An Earth analog (also referred to as an Earth twin or Earth-like planet, though this latter term may refer to any terrestrial planet) is a planet or moon with environmental conditions similar to those found on Earth.
The possibility is of particular interest to astrobiologists and astronomers under reasoning that the more similar a planet is to Earth, the more likely it is to be capable of sustaining complex extraterrestrial life. As such, it has long been speculated and the subject expressed in science, philosophy, science fiction and popular culture. Advocates of space colonization have long sought an Earth analog as a "second home", while advocates for space and survival would regard such a planet as a potential "new home" for humankind.
Before the scientific search for and study of extrasolar planets, the possibility was argued through philosophy and science fiction. The mediocrity principle suggests that planets like Earth should be common in the universe, while the Rare Earth hypothesis
suggests that they are extremely rare. The thousands of exoplanetary
star systems discovered so far are profoundly different from our solar
system, supporting the Rare Earth hypothesis.
Philosophers have pointed out that the size of the universe is
such that a near-identical planet must exist somewhere. In the far
future, technology may be used by humans to artificially produce an Earth analog by terraforming. The multiverse theory suggests that an Earth analog could exist in another universe or even be another version of the Earth itself in a parallel universe.
Scientific findings since the 1990s have greatly influenced the scope of the fields of astrobiology, models of planetary habitability and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). NASA and the SETI Institute have proposed categorising the increasing number of planets found using a measure called the Earth Similarity Index (ESI) based on mass, radius and temperature. According to this measure, as of 23 July 2015, the confirmed planet currently thought to be most similar to Earth on mass, radius and temperature is Kepler-438b. Scientists estimate that there may be billions of Earth-size planets within the Milky Way galaxy alone.
History
Percival Lowell depicted Mars as a dry but Earth-like planet and habitable for an extraterrestrial civilisation
Sand dunes in the Namib Desert on Earth (top), compared with dunes in Belet on Titan
Between 1858 and 1920, Mars was thought by many, including some
scientists, to be very similar to Earth, only drier with a thick
atmosphere, similar axial tilt, orbit and seasons as well as a Martian civilization that had built great Martian canals. These theories were advanced by Giovanni Schiaparelli, Percival Lowell and others. As such Mars in fiction portrayed the red planet as similar to Earth but with a desert like landscape. Images and data from the Mariner (1965) and Viking space probes (1975–1980), however, revealed the planet as a barren cratered world. However, with continuing discoveries, other Earth comparisons remained. For example, the Mars Ocean Hypothesis had its origins in the Viking missions and was popularised during the 1980s.
With the possibility of past water, there was the possibility that life
could have begun on Mars and it was once again perceived to be more
Earth-like.
Likewise, until the 1960s, Venus
was believed by many, including some scientists, to be a warmer version
of Earth with a thick atmosphere and either hot and dusty or humid with
water clouds and oceans. Venus in fiction was often portrayed as having similarities to Earth and many speculated about Venusian
civilization. These beliefs were dispelled in the 1960s as the first
space probes gathered more accurate scientific data on the planet and
found that Venus is a very hot world with the surface temperature around
900 °F (482 °C) under an acidic atmosphere 92 times thicker the
Earth's.
From 2004, Cassini–Huygens began to reveal Saturn's moon Titan
to be one of the most Earth-like worlds outside of the habitable zone.
Though having a dramatically different chemical makeup, discoveries such
as the confirmation of Titanian lakes, rivers and fluvial processes in 2007, advanced comparisons to Earth.
Further observations, including weather phenomena, have aided the
understanding of geological processes that may operate on Earth-like
planets.
The Kepler space telescope began observing the transits of potential terrestrial planets in the habitable zone from 2011.
Though the technology provided a more effective means for detecting and
confirming planets, it was unable to conclude definitively how
Earth-like the candidate planets actually are.
In 2013, several Kepler candidates less than 1.5 Earth radii were
confirmed orbiting in the habitable zone of stars. It was not until 2015
that the first near-Earth sized candidate orbiting a solar candidate, Kepler-452b, was announced.
Attributes and criteria
The
probability of finding an Earth analog depends mostly on the attributes
that are expected to be similar, and these vary greatly. Generally it
is considered that it would be a terrestrial planet
and there have been several scientific studies aimed at finding such
planets. Often implied but not limited to are such criteria as planet
size, surface gravity, star size and type (i.e. Solar analog), orbital distance and stability, axial tilt and rotation, similar geography, oceans, air and weather conditions, strong magnetosphere and even the presence of Earth-like complex life. If there is complex life, there could be some forests covering much of the land. If there is intelligent life, some parts of land could be covered in cities.
Some factors that are assumed of such a planet may be unlikely due to
Earth's own history. For instance the Earth's atmosphere was not always
oxygen-rich and this is a biosignature from the emergence of photosynthetic life. The formation, presence, influence on these characteristics of the Moon (such as tidal forces) may also pose a problem in finding an Earth analog.
Size is often thought to be a significant factor, as planets of
Earth's size are thought more likely to be terrestrial in nature and be
capable of retaining an Earth-like atmosphere.
The list includes planets within the range of 0.8–1.9 Earth masses, below which are generally classed as sub-Earth and above classed as super-Earth.
In addition, only planets known to fall within the range of 0.5–2.0
Earth radius (between half and twice the radius of the Earth) are
included. In contrast, the Earth Similarity Index uses both mass and
radius as criteria.
According to the size criteria, the closest planetary mass objects by known radius or mass are:
This comparison indicates that size alone is a poor measure, particularly in terms of habitability. Temperature must also be considered as Venus and the planets of Alpha Centauri B (discovered in 2012), Kepler-20 (discovered in 2011), COROT-7 (discovered in 2009) and the three planets of Kepler-42 (all discovered in 2011) are very hot, and Mars, Ganymede and Titan are frigid worlds, resulting also in wide variety of surface and atmospheric conditions. The masses of the Solar System's moons are a tiny fraction of that of Earth whereas the masses of extrasolar planets are very difficult to accurately measure. However discoveries of Earth-sized terrestrial planets are important as they may indicate the probable frequency and distribution of Earth-like planets.
Terrestrial
Surfaces like this of Saturn's moon Titan (taken by Huygens probe) bear superficial similarities to the floodplains of Earth
Another criterion often cited is that an Earth analog must be
terrestrial, that is, it should possess a similar surface geology—a planetary surface
composed of similar surface materials. The closest known examples are
Mars and Titan and while there are similarities in their types of
landforms and surface compositions, there are also significant
differences such as the temperature and quantities of ice.
Many of Earth's surface materials and landforms are formed as a result of interaction with water (such as clay and sedimentary rocks)
or as a byproduct of life (such as limestone or coal), interaction with
the atmosphere, volcanically or artificially. A true Earth analog
therefore might need to have formed through similar processes, having
possessed an atmosphere, volcanic interactions with the surface, past or
present liquid water and life forms.
Temperature
There
are several factors that can determine planetary temperatures and
therefore several measures that can draw comparisons to that of the
Earth in planets where atmospheric conditions are unknown. Equilibrium temperature is used for planets without atmospheres. With atmosphere, a greenhouse effect
is assumed. Finally, surface temperature is used. Each of these
temperatures is affected by climate, which is influenced by the orbit
and rotation (or tidal locking) of the planet, each of which introduces
further variables.
Below is a comparison of the confirmed planets with the closest known temperatures to Earth.
Another criteria of an Earth analog is that it should orbit a solar
analog, that is, a star much like our Sun, similar photometrically or in
terms of spectral type. It follows that the composition of a planet around a solar twin with similar metallicity
might have a similar composition to Earth. Also, this would help
eliminate stellar extremes and variability that may be applicable to
other types of stars.
While planets have been discovered orbiting similar stars to the Sun, most are gas giant or super-Earth
sized, and many of these planetary systems have shown to be
surprisingly different from our own. This measure is not entirely
reliable as Mars and Venus also orbit the Sun but have different
compositions and properties.
Surface water and hydrological cycle
Water covers 70% of Earth's surface and is required by all known life
Kepler-22b,
located in the habitable zone of a Sun-like star may be the best
exoplanetary candidate for extraterrestrial surface water discovered to
date, but is significantly larger than Earth and its actual composition
is unknown
The concept of the habitable zone (or Liquid Water Zone) defining a
region where water can exist on the surface, is based on the properties
of both the Earth and Sun. Under this model, Earth orbits roughly at the
centre of this zone or in the "Goldilocks" position. Earth is the only
planet in the universe confirmed to possess large bodies of surface
water. Venus is on the hot side of the zone while Mars is on the cold
side. Neither are known to have persistent surface water, though
evidence exists that Mars did have in its ancient past, and it is speculated that the same was the case for Venus.
Thus extrasolar planets (or moons) in the Goldilocks position with
substantial atmospheres may possess oceans and water clouds like those
on Earth. In addition to surface water, a true Earth analog would
require a mix of oceans or lakes and areas not covered by water, or land.
Some argue that a true Earth analog must not only have a similar
position of its planetary system but also orbit a solar analog and have a
near circular orbit such that it remains continually habitable like
Earth.
Extrasolar Earth analog
The mediocrity principle
suggests that there is a chance that serendipitous events may have
allowed an Earth-like planet to form elsewhere that would allow the
emergence of complex, multi-cellular life. In contrast, the Rare Earth hypothesis
asserts that if the strictest criteria are applied, such a planet, if
it exists, may be so far away that humans may never locate it.
Because the Solar System proved to be devoid of an Earth analog, the search has widened to extrasolar planets. Astrobiologists assert that Earth analogs would most likely be found in a stellar habitable zone, in which liquid water could exist, providing the conditions for supporting life. Some astrobiologists, such as Dirk Schulze-Makuch, estimated that a sufficiently massive natural satellite may form a habitable moon similar to Earth.
Estimated frequency
Artist's concept of Earth-like planets
The frequency of Earth-like planets in both the Milky Way and the larger universe is still unknown. It ranges from the extreme Rare Earth hypothesis estimates – one (i. e., Earth) – to innumerable.
Several current scientific studies, including the Kepler mission,
are aimed at refining estimates using real data from transiting
planets. A 2008 study by astronomer Michael Meyer from the University of
Arizona of cosmic dust near recently formed Sun-like stars suggests that between 20% and 60% of solar analogs have evidence for the formation of rocky planets, not unlike the processes that led to those of Earth. Meyer's team found discs of cosmic dust around stars and sees this as a byproduct of the formation of rocky planets.
In 2011 NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and based on observations from the Kepler Mission is that about 1.4% to 2.7% of all Sun-like stars are expected to have Earth-size planets within the habitable zones
of their stars. This means there could be two billion of them in the
Milky Way galaxy alone, and assuming that all galaxies have a similar
number as the Milky Way, in the 50 billion galaxies in the observable universe, there may be as many as a hundred quintillion. This would correspond to around 20 earth analogs per square centimeter of the Earth.
In 2013, a Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics using
statistical analysis of additional Kepler data suggested that there are
at least 17 billion Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way. This, however, says nothing of their position in relation to the habitable zone.
Terraforming
Artist's conception of a terraformed Venus, a potential Earth analog
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is almost entirely surrounded by Senegal with the exception of its western coastline along the Atlantic Ocean. It is the smallest country within mainland Africa.
The Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River,
the nation's namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and
empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres
(4,127 sq mi) with a population of 1,857,181 as of the April 2013
census. Banjul is the Gambian capital and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama.
The Gambia shares historical roots with many other West African nations in the slave trade, which was the key factor in the placing and keeping of a colony on the Gambia River, first by the Portuguese, during which era it was known as A Gâmbia. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire
when the government formally assumed control, establishing the Province
of Senegambia. In 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the
leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambia's third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections. Jammeh initially accepted the results, then refused to accept them, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile.
The Gambia's economy is dominated by farming, fishing and,
especially, tourism. In 2015, 48.6% of the population lived in poverty. In rural areas poverty is even more widespread with a higher proportion of the population being poor (almost 70%).
Etymology
The name "Gambia" is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river. According to the
CIA World Factbook, the US Department of State, the Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World and the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use,
The Gambia is one of only two countries whose self-standing short name
for official use should begin with the word "The" (the other one being The Bahamas). Upon independence in 1965, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the long-form name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the long-form name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the country's name will go back to Republic of The Gambia.
History
Arab
traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the
ninth and tenth centuries. During the tenth century, Muslim merchants
and scholars established communities in several West African commercial
centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to a
large export trade of local people as slaves, also gold and ivory, as well as imports of manufactured goods.
Senegambian stone circles (megaliths) which run from Senegal through the Gambia and which are described by UNESCO as "the largest concentration of stone circles seen anywhere in the world".
By the 11th or 12th century, the rulers of kingdoms such as Takrur, a monarchy centred on the Senegal River just to the north, ancient Ghana and Gao had converted to Islam and had appointed to their courts Muslims who were literate in the Arabic language. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called The Gambia was part of the Mali Empire. The Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade.
During the late 17th century and throughout the 18th century, the British Empire and the French Empire
struggled continually for political and commercial supremacy in the
regions of the Senegal River and the Gambia River. The British Empire
occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River, but the French retained a tiny enclave at Albreda on the river's north bank. This was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856.
As many as three million people may have been taken as slaves from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade
operated. It is not known how many people were taken as slaves by
intertribal wars or Muslim traders before the transatlantic slave trade
began. Most of those taken were sold by other Africans to Europeans:
some were prisoners of intertribal wars; some were victims sold because
of unpaid debts; and many others were simply victims of kidnapping.
Traders initially sent people to Europe to work as servants until the market for labour expanded in the West Indies and North America in the 18th century. In 1807, the United Kingdom abolished the slave trade throughout its empire. It also tried, unsuccessfully, to end the slave trade in the Gambia. Slave ships intercepted by the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron
in the Atlantic were also returned to the Gambia, with people who had
been slaves released on MacCarthy Island far up the Gambia River where
they were expected to establish new lives. The British established the military post of Bathurst (now Banjul) in 1816.
In the ensuing years, Banjul was at times under the jurisdiction of the British Governor-General in Sierra Leone. In 1888, The Gambia became a separate colony.
An agreement with the French Republic in 1889 established the present boundaries. The Gambia became a British Crown colony called British Gambia,
divided for administrative purposes into the colony (city of Banjul and
the surrounding area) and the protectorate (remainder of the
territory). The Gambia received its own executive and legislative
councils in 1901, and it gradually progressed toward self-government.
Slavery was abolished in 1906
and following a brief conflict between the British colonial forces and
indigenous Gambians, British colonial authority was firmly established.
After World War II, the pace of constitutional reform increased.
Following general elections in 1962, the United Kingdom granted full
internal self-governance in the following year.
The Gambia achieved independence on 18 February 1965, as a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, with Elizabeth II as Queen of the Gambia, represented by the Governor-General. Shortly thereafter, the national government held a referendum proposing that the country become a republic.
This referendum failed to receive the two-thirds majority required to
amend the constitution, but the results won widespread attention abroad
as testimony to The Gambia's observance of secret balloting, honest
elections, civil rights, and liberties.
President Sir Dawda Jawara was re-elected five times. An
attempted coup on 29 July 1981 followed a weakening of the economy and
allegations of corruption against leading politicians. The coup attempt occurred while President Jawara was visiting London and was carried out by the leftist National Revolutionary Council, composed of Kukoi Samba Sanyang's
Socialist and Revolutionary Labour Party (SRLP) and elements of the
Field Force, a paramilitary force which constituted the bulk of the
country's armed forces.
President Jawara requested military aid from Senegal,
which deployed 400 troops to The Gambia on 31 July. By 6 August, some
2,700 Senegalese troops had been deployed, defeating the rebel force. Between 500 and 800 people were killed during the coup and the ensuing violence.
In 1982, in the aftermath of the 1981 attempted coup, Senegal and The Gambia signed a treaty of confederation. The Senegambia Confederation
aimed to combine the armed forces of the two states and to unify their
economies and currencies. After just seven years, The Gambia permanently
withdrew from the confederation in 1989.
In 1994, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) deposed the Jawara government and banned opposition political activity. Lieutenant Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh,
chairman of the AFPRC, became head of state. Jammeh was just 29 years
old at the time of the coup. The AFPRC announced a transition plan for
return to democratic civilian government. The Provisional Independent
Electoral Commission (PIEC) was established in 1996 to conduct national
elections and transformed into the Independent Electoral Commission
(IEC) in 1997 and became responsible for registration of voters and for
the conduct of elections and referendums.
In late 2001 and early 2002, The Gambia completed a full cycle of presidential, legislative, and local elections, which foreign observers deemed free, fair, and transparent, albeit with some
shortcomings. President Yahya Jammeh, who was elected to continue in
the position he had assumed during the coup, took the oath of office
again on 21 December 2001. Jammeh's Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction (APRC) maintained its strong majority in the National Assembly, particularly after the main opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) boycotted the legislative elections. (It has participated in elections since, however).
On 2 October 2013, the Gambian interior minister announced that The Gambia would leave the Commonwealth
with immediate effect, ending 48 years of membership of the
organisation. The Gambian Government said it had "decided that The
Gambia will never be a member of any neo-colonial institution and will
never be a party to any institution that represents an extension of
colonialism".
Incumbent President Jammeh faced opposition leaders Adama Barrow from the Independent Coalition of parties and Mamma Kandeh from the Gambia Democratic Congress party in the December 2016 presidential elections. The Gambia sentenced main opposition leader and human rights advocate Ousainou Darboe to 3 years in prison in July 2016, disqualifying him from running in the presidential election.
Following the 1 December 2016 elections, the elections commission declared Adama Barrow the winner of the presidential election.
Jammeh, who had ruled for 22 years, first announced he would step down
after losing the 2016 election before declaring the results void and
calling for a new vote, sparking a constitutional crisis and leading to an invasion by an ECOWAS coalition. On 20 January 2017, Jammeh announced that he had agreed to step down and would leave the country.
On 14 February 2017, The Gambia began the process of returning to
its membership of the Commonwealth and formally presented its
application to re-join to Secretary-General Patricia Scotland on 22 January 2018. Boris Johnson, who became the first British Foreign Secretary to visit The Gambia since the country gained independence in 1965, announced that the British government welcomed The Gambia's return to the Commonwealth. The Gambia officially rejoined the Commonwealth on 8 February 2018.
The Gambia is a very small and narrow country whose borders mirror the meandering Gambia River. It lies between latitudes 13 and 14°N, and longitudes 13 and 17°W.
The Gambia is less than 50 kilometres (31 miles) wide at its widest point, with a total area of 11,295 km2 (4,361 sq mi).
About 1,300 square kilometres (500 square miles) (11.5%) of The
Gambia's area are covered by water. It is the smallest country on the
African mainland. In comparative terms, The Gambia has a total area
slightly less than that of the island of Jamaica.
Senegal surrounds The Gambia on three sides, with 80 km (50 mi)
of coastline on the Atlantic Ocean marking its western extremity.
The present boundaries were defined in 1889 after an agreement
between the United Kingdom and France. During the negotiations between
the French and the British in Paris, the French initially gave the
British around 200 miles (320 km) of the Gambia River to control.
Starting with the placement of boundary markers in 1891, it took nearly
15 years after the Paris meetings to determine the final borders of The
Gambia. The resulting series of straight lines and arcs gave the British
control of areas about 10 miles (16 km) north and south of the Gambia
River.
Climate
Gambia
has a tropical climate. A hot and rainy season normally lasts from June
until November, but from then until May, cooler temperatures
predominate, with less precipitation. The climate in The Gambia closely resembles that of neighbouring Senegal, of southern Mali, and of the northern part of Benin.
The Arch 22 monument commemorating the 1994 coup which saw the then 29-year-old Yahya Jammeh seize power in a bloodless coup, ousting Dawda Jawara, who had been President of the Gambia since 1970
The Gambia gained independence from the United Kingdom on 18 February 1965. From 1965 to 1994, the country was ostensibly a multi-party liberal democracy. It was ruled by Dawda Jawara and his People's Progressive Party
(PPP). However, as Edie notes, the country never experienced political
turnover during this period and its commitment to succession by the
ballot box was never tested. In 1994, a military coup propelled a commission of military officers to power, known as the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC). After two years direct rule, a new constitution was written and in 1996, the leader of the AFPRC, Yahya Jammeh, was elected as President. He ruled in an authoritarian style until the 2016 election, which was won by Adama Barrow, backed by a coalition of opposition parties.
Political history
During the Jawara era, there were initially four political parties, the PPP, the United Party (UP), the Democratic Party (DP), and the Muslim Congress Party (MCP). The 1960 constitution had established a House of Representatives, and in the 1960 election no party won a majority of seats. However, in 1961 the British Governor chose UP leader Pierre Sarr N'Jie to serve as the country's first head of government, in the form of a Chief Minister. This was an unpopular decision, and the 1962 election
was notable as parties were able to appeal to ethnic and religious
differences across The Gambia. The PPP won a majority, and formed a
coalition with the Democratic Congress Alliance (DCA; a merger of the DP and MCP). They invited the UP to the coalition in 1963, but it left in 1965.
The UP was seen as the main opposition party, but it lost power from 1965 to 1970. In 1975, the National Convention Party (NCP) was formed by Sheriff Mustapha Dibba, and became the new main opposition party to the PPP's dominance.
Both the PPP and NCP were ideologically similar, so in the 1980s a new
opposition party emerged, in the form of the radical socialist People's Democratic Organisation for Independence and Socialism
(PDOIS). However, as Edie notes, between the 1966 and 1992 elections,
the PPP was "overwhelmingly dominant", winning between 55% and 70% of
the vote in each election and a large majority of seats continually.
In principle, competitive politics existed during the Jawara era,
however Edie states that there was in reality a "one-party monopoly of
state power centred around the dominant personality of Dawda Jawara."
Civil society was limited post-independence, and opposition parties were
weak and at the risk of being declared subversive. The opposition did
not have equal access to resources, as the business class refused to
finance them. The government had control over when they could make
public announcements and press briefings, and there were also
allegations of vote-buying and improprieties in the preparation of the electoral register.
A 1991 court challenge by the PDOIS against irregularities on the
electoral register in Banjul was dismissed on a technicality.
In July 1994, a bloodless military coup d'état brought an end to the Jawara era. The Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC), led by Yahya Jammeh,
ruled dictatorially for two years. The council suspended the
constitution, banned all political parties, and imposed a dusk-to-dawn
curfew on the populace.
A transition back to democracy occurred in 1996, and a new constitution
was written, though the process was manipulated to benefit Jammeh.
In a 1996 referendum, 70% of voters approved the constitution, and in
December 1996 Jammeh was elected as President. All but PDOIS of the
pre-coup parties were banned, and former ministers were barred from
public office.
During Jammeh's rule, the opposition was again fragmented. An example was the infighting between members of the National Alliance for Democracy and Development
(NADD) that was formed in 2005. Jammeh used the police forces to harass
opposition members and parties. Jammeh was also accused of human rights
abuses, especially towards human rights activists, civil society
organisations, political opponents, and the media. Their fates included
being sent into exile, harassment, arbitrary imprisonment, murder, and
forced disappearance. Particular examples include the murder of
journalist Deyda Hydara in 2004, a student massacre at a protest
in 2000, public threats to kill human rights defenders in 2009, public
threats towards homosexuals in 2013. Furthermore, Jammeh made threats to
the religious freedom of non-Muslims, used 'mercenary judges' to weaken
the judiciary, and faced numerous accusations of election rigging.
In the December 2016 presidential election, Jammeh was beaten by Adama Barrow, who was backed by a coalition of opposition parties. Jammeh's initial agreement to step down followed by a change of mind induced a constitutional crisis that culminated in a military intervention by ECOWAS forces in January 2017. Barrow pledged to serve at the head of a three-year transitional government. The Nigerian Centre for Democracy and Development
describe the challenges facing Barrow as needing to restore "citizen's
trust and confidence in the public sector". They describe a "fragile
peace" with tensions in rural areas between farmers and the larger
communities. They also reported on tensions between ethnic groups
developing. An example is that in February 2017, 51 supporters of Jammeh
were arrested for harassing supporters of Barrow. Although his election
was initially met with enthusiasm, the Centre notes that this has been
dampened by Barrow's initial constitutional faux pas with his Vice
President, the challenge of inclusion, and high expectations
post-Jammeh.
Constitution
The
Gambia has had a number of constitutions in its history. The two most
significant are the 1970 constitution, which established The Gambia as a
presidential republic, and the 1996 constitution, which served as a
basis for Jammeh's rule and was kept following Barrow's victory in 2016.
Jammeh manipulated the 1996 constitutional reform process to benefit
himself. No reference was made to term limits, indicating Jammeh's
preference to stay in power for an extended period of time. According to the 1996 constitution, the President is the head of state,
head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Jammeh
and Barrow have also both taken on the role of Minister of Defence.
Presidency
The
president appoints the vice president and cabinet of ministers and also
chairs the cabinet. The office of Prime Minister was abolished in 1970.
Total executive power is vested in the president. They can also appoint
five members of the National Assembly, the judges of the superior
courts, regional governors, and district chiefs. In terms of the civil
service, they can appoint the Public Service Commission, the ombudsman,
and the Independent Electoral Commission. The president is directly
elected for five-year terms based on a simple majority of votes. There
are no term limits.
The Constitution is under review as of 2018 and a two-term limit and
other changes required to enhance the governance structures are
expected.
The Gambia followed a formal policy of non-alignment throughout most
of former President Jawara's tenure. It maintained close relations with
the United Kingdom, Senegal, and other African countries. The July 1994
coup strained the Gambia's relationship with Western powers,
particularly the United States, which until 2002 suspended most
nonhumanitarian assistance in accordance with Section 508 of the Foreign Assistance Act. After 1995 President Jammeh established diplomatic relations with several additional countries, including Libya (suspended in 2010), and Cuba. The People's Republic of China cut ties with the Gambia in 1995 - after the latter established diplomatic links with Taiwan - and re-established them in 2016.
The Gambia plays an active role in international affairs,
especially West African and Islamic affairs, although its representation
abroad is limited. As a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Gambia has played an active role in that organisation's efforts to resolve the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone and contributed troops to the community's ceasefire monitoring group (ECOMOG) in 1990 and (ECOMIL) in 2003.
The Gambia has also sought to mediate disputes in nearby Guinea-Bissau and the neighbouring Casamance
region of Senegal. The government of the Gambia believed Senegal was
complicit in the March 2006 failed coup attempt. This put increasing
strains on relations between the Gambia and its neighbour. The
subsequent worsening of the human rights situation placed increasing
strains on US–Gambian relations.
The Gambia withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations
on 3 October 2013, with the government stating it had "decided that the
Gambia will never be a member of any neo-colonial institution and will
never be a party to any institution that represents an extension of
colonialism". Under the new President, The Gambia has begun the process of returning to its status as a Commonwealth republic
with the support of the British Government, formally presenting its
application to re-join the Commonwealth of Nations to Secretary-General
Patricia Scotland on 22 January 2018.
The Gambia Armed Forces (GAF) was created in 1985 as a stipulation of the Senegambia Confederation, a political union between The Gambia and Senegal.
It originally consisted of the Gambia National Army (GNA), trained by
the British, and Gambia National Gendarmerie (GNG), trained by the
Senegalese. The GNG was merged into the police in 1992, and in 1997
Jammeh created a Gambia Navy (GN). Attempts to create a Gambia Air Force
in the mid 2000s ultimately fell through. In 2008, Jammeh created a
National Republican Guard, composed of special forces units. The GNA has
a strength of roughly 900, in two infantry battalions and an
engineering company. It makes use of Ferret and M8 Greyhound armoured cars. The GN is equipped with patrol vessels, and Taiwan donated a number of new vessels to the force in 2013.
Since the GAF was formed in 1985, it has been active in UN and African Union peacekeeping missions. It has been classed as a Tier 2 peacekeeping contributor and was described by the Center on International Cooperation as a regional leader in peackeeping. It despatched soldiers to Liberia as part of ECOMOG from 1990 to 1991, during which two Gambian soldiers were killed. It has since contributed troops to ECOMIL, UNMIL, and UNAMID. Responsibility for the military has rested directly with the President since Jammeh seized power at the head of a bloodless military coup in 1994. Jammeh also created the role of Chief of the Defence Staff,
who is the senior military officer responsible for the day-to-day
operations of the Gambia Armed Forces. Between 1958 and 1985, the Gambia
did not have a military, but the Gambia Field Force existed as a
paramilitary wing of the police. The military tradition of the Gambia
can be traced to the Gambia Regiment of the British Army, that existed from 1901 to 1958 and fought in World War I and World War II.
The Gambia Armed Forces is and has been the recipient of a number
of equipment and training agreements with other countries. In 1992, a
contingent of Nigerian soldiers helped lead the GNA. Between 1991 and
2005, the Turkish armed forces helped train Gambian soldiers. It has
also hosted British and United States training teams from the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and US AFRICOM.
Administrative divisions
The Gambia is divided into eight local government areas,
including the national capital, Banjul, which is classified as a city.
The Divisions of the Gambia were created by the Independent Electoral
Commission in accordance to Article 192 of the National Constitution.
The local government areas are further subdivided (2013) into 43 districts. Of these, Kanifing and Kombo Saint Mary (which shares Brikama as a capital with the Brikama Local Government Area) are effectively part of the Greater Banjul area.
The Gambia has a liberal, market-based economy
characterised by traditional subsistence agriculture, a historic
reliance on groundnuts (peanuts) for export earnings, a re-export trade
built up around its ocean port, low import duties, minimal
administrative procedures, a fluctuating exchange rate with no exchange
controls, and a significant tourism industry.
The World Bank pegged Gambian GDP for 2011 at US$898M; the International Monetary Fund put it at US$977M for 2011.
From 2006 to 2012, the Gambian economy grew annually at a pace of 5–6% of GDP.
Agriculture accounts for roughly 30% of gross domestic product
(GDP) and employs about 70% of the labour force. Within agriculture,
peanut production accounts for 6.9% of GDP, other crops 8.3%, livestock
5.3%, fishing 1.8%, and forestry 0.5%. Industry accounts for about 8% of
GDP and services around 58%. The limited amount of manufacturing is
primarily agricultural-based (e.g., peanut processing, bakeries, a
brewery, and a tannery). Other manufacturing activities include soap, soft drinks, and clothing.
Previously, the United Kingdom and other EU countries constituted
the major Gambian export markets. However, in recent years Senegal, the
United States, and Japan have become significant trade partners of the
Gambia. In Africa, Senegal represented the biggest trade partner of the
Gambia in 2007, which is a defining contrast to previous years that had
Guinea-Bissau and Ghana as equally important trade partners. Globally,
Denmark, the United States, and China have become important source
countries for Gambian imports. The UK, Germany, Ivory Coast, and the Netherlands also provide a fair share of Gambian imports. The Gambian trade deficit for 2007 was $331 million.
In May 2009, 12 commercial banks existed in the Gambia, including one Islamic bank. The oldest of these, Standard Chartered Bank, dates its presence back to the entry in 1894 of what shortly thereafter became Bank of British West Africa.
In 2005, the Swiss-based banking group International Commercial Bank
established a subsidiary and now has four branches in the country. In
2007, Nigeria's Access Bank
established a subsidiary that now has four branches in the country, in
addition to its head office; the bank has pledged to open four more.
In May 2009, the Lebanese Canadian Bank opened a subsidiary called Prime Bank.
Brightly-painted fishing boats are common in Bakau
The Gambia's wildlife, like this green monkey, attracts tourists
Society
The urbanisation rate in 2011 was 57.3%.
Provisional figures from the 2003 census show that the gap between the
urban and rural populations is narrowing as more areas are declared
urban. While urban migration, development projects, and modernisation
are bringing more Gambians into contact with Western habits and values,
indigenous forms of dress and celebration and the traditional emphasis
on the extended family remain integral parts of everyday life.
The UNDP's Human Development Report for 2010 ranks the Gambia
151st out of 169 countries on its Human Development Index, putting it in
the 'Low Human Development' category. This index compares life
expectancy, years of schooling, gross national income (GNI) per capita
and some other factors.
The total fertility rate (TFR) was estimated at 3.98 children/woman in 2013.
The roughly 3,500 non-African residents include Europeans and families of Lebanese origin (0.23% of the total population). Most of the European minority is British, although many of the British left after independence.
Languages
English is the official language of the Gambia. Other languages are Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, Serer, Krio, Jola and other indigenous vernaculars. Owing to the country's geographical setting, knowledge of French (an official language in much of West Africa) is relatively widespread.
The constitution mandates free and compulsory primary education in
the Gambia. Lack of resources and educational infrastructure has made
implementation of this difficult. In 1995, the gross primary enrolment rate was 77.1% and the net primary enrolment rate was 64.7%
School fees long prevented many children from attending school, but in
February 1998, President Jammeh ordered the termination of fees for the
first six years of schooling.
Girls make up about 52% of primary school pupils. The figure may be
lower for girls in rural areas, where cultural factors and poverty
prevent parents from sending girls to school. Approximately 20% of school-age children attend Quranic schools.
Health
Public
expenditure was at 1.8% of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure
was at 5.0%. There were 11 physicians per 100,000 persons in the early
2000s. Life expectancy at birth was at 59.9 for females in 2005 and for
males at 57.7.
According to the World Health Organization in 2005, an estimated 78.3% of Gambian girls and women have suffered female genital mutilation.
The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Gambia is
400. This is compared with 281.3 in 2008 and 628.5 in 1990. The under-5
mortality rate, per 1,000 births, is 106 and the neonatal mortality, as
a percentage of under-5 mortality, is 31. In Gambia, the number of
midwives per 1,000 live births is five and the lifetime risk of death
for pregnant women is one in 49.
In October 2012, it was reported that the Gambia had made
significant improvements in polio, measles immunisation, and the PCV-7
vaccine.
The Gambia was certified as polio-free in 2004. "The Gambia EPI
program is one of the best in the World Health Organization African
Region," Thomas Sukwa, a representative of the WHO, said, according to
the Foroyaa newspaper. "It is indeed gratifying to note that the
government of the Gambia remains committed to the global polio
eradication initiative."
According to Vaccine News Daily:
The Gambia is tied for third place in Africa for measles immunisation among one-year-old children.
The Gambia is tied for fourth place in the world for the DTP3 immunisation for one-year-old children.
The Gambia is ranked second in Africa for "feverish children under the age of five who received antimalarial treatment, according to Trading Economics."
A group called Power Up Gambia operates in the Gambia to provide solar power technology to health care facilities, ensuring greater access to electricity.
Recently, Riders for Health, an international aid group focused
on sub-Saharan countries in Africa, was noted for providing enough
health-care vehicles for the entire country. Riders for Health manage
and maintain vehicles for the government. The initiative addresses a
major barrier to universal health care—transport—and allows health
workers to visit three times as many villages every week.
Religion
Bundung mosque is one of the largest mosques in Serekunda.
Article 25 of the constitution protects the rights of citizens to practice any religion that they choose.
In December 2015, Reuters reported that the Gambia was declared to be
an Islamic state by the country's president, Yahya Jammeh. Islam is
practised by 95% of the country's population. The majority of the Muslims in the Gambia adhere to Sunni laws and traditions, while large concentrations follow the Ahmadiyya tradition.
Virtually all commercial life in the Gambia comes to a standstill during major Muslim holidays, including Eid al-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr. Most Muslims in the Gambia follow the Maliki school of jurisprudence. Also, a Shiite Muslim community exists in the Gambia, mainly from Lebanese and other Arabimmigrants to the region.
The Christian community represents about 4% of the population. Residing in the western and the southern parts of the Gambia, most of the Christian community identifies themselves as Roman Catholic. However, smaller Christian groups are present, such as Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and small evangelical denominations.
It is unclear to what extent indigenous beliefs, such as the Serer religion, continue to be practiced. Serer religion encompasses cosmology and a belief in a supreme deity called Roog. Some of its religious festivals include the Xoy, Mbosseh, and Randou Rande. Each year, adherents to Serer religion make the annual pilgrimage to Sine in Senegal for the Xoy divination ceremony. Serer religion also has a rather significant imprint on Senegambian Muslim society in that all Senegambian Muslim festivals such as "Tobaski", "Gamo", "Koriteh" and "Weri Kor" are loanwords from the Serer religion as they were ancient Serer festivals.
Like the Serers, the Jola people also have their own religious customs. One of the major religious ceremonies of the Jolas is the Boukout.
Due to a small amount of immigrants from South Asia, Hindus and followers of the Bahá'í Faith are also present. However, the vast majority of South Asian immigrants are Muslim.
Culture
Drummers at a wrestling match
Although the Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, its
culture is the product of very diverse influences. The national borders
outline a narrow strip on either side of the River Gambia, a body of
water that has played a vital part in the nation's destiny and is known
locally simply as "the River". Without natural barriers, the Gambia has
become home to most of the ethnic groups that are present throughout
western Africa, especially those in Senegal.
Europeans also figure prominently in Gambian history because the
River Gambia is navigable deep into the continent, a geographic feature
that made this area one of the most profitable sites for the slave trade
from the 15th through the 17th centuries. (It also made it strategic to
the halt of this trade once it was outlawed in the 19th century.) Some
of this history was popularised in the Alex Haley book and TV series Roots which was set in the Gambia.
Music
The music of the Gambia is closely linked musically with that of its neighbour, Senegal, which surrounds its inland frontiers completely. It fuses popular Western music and dance, with sabar, the traditional drumming and dance music of the Wolof and Serer people.
Cuisine
The cuisine of the Gambia includes peanuts, rice, fish, meat, onions,
tomatoes, cassava, chili peppers and oysters from the River Gambia that
are harvested by women. In particular, yassa and domoda curries are popular with locals and tourists.
Media
Critics
have accused the government of restricting free speech. A law passed in
2002 created a commission with the power to issue licenses and imprison
journalists; in 2004, additional legislation allowed prison sentences
for libel and slander and cancelled all print and broadcasting licenses,
forcing media groups to re-register at five times the original cost.
Three Gambian journalists have been arrested since the coup
attempt. It has been suggested that they were imprisoned for criticising
the government's economic policy, or for stating that a former interior
minister and security chief was among the plotters. Newspaper editor Deyda Hydara was shot to death under unexplained circumstances, days after the 2004 legislation took effect.
Licensing fees are high for newspapers and radio stations, and
the only nationwide stations are tightly controlled by the government.
Reporters Without Borders
has accused "President Yahya Jammeh's police state" of using murder,
arson, unlawful arrest and death threats against journalists.
In December 2010 Musa Saidykhan, former editor of The Independent
newspaper, was awarded US$200,000 by the ECOWAS Court in Abuja,
Nigeria. The court found the Government of the Gambia guilty of torture
while he was detained without trial at the National Intelligence Agency.
Apparently he was suspected of knowing about the 2006 failed coup.
Sports
As in neighbouring Senegal, the national and most popular sport in Gambia is wrestling. Association football and basketball are also popular. Football in the Gambia is administered by the Gambia Football Association, who are affiliated to both FIFA and CAF. The GFA runs league football in the Gambia, including top division GFA League First Division, as well as the Gambia national football team. Nicknamed "The Scorpions", the national side have never qualified for either the FIFA World Cup or the Africa Cup of Nations finals at senior levels. They play at Independence Stadium.
The Gambia won two CAF U-17 championships one in 2005 when the country
hosted, and 2009 in Algeria automatically qualifying for FIFA U-17 World
Cup in Peru (2005) and Nigeria (2009) respectively. The U-20 also
qualified for FIFA U-20 2007 in Canada. The female U-17 also competed in
FIFA U-17 World Cup 2012 in Azerbaijan.
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