest known constellation patterns in Korea can be found on dolmens dating back to 3000 BC.[4]
Farmers of the Mumun Period began to use multiple cropping systems of agriculture some time after 1500 BC.[2] This advance in food production irrevocably altered the subsistence systems of the Mumun and hastened the beginnings of intensive agriculture in the Korean Peninsula. Korea and adjacent areas of East Asia seem to have been a part of the domestication region of soybean (Glycine max) between 1500 and 500 BC.[2]Paddy-field agriculture, a system of wet-rice cultivation, was also introduced into the southern Korean Peninsula during this period.
Widespread archaeological
evidence shows that after 850 BC the technology for heating homes
changed. Before 850 BC pit-houses were heated using fire from various
kinds of hearths that were dug into the floor of the pit-house. After 850 BC, hearths disappeared from the interior of pit-house architecture and was likely replaced with some kind of brazier-like technology in Hoseo, Honam, and western Yeongnam.
Bronze objects were exchanged into the Korean Peninsula from the outside before 900 BC. However, the moulds for bronze casting from Songguk-ri
and an increased number of bronze artifacts indicates that people in
the southern part of the peninsula engaged in bronze metallurgical
production starting from c. 700 BC. Several hundred years later iron
production was adopted, and Korean-made iron tools and weaponry became
increasingly common after approximately 200 BC. Iron tools facilitated
the spread of intensive agriculture into new areas of the Korean
Peninsula.
Until recently, Koreans were thought to have invented under-floor heating, a system they call "ondol".[5] It was first thought to have been invented by the people of the Northern Okjeo around 2,500 years ago. However, the recent discovery of a c. 3,000-year-old equivalent indoor heating system in Alaska has called current explanation into question.[5]
The absence of prehistoric and/or ancient ondol features in the area
between the two archaeological sites makes it unlikely that the two
systems might have come from the same source.[5][6][7]
However, there has also been hypothesis that whale-hunting people from
the Korean peninsula have migrated to Alaska by sea during the time
period, and this could explain the phenomenon.[8][9][10]
The production of hard-fired stoneware ceramics, in which clay is vitrified in kilns at >1000 °C, occurred first in the Korean Peninsula during the Three Kingdoms Period.[11]
This period is notable for the establishment of industrial-scale production of pottery and roof tiles.[12] This involved the adoption of Chinese dragon kiln or climbing kiln technology sometime between AD 100-300.
One of very few examples of science and technology during the Three Kingdoms of Korea that has survived until this day is the Cheomseongdae, which means "star gazing platform" and is one of the oldest observatories installed on Earth. It was built during Queen Seondeok's
rule. The tower is built out of 366 pieces of cut granite which some
claim represent the 366 days of the lunar year and has 12 base stones
which supposedly represent the twelve months of the year. The design is
said to be strongly influenced by Buddhism.
The nine-story wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa,
which was commissioned by Queen Seondeok after the main temple was
finished, is reputed to be the largest premodern Korean stupa ever
built. It was reported to be 80 metres in height. Only its foundation stones remain today but they attest to the mammoth proportions of the original structure.
Goryeo Dynasty
During the Goryeo Dynastymetal movable type printing was invented by Choe Yun-ui in 1234.[13][14][15][16][17][18]
This invention made printing easier, more efficient and also increased
literacy, which observed by Chinese visitors was seen to be so important
where it was considered to be shameful to not be able to read.[19] The Mongol Empire
later adopted Korea's movable type printing and spread as far as
Central Asia. There is conjecture as to whether or not Choe's invention
had any influence on later printing inventions such as Gutenberg's Printing press.[20] When the Mongolsinvaded Europe they inadvertently introduced different kinds of Asian technology.
During the late Goryeo Dynasty, Goryeo was at the cutting edge of
shipboard artillery in world. In 1356 early experiments were carried
out with gunpowder weapons that shot wood or metal projectiles. In 1373
experiments with incendiary arrows and "fire tubes" possibly an early
form of the Hwacha were developed and placed on Korean warships. The
policy of placing cannons and other gunpowder weapons continued well
into the Joseon Dynasty and by 1410, over 160 Joseon warships had cannons on board. Choe Mu-seon, a medieval Korean inventor, military commander and scientist, introduced the widespread use of gunpowder to Korea for the first time and created various gunpowder-based weapons. The weapons were created because of Japanese pirates (Wokou)
frequently raiding Korea's coastal regions. Choe obtained knowledge of
gunpowder from a Chinese merchant named Lee Yuan despite the fact that
it was against Mongol law. Lee was at first reluctant but eventually
came around because he was impressed by Choe's patriotism and
determination. Choe later impressed the Koryo court and King U which then built him a laboratory and a factory geared solely toward gunpowder. He invented the first Korean cannons and other weapons such as the Singijeon (Korean fire arrows) and later the Hwacha which were first built in 1377 and are widely considered to be the first true multiple rocket launchers.[21]
These weapons were a vast improvement over the previous rocket weapons
with one of the key features was that it could fire up to 200 rockets at
one time.
The Joseon Dynasty under the reign of Sejong the Great
was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. In the first
half of the 15th century, around 62 major accomplishments were made in
various scientific fields. Of these, 29 came from Korea alone compared
to 5 from China and 28 from the rest of the world.
Under Sejong's new policy Cheonmin (low-status) people such as Jang Yeong-sil
were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed
talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate
agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts
and canals. Jang eventually was allowed to live at the royal palace,
where he led a group of scientists to work on advancing Korea's science.[citation needed]
Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) water clock
(the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to
indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more
complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an
improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in
the Goryeo Dynasty. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the sight glass, and the udometer.
The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period,
where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which
indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars.[22] Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.
The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under King Sejong was the Chiljeongsan,
which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly
objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon), developed in 1442.
This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately
predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and
other stellar movements.[23]Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created by Song I-yeong
in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm.
The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the
position of celestial objects at any given time.
Kangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by Kim Sa-hyeong (김사형, 金士衡), Yi Mu (이무, 李茂) and Yi Hoe (이회, 李撓). The map was created in the second year of the reign of Taejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.
The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon Dynasty was less progressed than the early Joseon period.
16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being Dongeui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to its East Asian neighbors, China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of Oriental medicine today.
The first soft ballistic vest, Myunjebaegab, was invented in Joseon Korea in the 1860s shortly after the French campaign against Korea (1866). Heungseon Daewongun ordered development of bullet-proof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-du and Gang Yun found that cotton
could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof
vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during
the United States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.
Modern period
North Korea
In late 1985 North Korea's first integrated circuit
plant became operational. By the early 1990s, North Korea was producing
about 20,000 computers a year, reportedly 60% were exported and the
remainder were mostly for domestic military use.[24] The development of a software industry started in the early 1990s.[24][25] In general, software
development is on a high level and it could become a major export item
in the future, along with world-class voice recognition, automation and
medical technology.[26] North Korea has developed its own operating system, the Red Star,[27] and has an intranet network named Kwangmyong, which contains censored content from the Internet. North Korean IT specialists demonstrate a high degree of technological literacy.[28]
North Korea is also researching and deploying various military technologies, such as GPS jammers,[31]stealth paint,[32]midget submarines and [33] chemical, biological and nuclear weapons,[34] anti-personnel lasers[35] and ballistic missiles.[36]
South Korea
Modern scientific and technological development in South Korea at
first did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as the
division of Korea and the Korean War that occurred right after its independence. It wasn't until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung-hee where South Korea's economy rapidly grew from industrialisation and the Chaebol corporations such as Samsung and LG.
As of 2008 South Korea ranked 5th highest in terms of R&D.[37]Park Kye-jung,
CEO of Ace Electronics, won the Gold and Silver prizes for his
invention of motor and motor-equipped gear at the 23rd Invention and New
Product Exposition, he took the gold medal with his invention of a
special device that converts vibrations from a running car into electric
power.[38]
During the INPEX held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania sixteen Korean
inventions received awards, including four gold prizes, three silvers,
three bronzes and six special prizes. The Pittsburgh INPEX had inventors
from 20 countries, contenders from Australia, Germany, the United
States and 11 other countries submitted 160 items.[38]
Seoul is ranked as the world's "leading digital city" and a "tech capital of the world"[39][40]
South Korea is also among the world's most technologically advanced and
digitally-connected countries; it has the third most broadband Internet
users among the OECD countries[41] and is a global leader in electronics, digital displays, semiconductor devices, and mobile phones.
Officially disgraced scientist, Hwang Woo-suk led a bio-engineering team that created three living clones of a dog that died in 2002.[42]
Korea also exports radioactive isotope production equipment for
medical and industrial use to countries such as Russia, Japan, Turkey
and others.[43]
Korea has a full-fledged space partnership with Russia[44] and has launched the Arirang-1 and Arirang-2 which both have surveillance cameras equipped.
In robotics, KAIST competes with the Japanese company, Honda with its humanoid robotHUBO. Honda's ASIMO and KAIST's HUBO lines are the two of very few humanoid robots that can walk.[45] The first HUBO was developed within a span of 3 years and cost 1 million USD.[46]
Results of a Statista study were released in August 2013 in regard to global smartphone penetration. After the United Arab Emirates (UAE), South Korea was the nation with the second-highest penetration level—73.0% of the population.[48]
Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, whereby
government, news-media, television station, and bank websites were
compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000
new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed
its northern counterpart on these attacks, as well as incidents that
occurred in 2009, 2011, and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.[49]
In late September 2013, a computer-security competition jointly
sponsored by the defense ministry and the National Intelligence Service
was announced. The winners will be announced on September 29, 2013 and
will share a total prize pool of 80 million won (US$74,000).[49]
Today, South Korea is known as a Launchpad of a mature mobile
market, where developers can reap benefits of a market where very few
technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of inventions of
new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G internet
infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has the infrastructures to
meet a density of population and culture that has the capability to
create strong local particularity.
The traditional culture of Korea refers to the shared cultural and historical heritage of Korea and southern Manchuria. As one of the oldest continuous cultures in the world, Koreans have passed down their traditional narratives in a variety of ways. Since the mid-20th century, Korea has been split between the North and South Korean states, resulting today in a number of cultural differences. Before Joseon Dynasty, the practice of Korean shamanism was deeply rooted in the Korean culture.
Traditional arts
The opening of Hunminjeongeum “the correct sounds for the instruction of the people" which was officially promulgated in 1446, an example of Korean calligraphy
Dance
Jinju geommu
There is a distinction between court dance and folk dance. Common court dances are jeongjaemu (정재무) performed at banquets, and ilmu (일무), performed at Korean Confucian rituals. Jeongjaemu is divided into native dances (향악정재, hyangak jeongjae) and forms imported from Central Asia and China (당악정재, dangak jeongjae). Ilmu are divided into civil dance (문무, munmu) and military dance (무무, mumu). Many mask dramas and mask dances are performed in many regional areas of Korea.[10]
The traditional clothing is the genja, it is a special kind of dress
that women wear on festivals. It is pink with multiple symbols around
the neck area.
Traditional choreography of court dances is reflected in many contemporary productions.
Taekkyeon,
a traditional Korean martial art, is central to the classic Korean
dance. Taekkyeon, being a complete system of integrated movement, found
its core techniques adaptable to mask, dance and other traditional
artforms of Korea.
Painting
Korean horseback archery in the fifth century
The earliest paintings found on the Korean peninsula are petroglyphs of prehistoric times. With the arrival of Buddhism from India via China,
different techniques were introduced. These techniques quickly
established themselves as the mainstream techniques, but indigenous
techniques still survived. Among them were the Goguryeo tomb murals,
these murals inside many of the tombs are an invaluable insight into the
ceremonies, warfare, architecture, and daily life of ancient Goguryeo
people. Balhae kingdom, an successor state of Goguryeo, absorbed much of
traditional Goguryeo elements.[11]
There is a tendency towards naturalism with subjects such as
realistic landscapes, flowers and birds being particularly popular. Ink
is the most common material used, and it is painted on mulberry paper or
silk.
In the 18th century indigenous techniques were advanced, particularly in calligraphy and seal engraving.
During the Joseon period, new genres of Korean painting flourished, such as chaekgeori (paintings of books) and munjado (paintings of letters), revealing the infatuation with books and learning in Korean culture.[12][13]
Arts are both influenced by tradition and realism. For example,
Han’s near-photographic "Break Time at the Ironworks" shows muscular men
dripping with sweat and drinking water from tin cups at a sweltering
foundry. Jeong Son’s "Peak Chonnyo of Mount Kumgang" is a classical Korean landscape of towering cliffs shrouded by mists.[14]
Crafts
Blue and White Porcelain Peach-Shaped Water Dropper from the Joseon Dynasty 18th century
There is a unique set of handicrafts produced in Korea. Most of the handicrafts are created for a particular everyday use, often giving priority to the practical use rather than aesthetics. Traditionally, metal, wood, fabric, lacquerware, and earthenware were the main materials used, but later glass, leather or paper have sporadically been used.
Ancient handicrafts, such as red and black pottery, share similarities with pottery of Chinese cultures along the Yellow River. The relics found of the Bronze Age, however, are distinctive and more elaborate.
Many sophisticated and elaborate handicrafts have been excavated,
including gilt crowns, patterned pottery, pots or ornaments. During the
Goryeo period the use of bronze was advanced. Brass, that is copper with one third zinc, has been a particularly popular material. The dynasty, however, is most prominently renowned for its use of celadon ware.
During the Joseon
period, popular handicrafts were made of porcelain and decorated with
blue painting. Woodcraft was also advanced during that period. This led
to more sophisticated pieces of furniture, including wardrobes, chests,
tables or drawers. Korean furniture
represents one of the great woodworking and design heritages of Asia
and the world. It is part of a craft that goes back well over a
millennium, keeping alive a tradition that remains unchanged from at
least the seventeenth century. It is this tradition that has made Korean
furniture one of the most sought-after styles of exotic furniture by
antique dealers and collectors worldwide. Immediately recognizable as
Korean, this unique art was only "discovered" by the West in the late
1940s and 1950s.[15]
Ceramics
A celadon incense burner from the Goryeo Dynasty with Korean kingfisher glaze
The use of earthenware on the Korean peninsula goes back to the Neolithic. The history of Korean Ceramics
is long and includes both Korean pottery a later development after the
traditional use of coils and hammered clay to create early votive and
sculptural artifacts. During the Three Kingdoms period, pottery was advanced in Silla. The pottery was fired using a deoxidizing flame, which caused the distinctive blue grey celadon color. The surface was embossed with various geometrical patterns.
In the Goryeo period, jade green celadon ware became more
popular. In the 12th century sophisticated methods of inlaying were
invented, allowing more elaborate decorations in different colours. In
Arts of Korea, Evelyn McCune states, "During the twelfth century, the
production of ceramic ware reached its highest refinement. Several new
varieties appeared simultaneously in the quarter of a century, one of
which, the inlaid ware must be considered a Korean invention."[16] Neither the Chinese nor the Japanese had produced inlaid celadon, which
was unique to Goryeo wares. William Bowyer Honey of the Victoria and
Albert Museum of England,
who after World War II wrote, "The best Corean (Korean) wares were not
only original, they are the most gracious and unaffected pottery ever
made. They have every virtue that pottery can have. This Corean pottery,
in fact, reached heights hardly attained even by the Chinese."[17]
White porcelain
became popular in the 15th century. It soon overtook celadon ware.
White porcelain was commonly painted or decorated with copper.
During the Imjin wars in the 16th century, Korean potters were brought back to Japan where they heavily influenced Japanese ceramics.[18]
Many Japanese pottery families today can trace their art and ancestry to
these Korean potters whom the Japanese captured by the thousands during
its repeated conquests of the Korean peninsula.[19][20][21]
In the late Joseon period (late 17th century) blue-and-white
porcelain became popular. Designs were painted in cobalt blue on white
porcelain.
Music
Pungmul
There is a genre distinction between folk music and court music.
Korean folk music is varied and complex in different ways, but all forms
maintain a set of rhythms (called 장단; Jangdan) and a loosely defined
set of melodic modes. Korean folk musics are Pansori
(판소리) performed by one singer and one drummer. Occasionally, there
might be dancers and narraters. They have been designated an intangible
cultural property in UNESCO's Memory of the world,[22] and Pungmul (풍물) performed by drumming, dancing and singing. Samul Nori is a type of Korean traditional music based on Pungmul, and Sanjo (산조) that is played without a pause in faster tempos. Nongak (농악) means "farmers' music".
Korean court music can be traced to the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty in 1392. Korean court musics include A-ak, Dang-ak and Hyang-ak. Korean music is still played and sung a lot.
Korean traditional houses are called Hanok (Hangul:한옥). Sites of residence are traditionally selected using traditional geomancy. Although geomancy had been a vital part of Korean culture and Korean Shamanism since prehistoric times, geomancy was later re-introduced by China during the Three Kingdoms period of Korea's history.
A house should be built against a hill and face south to receive
as much sunlight as possible. This orientation is still preferred in
modern Korea. Geomancy also influences the shape of the building, the
direction it faces and the material the house is constructed with.
Traditional Korean houses can be structured into an inner wing (안채, anchae) and an outer wing (사랑채, sarangchae).
The individual layout largely depends on the region and the wealth of
the family. Whereas aristocrats used the outer wing for receptions,
poorer people kept cattle in the sarangchae. The wealthier a
family, the larger the house. However, it was forbidden to any family
except for the king to have a residence of more than 99 kan. A kan is the distance between two pillars used in traditional houses.
The inner wing normally consisted of a living room, a kitchen and
a wooden-floored central hall. More rooms may be attached to this.
Poorer farmers would not have any outer wing. Floor heating (온돌, ondol) has been used in Korea since prehistoric times. The main building materials are wood, clay, tile, stone, and thatch. Because wood and clay were the most common materials used in the past not many old buildings have survived into present times.
The principles of temple gardens and private gardens are the same. Korean gardening in East Asia is influenced by primarily Korean Shamanism and Korean folk religion.
Shamanism emphasizes nature and mystery, paying great attention to the
details of the layout. In contrast to Japanese and Chinese gardens,
which fill a garden with man made elements, traditional Korean gardens avoid artificialities, trying to make a garden "more natural than nature".
The lotus
pond is an important feature in the Korean garden. If there is a
natural stream, often a pavilion is built next to it, allowing the
pleasure of watching the water. Terraced flower beds are a common feature in traditional Korean gardens.
The Poseokjeong site near Gyeongju was built in the Silla
period. It highlights the importance of water in traditional Korean
gardens. The garden of Poseokjeong features an abalone-shaped
watercourse. During the last days of the Silla kingdom, the king's guests would sit along the watercourse and chat while wine cups were floated during banquets.
The traditional dress known as hanbok (한복, 韓服) (known as joseonot [조선옷] in the DPRK) has been worn since ancient times. The hanbok consists of a shirt (jeogori) and a skirt (chima).
According to social status, Koreans used to dress differently,
making clothing an important mark of social rank. Impressive, but
sometimes cumbersome, costumes were worn by the ruling class and the
royal family. These upper classes also used jewellery to distance
themselves from the ordinary people. A traditional item of jewellery for
women was a pendant in the shape of certain elements[which?] of nature which was made of precious gemstones, to which a tassel of silk was connected.
Common people were often restricted to undyed plain clothes. This
everyday dress underwent relatively few changes during the Joseon
period. The basic everyday dress was shared by everyone, but
distinctions were drawn in official and ceremonial clothes.
During the winter people wore cotton-wadded dresses. Fur was also
common. Because ordinary people normally wore pure white undyed
materials, the people were sometimes referred to as the white-clad people.
Hanbok are classified according to their purposes:
everyday dress, ceremonial dress and special dress. Ceremonial dresses
are worn on formal occasions, including a child's first birthday (doljanchi), a wedding or a funeral. Special dresses are made for purposes such as shamans, officials.
Today the hanbok is still worn during formal occasions.
The everyday use of the dress, however, has been lost. However, elderly
still dress in hanbok as well as active estates of the remnant of
aristocratic families from the Joseon Dynasty. Though this may be
changing with something of a modern interest in the traditional dress
among some of the young.[23]
Rice is the staple food
of Korea. Having been an almost exclusively agricultural country until
recently, the essential recipes in Korea are shaped by this experience.
The main crops in Korea are rice, barley, beans and Gochujang (hot pepper paste), but many supplementary crops are used. Fish and other seafood are also important because Korea is a peninsula.
Fermented recipes were also developed in early times, and often characterize traditional Korean food. These include pickled fish and pickled vegetables. This kind of food provides essential proteins and vitamins during the winter.
A number of dishes have been developed. These can be divided into
ceremonial foods and ritual foods. Ceremonial foods are used when a
child reaches 100 days, at the first birthday, at a wedding ceremony,
and the sixtieth birthday. Ritual foods are used at funerals, at
ancestral rites, shaman's offerings and as temple food.
Kimchi
is one of the famous foods of Korea. Kimchi is pickled vegetables which
contain vitamins A and C, thiamine, riboflavin, iron, calcium,
carotene, etc. There are many types of kimchi including cabbage kimchi,
spring onion kimchi, cucumber kimchi, radish kimchi, and sesame kimchi.
For ceremonies and rituals rice cakes are vital. The colouring of the food and the ingredients of the recipes are matched with a balance of yin and yang.
Today, surasang (traditional court
cuisine) is available to the whole population. In the past vegetable
dishes were essential, but meat consumption has increased. Traditional
dishes include ssambap, bulgogi, sinseollo, kimchi, bibimbap, and gujeolpan.
Tea
Originally tea was used for ceremonial purposes or as part of traditional herbal medicine.
Some of teas made of fruits, leaves, seeds or roots are enjoyed. Five
tastes of tea are distinguished in Korea: sweet, sour, salty, bitter,
and pungent.
Festivals of the lunar calendar
Daeboreum
The traditional Korean calendar was based on the lunisolar calendar.[24] Dates are calculated from Korea's meridian. Observances and festivals are rooted in Korean culture. The Korean lunar calendar is divided into 24 turning points (절기, jeolgi),
each lasting about 15 days. The lunar calendar was the timetable for
the agrarian society in the past, but is vanishing in the modern Korean
lifestyle.
The Gregorian calendar was officially adopted in 1895, but traditional holidays and age reckoning are still based on the old calendar.[24][25] Older generations still celebrate their birthdays according to the lunar calendar.
The biggest festival in Korea today is Seollal (the traditional Korean New Year). Other important festivals include Daeboreum (the first full moon), Dano (spring festival), and Chuseok (harvest festival).
The original religion of the Korean people was Shamanism, which though not as widespread as in ancient times, still survives to this day. Female shamans or mudang are often called upon to enlist the help of various spirits to achieve various means.
Buddhism and Confucianism
were later introduced to Korea through cultural exchanges with Chinese
dynasties. Buddhism was the official religion of the Goryeo dynasty, and
many privileges were given to Buddhist monks during this period.
However, the Joseon period saw the suppression of Buddhism, where
Buddhist monks and temples were banned from the cities and confined to
the countryside. In its place a strict form of Confucianism, which some see as even more strict than what had ever been adopted by the Chinese, became the official philosophy.[26]Korean Confucianism was epitomized by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.
Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation, the traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism have remained an underlying influence of the religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture.[27] In fact, all these traditions coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years. They still exist in the more Christian South[28][29][30] and in the North, despite pressure from its government.[31][32]
The Jongmyo Shrine was added to the UNESCOWorld Heritage Site list in 1995 and is located in Seoul. The shrine is dedicated to the spirits of the ancestors of the royal family of the Joseon Dynasty. It is heavily influenced by Korean Confucian tradition. An elaborate performance of ancient court music (with accompanying dance) known as Jongmyo jeryeak is performed there each year.
When it was built in 1394 it was to be one of the longest buildings in Asia.
There are 19 memorial tablets of kings and 30 of their queens, placed
in 19 chambers. The shrine was burnt to the ground during the Imjin wars, but rebuilt in 1608.
Changdeokgung
Changdeokgung
is also known as the "palace of illustrious virtue". It was built in
1405, burnt to the ground during the Imjin wars in 1592 and
reconstructed in 1609. For more than 300 years Changdeokgung was the
site of the royal seat. It is located in Seoul.
The surroundings and the palace itself are well matched. Some of
the trees behind the palace are now over 300 years old, besides a
preserved tree which is over 1000 years old. Changdeokgung was added to
the UNESCOWorld Heritage list in 1997.
Bulguksa is also known as the temple of the Buddha Land and home of the Seokguram Grotto. The temple was constructed in 751 and consists of a great number of halls. There are two pagodas placed in the temple.
The Seokguram grotto is a hermitage of the Bulguksa
temple. It is a granite sanctuary. In the main chamber a Buddha statue
is seated. The temple and the grotto were added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1995.
Tripitaka Koreana and Haeinsa
Haeinsa is a large temple in the South Gyeongsang province. It was originally built in 802 and home to the Tripitaka Koreana wood blocks, the oldest Buddhist wooden manuscripts in the world.[33]
The carving of these wood blocks was initiated in 1236 and completed in
1251. The wood blocks are testimony to the pious devotion of king and
his people.
The word Tripitaka is Sanskrit and stands for three baskets, referring to the Buddhist laws of aesthetics. The Tripitaka Koreana
consists of 81'258 wood blocks and is the largest, oldest, and most
complete collection of Buddhist scripts. Amazingly there is no trace of
errata or omission on any of the wood blocks. The Tripitaka Koreana is widely considered as the most beautiful and accurate Buddhist canon carved in Hanja.
Hwaseong is the fortification of the city Suwon south of Seoul in South Korea.
Its construction was completed in 1796 and it features all the latest
features of Korean fortification known at the time. The fortress also
contains a magnificent palace used for the King's visit to his father's
tomb near the city.
The fortress covers both flat land and hilly terrain, something rarely seen in East Asia.
The walls are 5.52 kilometres long and there are 41 extant facilities
along the perimeter. These include four cardinal gates, a floodgate, four secret gates and a beacon tower.
The
Sansa are Buddhist mountain monasteries located throughout the southern
provinces of the Korean Peninsula. The spatial arrangement of the seven
temples that comprise the property, established from the 7th to 9th
centuries, present common characteristics that are specific to Korea –
the ‘madang’ (open courtyard) flanked by four buildings (Buddha Hall,
pavilion, lecture hall and dormitory). They contain a large number of
individually remarkable structures, objects, documents and shrines.
These mountain monasteries are sacred places, which have survived as
living centres of faith and daily religious practice to the present.[35]
The sites of Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage in 2000. These sites are home to prehistoric graveyards which contain hundreds of different megaliths. These megaliths are gravestones which were created in the 1st century B.C. out of large blocks of rock. Megaliths can be found around the globe, but nowhere in such a concentration as in the sites of Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa.
Gyeongju Area
The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage in 2000. Gyeongju was the capital of the Silla
kingdom. The tombs of the Silla rulers can still be found in the centre
of the city. These tombs took the shape of rock chambers buried in an
earthen hill, sometimes likened with the pyramids. The area around Gyeongju, in particular on the Namsan mountain, is scattered with hundreds of remains from the Silla period. Poseokjeong is one of the most famous of these sites, but there is a great number of Korean Buddhist art, sculptures, reliefs, pagodas and remains of temples and palaces mostly built in the 7th and 10th century.
Complex of Goguryeo Tombs
The Complex of Goguryeo Tombs lies in Pyongyang, Pyong'an South Province, and Nampo City, South Hwanghae Province, North Korea. In July 2004 it became the first UNESCOWorld Heritage site north of the 38th parallel.
The site consists of 63 individual tombs from the later Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It was founded around northern Korea and Manchuria
around 32 BC, and the capital was moved to Pyongyang in 427. This
kingdom dominated the region between the 5th and 7th century AD.
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and lying east to the Asian mainland.The name Korea is derived from Goguryeo which was one of the great powers in East Asia during its time, ruling most of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria, parts of the Russian Far East and Inner Mongolia, under Gwanggaeto the Great. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone and has a predominantly mountainous terrain. It comprises an estimated 51.4 million residents distributed over 99,392 km2 (38,375 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 10 million.
The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo,[27][28][29][30] and thus inherited its name, which was pronounced by visiting Persian merchants as "Korea".[31] The modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company's Hendrick Hamel.[32] Despite the coexistence of the spellings Corea and Korea in 19th century publications, some Koreans believe that Imperial Japan, around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardised the spelling on Korea, making Japan appear first alphabetically.
After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the
official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally
accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of
Gojoseon (Old Joseon). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire). The name Daehan, which means "Great Han" literally, derives from Samhan (Three Hans), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.[35][36] However, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted. There were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (대한민국 임시정부/大韓民國臨時政府).
Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea (대한민국/大韓民國, IPA: ˈtɛ̝ːɦa̠nminɡuk̚, literally "Great Korean people's country"; listen) was adopted as the legal English name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, the informal term South Korea was coined, becoming increasingly common in the Western world. While South Koreans use Han (or Hanguk) to refer to the entire country, North Koreans and ethnic Koreans living in China and Japan use the term Joseon as the name of the country. The Korean name "Daehan Minguk" is sometimes used by South Koreans as a metonym to refer to the Korean ethnicity (or "race") as a whole, rather than just the South Korean state.[37]
The history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or Old Joseon, to differentiate it with the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BC by Dangun, according to Korea's foundation mythology.[43][44] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of Manchuria. Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era.[44][45] In 108 BC, the Han dynastydefeatedWiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. As Lelang commandery
was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved
toward Liadong. Thus, its force was diminished and it only served as a
trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
During the period known as the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, the states of Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla emerged to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state,[49][50] and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu,[51][52][53][54]
who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief
unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most
dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.[55][56] In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties,[57] most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.[58][59][60][61][62] Baekje was a great maritime power;[63] its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.[64][65] Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo,[66] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.[67][self-published source]
Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning
diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more
powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.[68][69]
The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Later Silla, while Balhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo. Balhae was founded by a Goguryeo general
and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae
controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East, and was
called the "Prosperous Country in the East".[70]Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture,[71][72][73][74] as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful
during this time. Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia,[75]
and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia
and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the
time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country,[80] and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju[81] was the fourth largest city in the world.[82][83][84][85] Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists[86] and contributed to Chinese Buddhism,[87] including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang,[88][89][90][91] and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. However, Later Silla weakened under internal strife and the revival of Baekje and Goguryeo, which led to the Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century.
In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility,[97] who established Goryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo.[27][28][29][30] Balhae had fallen to the Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the last crown prince of Balhae
fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into
the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations
of Goguryeo.[98] Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type printing press.[38][39][40][41][42][99][100] After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,[101][102] in the Goryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana
was completed and there were great developments in printing and
publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy,
literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities
that produced famous scholars and scientists.[103][104] However, the Mongol invasions
in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never
conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting,
the Korean court sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to Kublai Khan, who accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince.[105]
Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally
to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two
nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol
princesses,[105] and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess.[106][self-published source] In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conquered Liaoyang, and defeated invasions by the Red Turbans. However, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup.
Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in
reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old
names of Seoul).[107] The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace, and saw great advancements in science[108][109] and education,[110] as well as the creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people.[111] The prevailing ideology of the time was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched invasions of Korea, but his advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably the Joseon Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship")[112][113][114][115][116] with assistance from Righteous Army militias formed by Korean civilians, and Ming dynasty
Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition,
the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations
between all parties became normalized. However, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.[117][118]
In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the
government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, and
severe poverty and peasant rebellions throughout the country.
Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy,
earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders. After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan (1910–45). At the end of World War II, the Japanese surrendered to Soviet and U.S. forces who occupied the northern and southern halves of Korea, respectively.
Despite the initial plan of a unified Korea in the 1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating Cold War antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States eventually led to the establishment of separate governments, each with its own ideology, leading to the division of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In the South, Syngman Rhee,
an opponent of communism, who had been backed and appointed by the
United States as head of the provisional government, won the first
presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May.
In the North, however, a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist
activist, Kim Il-sung was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September.
In October the Soviet Union declared Kim Il-sung's government as
sovereign over both parts. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a
lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that
part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to
observe and consult" and the Government "based on elections which was
observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that
"this is the only such government in Korea."[23]
Both leaders began an authoritarian repression of their political
opponents inside their region, seeking for a unification of Korea under
their control. While South Korea's request for military support was
denied by the United States, North Korea's military was heavily
reinforced by the Soviet Union.
Korean War
On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the Korean War,
the Cold War's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the
time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the United Nations (UN), thus
forfeiting their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a
civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces
would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North
Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops.
After an ebb and flow that saw both sides almost pushed to the brink of
extinction, and massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north
and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. The 1953
armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone
near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed,
resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Over 1.2
million people died during the Korean War.[120]
In 1960, a student uprising (the "April 19 Revolution") led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. A period of political instability followed, broken by General Park Chung-hee's May 16 coup against the weak and ineffectual government the next year. Park took over as president until his assassination in 1979, overseeing rapid export-led economic growth
as well as implementing political repression. Park was heavily
criticised as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his
rule by creating a new constitution,
which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and
permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. However,
the Korean economy developed significantly during Park's tenure and the government developed the nationwide expressway system, the Seoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure.
The years after Park's assassination were marked again by
political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all
campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979
there came the Coup d'état of December Twelfth led by General Chun Doo-hwan.
Following the Coup d'état, Chun Doo-hwan planned to rise to power
through several measures. On May 17, Chun Doo-hwan forced the Cabinet to
expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not
applied to the island of Jejudo.
The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political
activities and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the
presidency in the events of May 17, triggered nationwide protests
demanding democracy, in particular in the city of Gwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the Gwangju Democratization Movement.[121]
Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy
Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun
and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987,
when a Seoul National University student, Park Jong-chul, was tortured to death.[122] On June 10, the Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting the June Democracy Movement around the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the Democratic Justice Party, and its leader, Roh Tae-woo
announced the 6.29 Declaration, which included the direct election of
the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin
against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae-Jung and Kim Young-Sam. Seoul hosted the Olympic Games in 1988, widely regarded as successful and a significant boost for South Korea's global image and economy.[123]
South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korean from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung,
who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea, on February
25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier
years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to
exile). He won against the backdrop of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, where he took IMF advice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace.[124]
Modern South Korea
President Kim Dae-jung, the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize
recipient for advancing democracy and human rights in South Korea and
East Asia and for reconciliation with North Korea, was sometimes called
the "Nelson Mandela of Asia"[124]
In June 2000, as part of president Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine Policy" of engagement, a North–South summit took place in Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize
"for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East
Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in
particular".[125]
However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless
approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid
North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007
led by President Lee Myung-bak, former mayor of Seoul. Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup. However, South Korean and Japanese relations later soured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks.
In 2010, there was an escalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warship ROKS Cheonan was sunk with the loss of 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010 Yeonpyeong
island was attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage,
with 4 people losing their lives. The lack of a strong response to these
attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the
official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the
perpetrator for the Cheonan sinking) caused significant anger with the
South Korean public.[126] South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female president Park Geun-hyeelected and assuming office. Daughter of another former president, Park Chung-hee,
she carried on a conservative brand of politics. President Park
Geun-hye's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery,
and influence-peddling for the involvement of close friend Choi Soon-sil in state affairs. There followed a series of massive public demonstrations from November 2016[127] and she was removed from office.[128] After the fallout of President Park's impeachment and dismissal, new elections were held and Moon Jae-in
of the Democratic party won the presidency, assuming office on the 10th
May 2017. His tenure so far has seen an improving political
relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the
military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting of
the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.[129]
South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula, which extends some 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west, and the Sea of Japan to the east. Its southern tip lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea.
The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes 33° and 39°N, and longitudes 124° and 130°E. Its total area is 100,032 square kilometres (38,622.57 sq mi).[130]
South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins,
and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a
southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River.[131]
South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, make up only 30% of the total land area.
About three thousand islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju-do
is about 100 kilometres (62 miles) off the southern coast of South
Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometres (712 square miles). Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point: Hallasan, an extinct volcano, reaches 1,950 metres (6,400 feet) above sea level. The easternmost islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo/Takeshima), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea.[131]
South Korea tends to have a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate, and is affected by the East Asian monsoon, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma (장마),
which begins end of June through the end of July. Winters can be
extremely cold with the minimum temperature dropping below −20 °C
(−4 °F) in the inland region of the country: in Seoul, the average
January temperature range is −7 to 1 °C (19 to 34 °F), and the average
August temperature range is 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F). Winter
temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower
in the mountainous interior.[134]
Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding
30 °C (86 °F) in most parts of the country. South Korea has four
distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually
lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early
September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from
mid-November to mid-March.
Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons
that bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometime floods. The average
annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimetres (54 in) in Seoul to 1,470 millimetres (58 in) in Busan.
Cheonggyecheon river is a modern public recreation space in downtown Seoul, South Korea
During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment.[135]
Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in
deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo
Tidal Flat.[136] However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run $84 billion five-year green growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology.[137]
The green-based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of
South Korea's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP.
The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike
network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing
daylight savings and extensive usage of environmentally friendly
technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting.[138]
The country – already the world's most wired – plans to build a
nationwide next-generation network that will be 10 times faster than
broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage.[138]
Seoul's tap water recently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it "Arisu" in a bid to convince the public.[142] Efforts have also been made with afforestation projects. Another multibillion-dollar project was the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, a stream running through downtown Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway.[143] One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems.[135]
It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are a result of
South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter.[135]
Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Republic of South Korea. Like many democratic states,[145] South Korea has a government divided into three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative.
The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the
national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also
carry out local functions. Local governments are semi-autonomous, and
contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. The judicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. South Korea is a constitutional democracy.
The South Korean government's structure is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Korea.
This document has been revised several times since its first
promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many
broad characteristics and with the exception of the short-lived Second Republic of South Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive.[146] The first direct election
was also held in 1948. Although South Korea experienced a series of
military dictatorships from the 1960s up until the 1980s, it has since
developed into a successful liberal democracy. Today, the CIA World Factbook describes South Korea's democracy as a "fully functioning modern democracy".[147] South Korea is ranked 37th on the Corruption Perceptions Index, with moderate control on corruption.[148]
The major administrative divisions in South Korea are eight provinces, one special self-governing province, six metropolitan cities (self-governing cities that are not part of any province), one special city and one metropolitan autonomous city.
Demographics
In April 2016, South Korea's population was estimated to be around 50.8 million by National Statistical Office, with continuing decline of working age population and total fertility rate.[7][8] The country is noted for its population density, which was an estimated 505 per square kilometer in 2015,[7]
more than 10 times the global average. Most South Koreans live in urban
areas, because of rapid migration from the countryside during the
country's quick economic expansion in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.[150] The capital city of Seoul is also the country's largest city and chief industrial center. According to the 2005 census, Seoul had a population of 10 million inhabitants. The Seoul National Capital Area has 24.5 million
inhabitants (about half of South Korea's entire population) making it
the world's second largest metropolitan area. Other major cities include
Busan (3.5 million), Incheon (3.0 million), Daegu (2.5 million), Daejeon (1.4 million), Gwangju (1.4 million) and Ulsan (1.1 million).[151]
Koreans in traditional dress
The population has also been shaped by international migration. After World War II and the division of the Korean Peninsula,
about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South
Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next 40 years because
of emigration, especially to the United States and Canada. South Korea's
total population in 1955 was 21.5 million,[152] and has more than doubled, to 50 million, by 2010.[153]
South Korea is considered one of the most ethnically homogeneous societies in the world with ethnic Koreans representing approximately 96% of total population. Precise numbers are difficult since statistics do not record ethnicity and given many immigrants are ethnically Korean themselves, whilst some Korean citizens are not ethnically Korean.[154] South Korea is nevertheless becoming a more multi-ethnic society over time due to immigration.
The percentage of foreign nationals has been growing rapidly.[155] As of 2016, South Korea had 1,413,758 foreign residents, 2.75% of the population;[154] however, many of them are ethnic Koreans with a foreign citizenship. For example, migrants from China (PRC) make up 56.5% of foreign nationals, but approximately 70% of the Chinese citizens in Korea are Joseonjok (조선족), PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity.[156] Regardless of the ethnicity, there are 28,500 US military
personnel serving in South Korea, most serving a one-year unaccompanied
tour (though approximately 10% serve longer tours accompanied by
family), according to the Korea National Statistical Office.[157][158] In addition, about 43,000 English teachers from English-speaking countries reside temporarily in Korea.[159]
Currently, South Korea has one of the highest rates of growth of
foreign born population, with about 30,000 foreign born residents
obtaining South Korean citizenship every year since 2010.
South Korea's birthrate was the world's lowest in 2009.[160] If this continues, its population is expected to decrease by 13% to 42.3 million in 2050.[161] South Korea's annual birthrate is approximately 9 births per 1000 people.[162] However the birthrate has increased by 5.7% since 2010 and Korea no longer has the world's lowest birthrate.[163] According to a 2011 report from The Chosun Ilbo, South Korea's total fertility rate (1.23 children born per woman) is higher than those of Taiwan (1.15) and Japan (1.21).[164] The average life expectancy in 2008 was 79.10 years,[165] (which was 34th in the world[166]) but by 2015 it had increased to around 81.[167] South Korea has the steepest decline in working age population of the OECD nations.[168] In 2015, National Statistical Office estimated that the population of the country will have reached its peak by 2035.
Education
The front of the science library, Daejeon campus of KAIST, depicting the statue of Jang Young Sil, a Korean scientist
A centralized administration in South Korea oversees the process for
the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year
of high school. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first
of which begins at the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the
second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February. The
schedules are not uniformly standardized and vary from school to school.
Most South Korean middle schools and high schools have school uniforms,
modeled on western-style uniforms. Boys' uniforms usually consist of
trousers and white shirts, and girls wear skirts and white shirts (this
only applies in middle schools and high schools). The country adopted a
new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students
through 2010. According to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology,
the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea would
have (under the program) doubled by that time, and the number of foreign
students would have reached 100,000.[170]
South Korea is one of the top-performing OECD
countries in reading literacy, maths and sciences with the average
student scoring 542 and has one of the worlds most highly educated
labour forces among OECD countries.[171][172]
The country is well known for its highly feverish outlook on education,
where its national obsession with education has been called "education
fever".[173][174][175]
This obsession with education has catapulted the resource poor nation
consistently atop the global education rankings where in 2014 national
rankings of students’ math and science scores by the Organization for
Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD), South Korea ranked
second place worldwide, after Singapore.[176]
Higher education is a serious issue in South Korea society, where
it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean
life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean
families as success in education holds a cultural status as well as a
necessity to improve one's socioeconomic position in South Korean
society.[177][178]
Academic success is often a source of pride for families and within
South Korean society at large. South Koreans view education as the main
propeller of social mobility for themselves and their family as a
gateway to the South Korean middle class. Graduating from a top
university is the ultimate marker of prestige, high socioeconomic
status, promising marriage prospects, and a respectable career path.[179]
An average South Korean child's life revolves around education as
pressure to succeed academically is deeply ingrained in South Korean
children from an early age. Not having a university degree carries a
major cultural stigma as those who lack a formal university education
face social prejudice and are often looked down upon by others.[180]
In 2015, the country spent 4.7% of its GDP on all levels of
education – roughly equal to the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) average of 4.7% also.[181]
A strong investment in education, a militant drive for success as well
as the passion for excellence has helped the resource poor country
rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war torn
wasteland.[182]
South Korea’s zeal for education and its students’ desires to get into a
prestigious university is one of the highest in the world, as the
entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a
prestigious, secure and well-paid white collar job with the government,
banks, a major South Korean conglomerate such as Samsung, Hyundai or LG Electronics.[183]
With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at
the nation’s best universities, its institutional reputation and alumni
networks are strong predictors of future career prospects. The top three
universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY", are Seoul
National University, Korea University and Yonsei University.[184][185]
Intense competition for top grades and academic pressure to be the top
student is deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Korean students at a
young age.[185] Yet with only so many places at universities and even fewer places at
top-tier companies, many young people remain disappointed and are often
unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling as
underachievers. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society
attached to those who have not achieved formal university education
where those who don't hold university degrees face social prejudice and
are often looked down by others as second-class citizens resulting in
fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one's socioeconomic
position and prospects for marriage.[186]
International opinion regarding the South Korean education system
has been divided. It has been praised for various reasons, including
its comparatively high test results and its major role in ushering South
Korea's economic development creating one of the world's most educated workforces.[187]
South Korea's highly enviable academic performance has persuaded British
education ministers to actively remodel their own curriculums and exams
to try to emulate Korea's militant drive and passion for excellence and
high educational achievement.[187] Former U.S. President Barack Obama
has also praised the country's rigorous school system, where over 80
percent of South Korean high school graduates go on to university.[188]
The nation's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled
workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries
in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding
a tertiary education degree.[189] Bachelor's degrees are held by 68 percent of South Koreans aged 25–34, the most in the OECD.[189]
The system's rigid and hierarchical structure has been criticized for stifling creativity and innovation;[190][191] described as intensely and "brutally" competitive,[192] the system is often blamed for the high suicide
rate in the country, particularly the growing rates among those aged
10–19. Various media outlets attribute the country's high suicide rate
to the nationwide anxiety around the country's college entrance exams,
which determine the trajectory of students' entire lives and careers.[193][194] Former South Korean hagwon teacher Se-Woong Koo wrote that the South Korean education system amounts to child abuse and that it should be "reformed and restructured without delay".[195]
The system has also been criticized for producing an excess supply of
university graduates creating an overeducated and underemployed labor
force; in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South
Korean university graduates were jobless, leaving many graduates
overqualified for jobs requiring less education.[196]
Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in
various skilled blue collar labor and vocational occupations, where many
go unfilled as the negative social stigma associated with vocational
careers and not having a university degree continues to remain
deep-rooted in South Korean society.
Language
Korean is the official language of South Korea, and is classified by
most linguists as a language isolate. Korean is not related to any
Chinese languages, although it incorporates a number of words that are
Chinese in origin. Additionally, Korean spoken in South Korea uses a
significant number of loan words from English and other European
languages. Korean uses an indigenous writing system called Hangul, created in 1446 by King Sejong to provide a convenient alternative to the Classical ChineseHanja
characters that were difficult to learn and did not fit the Korean
language well. South Korea still uses some Chinese Hanja characters in
limited areas, such as print media and legal documentation.
The Korean language in South Korea has a standard dialect known as Seoul (after the capital city), with an additional 4 Korean language dialect groups in use around the country.
Almost all South Korean students today learn English throughout their education, with some optionally choosing Japanese or Mandarin as well.[204]
According to the results of the census of 2015 more than half of the
South Korean population (56.9%) declared themselves not affiliated with
any religious organizations.[5]Korean shamanism
(also known as Sindo or Muism) is the native religion of the Koreans,
and it may represent a large part of the unaffiliated. Indeed, according
to a 2012 survey, only 15% of the population declared themselves not
religious in the sense of "atheism".[205] Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most are Christians and Buddhists.
According to the 2015 census, 27.6% of the population were Christians
(19.7% identified themselves as Protestants, 7.9% as Roman Catholics),
and 15.5% were Buddhists.[5] Other religions include Islam (130,000 Muslims, mostly migrant workers from Pakistan and Bangladesh but including some 35,000 Korean Muslims,[206]) the homegrown sect of Wonbuddhism, and a variety of indigenous religions, including Cheondoism (a Confucianizing religion), Jeungsanism, Daejongism, Daesun Jinrihoe and others. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution, and there is no state religion.[207]
Overall, between the 2005 and 2015 censuses there has been a slight
decline of Christianity (down from 29% to 27.6%), a sharp decline of
Buddhism (down from 22.8% to 15.5%), and a rise of the unaffiliated
population (from 47.2% to 56.9%).[5]
Christianity is South Korea's largest organized religion,
accounting for more than half of all South Korean adherents of religious
organizations. There are approximately 13.5 million Christians in South
Korea today; about two thirds of them belonging to Protestant churches,
and the rest to the Roman Catholic Church.[5]
The number of Protestants has been stagnant throughout the 1990s and
the 2000s, but increased to a peak level throughout the 2010s. Roman
Catholics increased significantly between the 1980s and the 2000s, but
declined throughout the 2010s.[5]
Christianity, unlike in other East Asian countries, found fertile
ground in Korea in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century
it persuaded a large part of the population as the declining monarchy
supported it and opened the country to widespread proselytism as part of
a project of Westernization. The weakness of Korean Sindo, which,
unlike Japanese Shinto and China's religious system, never developed into a national religion of high status,[208] combined with the impoverished state of Korean Buddhism
(after 500 years of suppression at the hands of the Joseon state, by
the 20th century it was virtually extinct) left a free hand to Christian
churches. Christianity's similarity to native religious narratives has
been studied as another factor that contributed to its success in the
peninsula.[209] The Japanese colonization of the first half of the 20th century further strengthened the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism, as the Japanese coopted native Korean Sindo into the Nipponic Imperial Shinto that they tried to establish in the peninsula.[210] Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto,[210]
after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the
newly established military government supported Christianity and tried to utterly oust native Sindo.
Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century.[212] It became soon a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla (North South States Period) and Goryeo.
It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under
the unified kingdom of Joseon (1392–1897), which officially adopted a
strict Korean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 7 million Buddhists,[5] most of them affiliated to the Jogye Order. Most of the National Treasures of South Korea are Buddhist artifacts.
Suicide in South Korea is a serious and widespread problem and the country ranks poorly on world happiness reports for a high-income state.[214] The suicide rate was the highest in the G20 in 2015 (24.1 deaths per 100,000 persons).[215]
South Korea maintains diplomatic relations with more than 188
countries. The country has also been a member of the United Nations
since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North
Korea. On January 1, 2007, Former South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon served as UN Secretary-General from 2007 to 2016. It has also developed links with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations as both a member of ASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and the East Asia Summit (EAS).
In November 2009 South Korea joined the OECD Development Assistance Committee, marking the first time a former aid recipient country joined the group as a donor member.
Both North and South Korea claim complete sovereignty over the entire peninsula and outlying islands.[218]
Despite mutual animosity, reconciliation efforts have continued since
the initial separation between North and South Korea. Political figures
such as Kim Koo worked to reconcile the two governments even after the
Korean War.[219] With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace.[220] On October 4, 2007, Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il
signed an eight-point agreement on issues of permanent peace,
high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services,
highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.
Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated by North Korean missile tests in 1993, 1998, 2006, 2009, and 2013. As of early 2009, relationships between North and South Korea were very tense; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles,[221] ended its former agreements with South Korea,[222] and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned.[223]
North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed
a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world's most heavily
fortified border.[24]
On May 27, 2009, North Korean media declared that the Armistice is no
longer valid because of the South Korean government's pledge to
"definitely join" the Proliferation Security Initiative.[224] To further complicate and intensify strains between the two nations, the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan in March 2010, is affirmed by the South Korean government[225]
to have been caused by a North Korean torpedo, which the North denies.
President Lee Myung-bak declared in May 2010 that Seoul would cut all
trade with North Korea as part of measures primarily aimed at striking
back at North Korea diplomatically and financially, except for the joint
Kaesong Industrial Project, and humanitarian aid.[226]
North Korea initially threatened to sever all ties, to completely
abrogate the previous pact of non-aggression, and to expel all South
Koreans from a joint industrial zone in Kaesong,
but backtracked on its threats and decided to continue its ties with
South Korea. Despite the continuing ties, Kaesong industrial zone has
seen a large decrease in investment and manpower as a result of this
military conflict. In February 2016, the Kaesong complex was closed by
Seoul in reaction to North Korea's launch of a rocket earlier in the
month[227] unanimously condemned by the United Nations security council.[228]
The 2017 election of President Moon Jae-in has seen a change in approach towards the North, and both sides used the South Korean held 2018 Winter Olympics as an opportunity for engagement,[229]
with a very senior North Korean political delegation sent to the games,
along with a reciprocal visit by senior South Korean cabinet members to
the North soon afterwards.[230]
China
Historically, Korea had close relations with the dynasties in China, and some Korean kingdoms were members of the Imperial Chinese tributary system. The
Korean kingdoms also ruled over some Chinese kingdoms including the
Kitan people and the Manchurians before the Qing dynasty and received
tributes from them.[235]In
modern times, before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence
fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation.
However, after World War II, the People's Republic of China embraced Maoism
while South Korea sought close relations with the United States. The
PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War,
and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea
and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually and
South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on
August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations
and lifted the forty-year-old trade embargo,[236] and South Korean–Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992.[236] The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) upon gaining official relations with the People's Republic of China, which doesn't recognise Taiwan's sovereignty.[237]
China has become South Korea's largest trading partner by far,
sending 26% of South Korean exports in 2016 worth $124 billion, as well
as an additional $32 billion worth of exports to Hong Kong.[238] South Korea is also China's 4th largest trading partner, with $93 billion of Chinese imports in 2016.[239]
The 2017 deployment of THAAD defence missiles by the United States
military in South Korea in response to North Korean missile tests has
been protested strongly by the Chinese government, concerned that the
technologically advanced missile defence could be used more broadly
against China.[240]
Relations between the governments have cooled in response, with South
Korean commercial and cultural interests in China having been targeted,
and Chinese tourism to South Korea having been curtailed.[241]
The situation was largely resolved by South Korea making significant
military concessions to China in exchange for THAAD, including not
deploying any more anti-ballistic missile systems in South Korea and not
participating in an alliance between the United States and Japan.[242]
Longstanding issues such as Japanese war crimes against Korean civilians, the negationistre-writing of Japanese textbooks relating Japanese atrocities during World War II, the territorial disputes over the Liancourt Rocks, known in South Korea as "Dokdo" and in Japan as "Takeshima",[249] and visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine,
honoring Japanese people (civilians and military) killed during the war
continue to trouble Korean-Japanese relations. The Liancourt Rocks were
the first Korean territories to be forcibly colonized by Japan in 1905.
Though it was again returned to Korea along with the rest of its
territory in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan
does not recant on its claims that the Liancourt Rocks are Japanese
territory.[250]
In response to then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, former PresidentRoh Moo-hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan in 2009.[251]
A summit between the nations' leaders was eventually held on February 9th, 2018 during the Korean held Winter Olympics.[252]
European Union
The European Union (EU) and South Korea are important trading partners, having negotiated a free trade agreement
for many years since South Korea was designated as a priority FTA
partner in 2006. The free trade agreement was approved in September
2010, and took effect on July 1, 2011.[253]
South Korea is the EU's tenth largest trade partner, and the EU has
become South Korea's fourth largest export destination. EU trade with
South Korea exceeded €90 billion in 2015 and has enjoyed an annual
average growth rate of 9.8% between 2003 and 2013.[254]
The EU has been the single largest foreign investor in South
Korea since 1962, and accounted for almost 45% of all FDI inflows into
Korea in 2006. Nevertheless, EU companies have significant problems
accessing and operating in the South Korean market because of stringent
standards and testing requirements for products and services often
creating barriers to trade. Both in its regular bilateral contacts with
South Korea and through its FTA with Korea, the EU is seeking to improve
this situation.[254]
The close relationship began directly after World War II,
when the United States temporarily administrated Korea for three years
(mainly in the South, with the Soviet Union engaged in North Korea)
after Japan. Upon the onset of the Korean War in 1950, U.S. forces were sent to defend against an invasion from North Korea of the South, and subsequently fought as the as the largest contributor of UN troops. The United States participation was critical for preventing the near defeat of the Republic of Korea by northern forces, as well as fighting back for the territory gains that define the South Korean nation today.
Following the Armistice, South Korea and the U.S. agreed to a
"Mutual Defense Treaty", under which an attack on either party in the Pacific area would summon a response from both.[255]
In 1967, South Korea obliged the mutual defense treaty, by sending a
large combat troop contingent to support the United States in the Vietnam War. The US has over 23,000 troops stationed in South Korea, including the U.S. Eighth Army, Seventh Air Force, and U.S. Naval Forces Korea.
The two nations have strong economic, diplomatic, and military ties,
although they have at times disagreed with regard to policies towards
North Korea, and with regard to some of South Korea's industrial
activities that involve usage of rocket or nuclear technology. There had
also been strong anti-American sentiment during certain periods, which
has largely moderated in the modern day.
The two nations also share a close economic relationship, with the U.S being South Korea's second largest trading partner, receiving $66 billion in exports in 2016.[238] In 2007, a free trade agreement known as the Republic of Korea-United States Free Trade Agreement
(KORUS FTA) was signed between South Korea and the United States, but
its formal implementation was repeatedly delayed, pending approval by
the legislative bodies of the two countries. On October 12, 2011, the
U.S. Congress passed the long-stalled trade agreement with South Korea.[257] It went into effect on March 15, 2012.
Military
The unresolved tension with North Korea have prompted South Korea to
allocate 2.6% of its GDP and 15% of all government spending to its
military (Government share of GDP: 14.967%), while maintaining
compulsory conscription for men.[259] Consequently, South Korea has the world's seventh largest number of active troops (630,000 in 2017), the world's highest number of reserve troops (7,500,000 in 2017)[260] and the tenth largest defense budget.
The South Korean military consists of the Army (ROKA), the Navy (ROKN), the Air Force (ROKAF), and the Marine Corps (ROKMC), and reserve forces.[261] Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone.
All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the
military, typically 21 months. Previous exceptions for South Korean
citizens of mixed race no longer apply since 2011.
In addition to male conscription in South Korea's sovereign military,
1,800 Korean males are selected every year to serve 21 months in the KATUSA Program to further augment the United States Forces Korea (USFK).[263] In 2010, South Korea was spending ₩1.68
trillion in a cost-sharing agreement with the US to provide budgetary
support to the US forces in Korea, on top of the ₩29.6 trillion budget
for its own military.
The South Korean army has 2,500 tanks in operation, including the K1A1 and K2 Black Panther,
which form the backbone of the South Korean army's mechanized armor and
infantry forces. A sizable arsenal of many artillery systems, including
1,700 self-propelled K55 and K9 Thunderhowitzers and 680 helicopters and UAVs
of numerous types, are assembled to provide additional fire,
reconnaissance, and logistics support. South Korea's smaller but more
advanced artillery force and wide range of airborne reconnaissance
platforms are pivotal in the counter-battery suppression
of North Korea's large artillery force, which operates more than 13,000
artillery systems deployed in various state of fortification and
mobility.[260][264]
The South Korean air force operates 840 aircraft, making it
world's ninth largest air force, including several types of advanced
fighters like F-15K, heavily modified KF-16C/D,[266] and the indigenous F/A-50,[267][268] supported by well-maintained fleets of older fighters such as F-4E and KF-5E/F
that still effectively serve the air force alongside the more modern
aircraft. In an attempt to gain strength in terms of not just numbers
but also modernity, the commissioning of four Boeing 737 AEW&C aircraft, under Project Peace Eye for centralized intelligence gathering and analysis
on a modern battlefield, will enhance the fighters' and other support
aircraft's ability to perform their missions with awareness and
precision.
In May 2011, Korea Aerospace Industries Ltd., South Korea's largest plane maker, signed a $400 million deal to sell 16 T-50 Golden Eagle trainer jets to Indonesia, making South Korea the first country in Asia to export supersonic jets.
From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist
American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the
United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea
dispatched 325,517 troops to fight alongside American, Australian, Filipino, New Zealand and South Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000.[270] In 2004, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of the Zaytun Division to help re-building in northern Iraq, and was the third largest contributor in the coalition forces after only the US and Britain.[271] Beginning in 2001, South Korea had so far deployed 24,000 troops in the Middle East region to support the War on Terrorism. A further 1,800 were deployed since 2007 to reinforce UN peacekeeping forces in Lebanon.
The United States has stationed a substantial contingent of troops to
defend South Korea. There are approximately 28,500 U.S. Military
personnel stationed in Korea,[272]
most of them serving one year unaccompanied tours. The American troops,
which are primarily ground and air units, are assigned to USFK and mainly assigned to the Eighth United States Army of the US Army and Seventh Air Force of the US Air Force. They are stationed in installations at Osan, Kunsan, Yongsan, Dongducheon, Sungbuk, Camp Humphreys, and Daegu, as well as at Camp Bonifas in the DMZ Joint Security Area.
A fully functioning UN Command is at the top of the chain of command
of all forces in South Korea, including the US forces and the entire
South Korean military – if a sudden escalation of war between North and
South Korea were to occur the United States would assume control of the
South Korean armed forces in all military and paramilitary moves. There
has been long term agreement between the United States and South Korea
that South Korea should eventually assume the lead for its own defense.
This transition to a South Korean command has been slow and often
postponed, although it is currently scheduled to occur in the early
2020s.[273]
Conscientious objection
Male citizens who refuse or reject to undertake military services
because of conscientious objection are typically imprisoned, with over
600 individuals usually imprisoned at any given time; more than the rest
of the world put together.[274] The vast majority of these are young men from the Jehovah's Witnesses Christian denomination.[275]
See Conscription in South Korea.
Economy
Graphical depiction of South Korea's product exports in 28 color-coded categories
Its massive investment in education has taken the country from
mass illiteracy to a major international technological powerhouse. The
country's national economy benefits from a highly skilled workforce and
is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the
highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.[189]
South Korea's economy was one of the world's fastest-growing from the
early 1960s to the late 1990s, and was still one of the fastest-growing
developed countries in the 2000s, along with Hong Kong, Singapore and
Taiwan, the other three Asian Tigers.[280] South Koreans refer to this growth as the Miracle on the Han River.[281] The South Korean economy is heavily dependent on international trade, and in 2014, South Korea was the fifth-largest exporter and seventh-largest importer in the world.
Despite the South Korean economy's high growth potential and
apparent structural stability, the country suffers damage to its credit
rating in the stock market because of the belligerence of North Korea in
times of deep military crises, which has an adverse effect on South
Korean financial markets.[282][283] The International Monetary Fund
compliments the resilience of the South Korean economy against various
economic crises, citing low state debt and high fiscal reserves that can
quickly be mobilized to address financial emergencies.[284]
Although it was severely harmed by the Asian economic crisis of the
late 1990s, the South Korean economy managed a rapid recovery and
subsequently tripled its GDP.[285]
Furthermore, South Korea was one of the few developed countries that were able to avoid a recession during the global financial crisis.[286]
Its economic growth rate reached 6.2 percent in 2010 (the fastest
growth for eight years after significant growth by 7.2 percent in 2002),[287]
a sharp recovery from economic growth rates of 2.3% in 2008 and 0.2% in
2009, when the global financial crisis hit. The unemployment rate in
South Korea also remained low in 2009, at 3.6%.[288]
Korea developed the HEMU 430Xhigh-speed train, which can travel at over 430 km/h (267 mph), making South Korea the world's fourth country after France, Japan and China to develop a high-speed train running above 420 km/h on conventional rails.
South Korea has a technologically advanced transport network
consisting of high-speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services,
and air routes that crisscross the country. Korea Expressway Corporation operates the toll highways and service amenities en route.
South Korea's main gateway and largest airport is Incheon International Airport, serving 58 million passengers in 2016.[293] Other international airports include Gimpo, Busan and Jeju. There are also a large number of airports that were built as part of the infrastructure boom but are barely used.[294] There are a large number of heliports.[295]
The national carrier, Korean Air served over 26,800,000 passengers, including almost 19,000,000 international passengers in 2016.[296] A second carrier, Asiana Airlines also serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes.[297] Smaller airlines, such as Jeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares.[298]
South Korea is the world's fifth-largest nuclear power producer and the second-largest in Asia as of 2010.[299]Nuclear power in South Korea
supplies 45% of electricity production, and research is very active
with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a
small modular reactor, a liquid-metal fast/transmutation reactor and a high-temperature hydrogen
generation design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have
also been developed locally. It is also a member of the ITER project.[300]
South Korea is an emerging exporter of nuclear reactors, having concluded agreements with the UAE to build and maintain four advanced nuclear reactors,[301] with Jordan for a research nuclear reactor,[302][303] and with Argentina for construction and repair of heavy-water nuclear reactors.[304][305] As of 2010, South Korea and Turkey are in negotiations regarding construction of two nuclear reactors.[306] South Korea is also preparing to bid on construction of a light-water nuclear reactor for Argentina.[305]
South Korea is not allowed to enrich uranium or develop traditional uranium enrichment technology on its own, because of US political pressure,[307]
unlike most major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France,
competitors of South Korea in the international nuclear market. This
impediment to South Korea's indigenous nuclear industrial undertaking
has sparked occasional diplomatic rows between the two allies. While
South Korea is successful in exporting its electricity-generating
nuclear technology and nuclear reactors, it cannot capitalize on the market for nuclear enrichment facilities and refineries, preventing it from further expanding its export niche. South Korea has sought unique technologies such as pyroprocessing to circumvent these obstacles and seek a more advantageous competition.[308]
The US has recently been wary of South Korea's burgeoning nuclear
program, which South Korea insists will be for civilian use only.[299]
South Korea is the third highest ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index
(NRI) after Singapore and Hong Kong respectively – an indicator for
determining the development level of a country's information and
communication technologies. South Korea ranked number 10 overall in the
2014 NRI ranking, up from 11 in 2013.[309]
In 2016, 17 million foreign tourists visited South Korea[310][311]
With rising tourist prospects, especially from foreign countries
outside of Asia, the South Korean government has set a target of
attracting 20 million foreign tourists a year by 2017.[312]
South Korean tourism is driven by many factors, including the popularity of South Korean pop music and television dramas, known as Korean Wave
(Hallyu), throughout East Asia, traditional culture, cuisine and
natural environment. The Hyundai Research Institute reported that the
Korean Wave has a direct impact in encouraging direct foreign investment
back into the country through demand for products, and the tourism
industry.[313]
Among Asian countries, China was the most receptive, investing 1.4
billion in South Korea, with much of the investment within its service
sector, a sevenfold increase from 2001. According to an analysis by
economist Han Sang-Wan, a 1 percent increase in the exports of Korean
cultural content pushes consumer goods exports up 0.083 percent while a 1
percent increase in Korean pop content exports to a country produces a
0.019 percent bump in tourism.[313]
South Korean National Pension System
The South Korean pension system
was created to provide benefits to persons reaching old age, families
and persons stricken with death of their primary breadwinner, and for
the purposes of stabilizing its nations welfare state.[314]
South Korea's pensions system structure is primarily based on taxation
and is income-related. In 2007 there was a total of 18,367,000 insured
individuals with only around 511,000 persons excluded from mandatory
contribution.[315]
The current pension system is divided into four categories distributing
benefits to participants through national, military personnel,
governmental, and private school teacher pension schemes.[316]
The national pension scheme is the primary welfare system providing
allowances to the majority of persons. Eligibility for the national
pension scheme is not dependent on income but on age and residence,
where those between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered.[317]
Any one who is under the age of 18 are dependents of someone who is
covered or under a special exclusion where they are allowed to alternate
provisions.[318]
The national pension scheme is divided into four categories of insured
persons – the workplace-based insured, the individually insured, the
voluntarily insured, and the voluntarily and continuously insured.
Employees between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered under the
workplace-based pension scheme and contribute 4.5% of their gross
monthly earnings.[314]
The national pension covers employees who work in firms that employ
five or more employees, fishermen, farmers, and the self-employed in
both rural and urban areas. Employers are also covered under the
workplace-based pension scheme and help cover their employees obligated
9% contribution by providing the remaining 4.5%.[318] Anyone who is not employed, of the age of 60 or above, and excluded by article 6 of the National Pension Act but of the ages between 18 and 59, is covered under the individually insured pension scheme.[319] Persons covered by the individually insured pension scheme are in
charge of paying the entire 9% contribution themselves. Voluntarily
insured persons are not subjected to mandatory coverage but can choose
to be. This category comprises retirees who voluntarily choose to have
additional benefits, individuals under the age of 27 without income, and
individuals whose spouses are covered under a public welfare system,
whether military, governmental, or private school teacher pensions.[317]
Like the Individually insured persons, they too are in charge of
covering the full amount of the contribution. Voluntarily and
continuously insured persons consists of individuals 60 years of age who
want to fulfill the minimum insured period of 20 years to qualify for
old age pension benefits.[319] Excluding the workplace-based insured persons, all the other insured persons personally cover their own 9% contribution.[317]
South Korea's old-age pension scheme covers individuals age 60 or
older for the rest of their life as long as they have satisfied the
minimum of 20 years of national pension coverage before hand.[318]
Individuals with a minimum of 10 years covered under the national
pension scheme and who are 60 years of age are able to be covered by
under a 'reduced old-age pension' scheme. There also is an 'active
old-age pension' scheme that covers individuals age 60 to 65 engaged in
activities yielding earned income. Individuals age of 55 and younger
than 60 who are not engaged in activities yielding earned income are
eligible to be covered under the 'early old-age pension' scheme.[319]
Around 60% of all Korean elders, age 65 and over are entitled to a 5%
benefit of their past average income at an average of 90,000 Korean Won (KRW).[320]
Basic old-age pension schemes covered individuals 65 years of age who
earned below an amount set by presidential order. In 2010, that ceiling
was 700,00 KRW for a single individual and 1,120,000 for a couple,
equivalent to around $600.00 and $960.00.[318]
Scientific and technological development in the South Korea at first
did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as the division of Korea and the Korean War that occurred right after its independence. It wasn't until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung-hee where South Korea's economy rapidly grew from industrialisation and the Chaebol corporations such as Samsung and LG.
Ever since the industrialization of South Korea's economy, South Korea
has placed its focus on technology-based corporations, which has been
supported by infrastructure developments by the government. South Korean
corporations Samsung and LG were ranked first and third largest mobile phone companies in the world in the first quarter of 2012, respectively.[321] An estimated 90% of South Koreans own a mobile phone.[322] Aside from placing/receiving calls and text messaging, mobile phones in the country are widely used for watching Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) or viewing websites.[323] Over one million DMB phones have been sold and the three major wireless communications providers SK Telecom, KT, and LG U+
provide coverage in all major cities and other areas. South Korea has
the fastest Internet download speeds in the world, with an average
download speed of 25.3 Mbit/s.[324]
South Korea leads the OECD in graduates in science and engineering.[325] The country ranks first among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index.[326][327]
Additionally, South Korea today is known as a Launchpad of a mature
mobile market, where developers can reap benefits of a market where very
few technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of
inventions of new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G
internet infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has today the
infrastructures to meet a density of population and culture that has the
capability to create strong local particularity.[328]
Cyber security
Following cyberattacks
in the first half of 2013, whereby government, news-media, television
station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government
committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017.
The South Korean government blamed North Korea for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.[329]
In late September 2013, a computer-security competition jointly
sponsored by the defense ministry and the National Intelligence Service
was announced. The winners were announced on September 29, 2013 and
shared a total prize pool of 80 million won (US$74,000).[329]
South Korea has sent up 10 satellites from 1992, all using foreign rockets and overseas launch pads, notably Arirang-1 in 1999, and Arirang-2 in 2006 as part of its space partnership with Russia.[330] Arirang-1 was lost in space in 2008, after nine years in service.[331]
In April 2008, Yi So-yeon became the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the Russian Soyuz TMA-12.
In June 2009, the first spaceport of South Korea, Naro Space Center, was completed at Goheung, Jeollanam-do.[334] The launch of Naro-1 in August 2009 resulted in a failure.[335] The second attempt in June 2010 was also unsuccessful.[336] However, the third launch of the Naro 1 in January 2013 was successful.[337] The government plans to develop Naro-2 by the year 2018.
South Korea's efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle
is marred because of persistent political pressure of the United
States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea's indigenous
rocket and missile development programs[339]
in fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic
missile programs, which Korea many times insisted did not violate the research and development guidelines stipulated by US-Korea agreements on restriction of South Korean rocket technology research and development.[340] South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia through MTCR commitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. The two failed KSLV-I launch vehicles were based on the Universal Rocket Module, the first stage of the Russian Angara rocket, combined with a solid-fueled second stage built by South Korea.
Robotics
Albert HUBO, developed by KAIST, can make expressive gestures with its five separate fingers
Robotics has been included in the list of main national R&D projects in Korea since 2003.[341] In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot-themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding.[342]
Plans of creating English-teaching robot assistants to compensate
for the shortage of teachers were announced in February 2010, with the
robots being deployed to most preschools and kindergartens by 2013.[346] Robotics are also incorporated in the entertainment sector as well; the Korean Robot Game Festival has been held every year since 2004 to promote science and robot technology.[347]
Biotechnology
Since the 1980s, the Korean government has invested in the development of a domestic biotechnology industry, and the sector is projected to grow to $6.5 billion by 2010.[348] The medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production of hepatitis vaccines and antibiotics.
Recently, research and development in genetics and cloning has received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog, Snuppy (in 2005), and the cloning of two females of an endangered species of wolves[which?] by the Seoul National University in 2007.[349]
The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by the scientific misconduct case involving Hwang Woo-Suk.[350]
South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea,
but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of
culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the
culture of Korea has been heavily influenced by that of neighboring
China, it has nevertheless managed to develop a unique cultural identity
that is distinct from its larger neighbor.[351] Its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. The South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs.[352]
The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have
brought many changes to the way modern Koreans live. Changing economics
and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major
cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households
separating into nuclear family
living arrangements. A 2014 Euromonitor study found that South Koreans
drink the most alcohol on a weekly basis compared to the rest of the
world. South Koreans drink 13.7 shots of liquor per week on average and,
of the 44 other countries analyzed, Russia, the Philippines, and
Thailand follow.[353]
Art
Blue and white porcelain peach-shaped water dropper from Joseon Dynasty in 18th century
Post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and
1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and
intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony between man and nature was
also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social
issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by
various international events and exhibits in Korea, and with it brought
more diversity.[356] The Olympic Sculpture Garden in 1988, the transposition of the 1993 edition of the Whitney Biennial to Seoul,[357] the creation of the Gwangju Biennale[358] and the Korean Pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 1995[359] were notable events.
Because of South Korea's tumultuous history, construction and
destruction has been repeated endlessly, resulting in an interesting
melange of architectural styles and designs.[360]
Korean traditional architecture is characterized by its harmony with nature. Ancient architects adopted the bracket system characterized by thatched roofs and heated floors called ondol.[361]
People of the upper classes built bigger houses with elegantly curved
tiled roofs with lifting eaves. Traditional architecture can be seen in
the palaces and temples, preserved old houses called hanok,[362] and special sites like Hahoe Folk Village, Yangdong Village of Gyeongju and Korean Folk Village. Traditional architecture may also be seen at the nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Korea.
Western architecture was first introduced to Korea at the end of the
19th century. Churches, offices for foreign legislation, schools and
university buildings were built in new styles. With the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910
the colonial regime intervened in Korea's architectural heritage, and
Japanese-style modern architecture was imposed. The anti-Japanese
sentiment, and the Korean War, led to the destruction of most buildings
constructed during that time.[364]
Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the
post-Korean War reconstruction, incorporating modern architectural
trends and styles. Stimulated by the economic growth in the 1970s and
1980s, active redevelopment saw new horizons in architectural design. In
the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a
wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large
part, to the opening up of the market to foreign architects.[365]
Contemporary architectural efforts have been constantly trying to
balance the traditional philosophy of "harmony with nature" and the
fast-paced urbanization that the country has been going through in
recent years.[366]
Korean cuisine, hanguk yori (한국요리; 韓國料理), or hansik
(한식; 韓食), has evolved through centuries of social and political change.
Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant
regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across
the country in the present day. The Korean royal court cuisine
once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the
royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary
Korean citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette.
Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, noodles, tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes, banchan (반찬), which accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan. Kimchi
(김치), a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at
every meal and is one of the best known Korean dishes. Korean cuisine
usually involves heavy seasoning with sesame oil, doenjang (된장), a type of fermented soybean paste, soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, and gochujang (고추장), a hot pepper paste. Other well-known dishes are Bulgogi (불고기), grilled marinated beef, Gimbap (김밥), and Tteokbokki (떡볶이), a spicy snack consisting of rice cake seasoned with gochujang or a spicy chili paste.
Soups are also a common part of a Korean meal and are served as
part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the
meal. Soups known as guk (국) are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk, tang (탕; 湯) has less water, and is more often served in restaurants. Another type is jjigae (찌개), a stew that is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot.
Korea is unique among Asian countries in its use of metal
chopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in Goguryeo
archaeological sites.[367]
Entertainment
Rain,
one of the most popular music artists in South Korea, found
international fame by reaching a global audience through his music and
films.
In addition to domestic consumption, South Korea has a thriving
entertainment industry where various facets of South Korean
entertainment including television dramas, films, and popular music has
generated significant financial revenues for the nation's economy. The
cultural phenomenon known as Hallyu
or the "Korean Wave", has swept many countries across Asia making South
Korea a major soft power as an exporter of popular culture and
entertainment, rivaling Western nations such as the United States and
the United Kingdom.[368]
Until the 1990s, trot and traditional Korean folk based ballads dominated South Korean popular music. The emergence of the South Korean pop group Seo Taiji and Boys in 1992 marked a turning point for South Korean popular music, also known as K-pop, as the genre modernized itself from incorporating elements of popular musical genres from across the world such as Western popular music, experimental, jazz, gospel, Latin, classical, hip hop, rhythm and blues, electronic dance, reggae, country, folk, and rock on top of its uniquely traditional Korean music roots.[369]
Western-style pop, hip hop, rhythm and blues, rock, folk, electronic
dance oriented acts have become dominant in the modern South Korean
popular music scene, though trot is still enjoyed among older South
Koreans. K-pop stars and groups are well known across Asia and have
found international fame making millions of dollars in export revenue.
Many K-pop acts have also been able secure a strong overseas following
following using online social media platforms such as the video sharing
website YouTube. South Korean singer PSY became an international sensation when his song "Gangnam Style" topped global music charts in 2012.
Since the success of the film Shiri in 1999, the Korean film
industry has begun to gain recognition internationally. Domestic film
has a dominant share of the market, partly because of the existence of screen quotas requiring cinemas to show Korean films at least 73 days a year.[370]
There are many official public holidays in South Korea. Korean New
Year's Day, or "Seollal", is celebrated on the first day of the Korean
lunar calendar. Korean Independence Day
falls on March 1, and commemorates the March 1 Movement of 1919.
Memorial Day is celebrated on June 6, and its purpose is to honor the
men and women who died in South Korea's independence movement.
Constitution Day is on July 17, and it celebrates the promulgation of Constitution of the Republic of Korea. Liberation Day, on August 15, celebrates Korea's liberation from the Empire of Japan in 1945. Every 15th day of the 8th lunar month, Koreans celebrate the Midautumn Festival,
in which Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns and eat a variety of
traditional Korean foods. On October 1, Armed Forces day is celebrated,
honoring the military forces of South Korea. October 3 is National Foundation Day. Hangul Day, on October 9 commemorates the invention of hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language.
Football and baseball have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Korea. Recent polling indicates that a majority, 41% of South Korean sports fans continue to self-identify as football fans, with baseball ranked 2nd at 25% of respondents. However, the polling did not indicate the extent to which respondents follow both sports.[375] The national football team became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the FIFA World Cup semi-finals in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan. The Korea Republic national team (as it is known) has qualified for every World Cup since Mexico 1986, and has broken out of the group stage twice: first in 2002, and again in 2010, when it was defeated by eventual semi-finalist Uruguay in the Round of 16. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the Bronze Medal for football.
Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905 and has since become
increasingly popular, with some sources claiming it has surpassed
football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games.[379][380] The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10-team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live.[381] In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball.[382] Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup, Korea won the gold medal. At the 2010 Asian Games, the Korean National Baseball team won the gold medal. Several Korean players have gone on to play in Major League Baseball.
Basketball
is a popular sport in the country as well. South Korea has
traditionally had one of the top basketball teams in Asia and one of the
continent's strongest basketball divisions. Seoul hosted the 1967 and 1995 Asian Basketball Championship. The Korea national basketball team has won a record number of 23 medals at the event to date.
Competitive video gaming, also called eSports (sometimes written e-Sports), has become more popular South Korea in recent years, particularly among young people.[390] The two most popular games are League of Legends and StarCraft. The gaming scene of South Korea is managed by the Korean e-Sports Association
(KeSPA for short) and has become something of a career for many
players. They can make a living out of their activity and top players
can even make a significant amount of money with some high end Starcraft
II players ending up making six figure salaries.
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