D. T. Suzuki
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|---|---|
circa 1953
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| Born | 18 October 1870 Honda-machi, Kanazawa, Japan |
| Died | 12 July 1966 (aged 95) Kamakura, Japan |
| Occupation | Author, Lecturer, Scholar of Zen (or Chan) Buddhism |
| Notable awards | National Medal of Culture |
Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (鈴木 大拙 貞太郎 Suzuki Daisetsu Teitarō; he rendered his name "Daisetz" in 1894; 18 October 1870 – 12 July 1966) was a Japanese author of books and essays on Buddhism, Zen (Chan) and Shin that were instrumental in spreading interest in both Zen and Shin (and Far Eastern philosophy in general) to the West. Suzuki was also a prolific translator of Chinese, Japanese, and Sanskrit literature. Suzuki spent several lengthy stretches teaching or lecturing at Western universities, and devoted many years to a professorship at Ōtani University, a Japanese Buddhist school.
He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1963.
Biography
Early life
His student days.
D. T. Suzuki was born Teitarō Suzuki in Honda-machi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture, the fourth son of physician Ryojun Suzuki. The Buddhist name Daisetsu, meaning "Great Humility", the kanji of which can also mean "Greatly Clumsy", was given to him by his Zen master Soen (or Soyen) Shaku. Although his birthplace no longer exists, a humble monument marks its location (a tree with a rock at its base). The samurai class into which Suzuki was born declined with the fall of feudalism, which forced Suzuki's mother, a Jōdo Shinshū
Buddhist, to raise him in impoverished circumstances after his father
died. When he became old enough to reflect on his fate in being born
into this situation, he began to look for answers in various forms of
religion. His naturally sharp and philosophical intellect found
difficulty in accepting some of the cosmologies to which he was exposed.
Study
Suzuki studied at the University of Tokyo. Suzuki set about acquiring knowledge of Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, and several European languages. During his student years at Tokyo University, Suzuki took up Zen practice at Engaku-ji in Kamakura.
Suzuki lived and studied several years with the scholar Paul Carus. Suzuki was introduced to Carus by Soyen Shaku (also written Soen Shaku), who met him at the World Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. Carus, who had set up residence in LaSalle, Illinois,
approached Soyen Shaku to request his help in translating and preparing
Eastern spiritual literature for publication in the West. Soyen Shaku
instead recommended his student Suzuki for the job. Suzuki lived at Dr.
Carus's home, the Hegeler Carus Mansion, and worked with him, initially in translating the classic Tao Te Ching from ancient Chinese. In Illinois, Suzuki began his early work Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism.
Carus himself had written a book offering an insight into, and overview of, Buddhism, titled The Gospel of Buddha.
Soyen Shaku wrote an introduction for it, and Suzuki translated the
book into Japanese. At this time, around the turn of the century, quite
a number of Westerners and Asians (Carus, Soyen, and Suzuki included)
were involved in the worldwide Buddhist revival that had begun slowly in
the 1880s.
Marriage
In 1911, Suzuki married Beatrice Erskine Lane, a Radcliffe graduate and Theosophist with multiple contacts with the Bahá'í Faith both in America and in Japan. Later Suzuki himself joined the Theosophical Society Adyar and was an active Theosophist.
Career
Hu Shi and DT Suzuki during his visit to China in 1934.
Professor of Buddhist philosophies
Besides
living in the United States, Suzuki traveled through Europe before
taking up a professorship back in Japan. Suzuki and his wife dedicated
themselves to spreading an understanding of Mahayana Buddhism. Until
1919 they lived in a cottage on the Engaku-ji grounds, then moved to Kyoto, where Suzuki began professorship at Ōtani University in 1921. While he was in Kyoto, he visited Dr. Hoseki Shin'ichi Hisamatsu, a famous Zen Buddhist scholar, and they discussed Zen Buddhism together at Shunkō-in temple in the Myōshin-ji temple complex.
In 1921, the year he joined Ōtani University, he and his wife founded the Eastern Buddhist Society. The Society is focused on Mahayana Buddhism and offers lectures and seminars, and publishes a scholarly journal, The Eastern Buddhist. Suzuki maintained connections in the West and, for instance, delivered a paper at the World Congress of Faiths in 1936, at the University of London (he was an exchange professor during this year).
Besides teaching about Zen practice and the history of Zen (Chan)
Buddhism, Suzuki was an expert scholar on the related philosophy
called, in Japanese, Kegon, which he thought of as the intellectual explication of Zen experience.
Suzuki received numerous honors, including Japan's National Medal of Culture.
Studies
Still a
professor of Buddhist philosophy in the middle decades of the 20th
century, Suzuki wrote some of the most celebrated introductions and
overall examinations of Buddhism, and particularly of the Zen school.
He went on a lecture tour of American universities in 1951, and taught
at Columbia University from 1952 to 1957.
Suzuki was especially interested in the formative centuries of
this Buddhist tradition, in China. A lot of Suzuki's writings in
English concern themselves with translations and discussions of bits of
the Chan texts the Biyan Lu (Blue Cliff Record) and the Wumenguan
(Mumonkan/Gateless Passage), which record the teaching styles and words
of the classical Chinese masters. He was also interested in how this
tradition, once imported into Japan, had influenced Japanese character
and history, and wrote about it in English in Zen and Japanese Culture. Suzuki's reputation was secured in England prior to the U.S.
In addition to his popularly oriented works, Suzuki wrote a translation of the Lankavatara Sutra and a commentary on its Sanskrit terminology. Later in his life he was a visiting professor at Columbia University. He looked in on the efforts of Saburō Hasegawa, Judith Tyberg, Alan Watts and the others who worked in the California Academy of Asian Studies (now known as the California Institute of Integral Studies), in San Francisco in the 1950s.
In his later years, he began to explore the Jōdo Shinshū faith of his mother's upbringing, and gave guest lectures on Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism at the Buddhist Churches of America.
D.T. Suzuki also produced an incomplete English translation of the Kyogyoshinsho, the magnum opus of Shinran,
founder of the Jōdo Shinshū school. However, Suzuki did not attempt to
popularize the Shin doctrine in the West, as he believed Zen was better
suited to the Western preference for Eastern mysticism, though he is quoted as saying that Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism is the "most remarkable development of Mahayana Buddhism ever achieved in East Asia".
Suzuki also took an interest in Christian mysticism and in some of the most significant mystics of the West, for example, Meister Eckhart, whom he compared with the Jōdo Shinshū followers called Myokonin. Suzuki was among the first to bring research on the Myokonin to audiences outside Japan as well.
Other works include Essays in Zen Buddhism (three volumes), Studies in Zen Buddhism, and Manual of Zen Buddhism. Additionally, American philosopher William Barrett compiled many of Suzuki's articles and essays concerning Zen into a volume entitled Zen Buddhism.
Scholarly opinions
Suzuki's
Zen master, Soyen Shaku, who also wrote a book published in the United
States (English translation by Suzuki), had emphasized the Mahayana Buddhist
roots of the Zen tradition. Suzuki's contrasting view was that, in its
centuries of development in China, Zen (or Chan) had absorbed much from
indigenous Chinese Taoism.
Suzuki believed that the Far Eastern peoples were more sensitive, or
attuned, to nature than either the people of Europe or those of Northern
India.
Suzuki subscribed to the idea that religions are each a sort of
organism, which is (through time) subject to "irritation" and having a
capacity to change or evolve.
It was Suzuki's contention that a Zen satori
(awakening) was the goal of the tradition's training, but that what
distinguished the tradition as it developed through the centuries in
China was a way of life radically different from that of Indian
Buddhists. In India, the tradition of the mendicant (holy beggar, bhikku
in Pali) prevailed, but in China social circumstances led to the
development of a temple and training-center system in which the abbot
and the monks all performed mundane tasks. These included food gardening
or farming, carpentry, architecture, housekeeping, administration (or
community direction), and the practice of folk medicine. Consequently,
the enlightenment sought in Zen had to stand up well to the demands and
potential frustrations of everyday life.
Suzuki is often linked to the Kyoto School of philosophy, but he is not considered one of its official members. Suzuki took an interest in other traditions besides Zen. His book Zen and Japanese Buddhism delved into the history and scope of interest of all the major Japanese Buddhist sects.
Zen training
While studying at Tokyo University Suzuki took up Zen practice at Engaku-ji in Kamakura studying initially with Kosen Roshi. After Kosen's passing, Suzuki continued with Kosen's successor at Engaku-ji, Soyen Shaku.
Under Soyen Shaku, Suzuki's studies were essentially internal and non-verbal, including long periods of sitting meditation (zazen).
The task involved what Suzuki described as four years of mental,
physical, moral, and intellectual struggle. During training periods at
Engaku-ji, Suzuki lived a monk's life. He described this life and his
own experience at Kamakura in his book The Training of the Zen Buddhist Monk.
Suzuki characterized the facets of the training as: a life of humility;
a life of labor; a life of service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and
a life of meditation.
Suzuki was invited by Soyen Shaku to visit the United States in
the 1890s, and Suzuki acted as English-language translator for a book
written by him (1906). Though Suzuki had by this point translated some
ancient Asian texts into English (e.g. Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana),
his role in translating and ghost-writing aspects of Soyen Shaku's book
was more the beginning of Suzuki's career as a writer in English.
Later in life Suzuki was more inclined to Jodo Shin (True Pure
Land) practice on a personal level, seeing in the doctrine of Tariki, or
other power as opposed to self power, an abandonment of self that is
entirely complementary to Zen practice and yet to his mind even less
willful than traditional Zen. In his book Buddha of Infinite Light (2002), (originally titled, Shin Buddhism)
Suzuki declared that, "Of all the developments that Mahayana Buddhism
has achieved in East Asia, the most remarkable one is the Shin teaching
of Pure Land Buddhism." (p. 22)
Spread of Zen in the West
Zen-messenger
Suzuki was the foremost important person in spreading Zen in the West. Philosopher Charles A. Moore said:
Suzuki in his later years was not just a reporter of Zen, not just an expositor, but a significant contributor to the development of Zen and to its enrichment.
This is echoed by Nishitani Keiji, who declared:
... in Dr. Suzuki's activities, Buddhism came to possess a forward-moving direction with a frontier spirit ... This involved shouldering the task of rethinking, restating and redoing traditional Buddhism to transmit it to Westerners as well as Easterners ... To accomplish this task it is necessary to be deeply engrossed in the tradition, and at the same time to grasp the longing and the way of thinking within the hearts of Westerners. From there, new possibilities should open up in the study of the Buddha Dharma which have yet to be found in Buddhist history ... Up to now this new Buddhist path has been blazed almost single-handedly by Dr. Suzuki. He did it on behalf of the whole Buddhist world.
Buddhist modernism
That
Suzuki was a university-educated intellectual steeped in knowledge of
Western philosophy and literature allowed him to be particularly
successful and persuasive in presenting his case to a Western audience.
As Suzuki portrayed it, Zen Buddhism was a highly practical religion
whose emphasis on direct experience made it particularly comparable to
forms of mysticism that scholars such as William James had emphasized as the fountainhead of all religious sentiment.
It is this idea of a common essence which made Suzuki's ideas
recognizable to a Western audience, who could identify with the Western
esotericism concealed in it, disguised as eastern metaphysics. Suzuki presents a version of Zen that can be described as detraditionalized and essentialized. This resemblance is not coincidental, since Suzuki was also influenced by Western esotericism, and even joined the Theosophical Society.
Several scholars have identified Suzuki as a Buddhist modernist. As scholar David McMahan describes it, Buddhist modernism consists of
forms of Buddhism that have emerged out of an engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of modernity."
Most scholars agree that the influence of Protestant and
Enlightenment values have largely defined some of the more conspicuous
attributes of Buddhist modernism. McMahan cites
western monotheism; rationalism and scientific naturalism; and Romantic expressivism" as influences.
Buddhist modernist traditions often consist of a deliberate
de-emphasis of the ritual and metaphysical elements of the religion, as
these elements are seen as incommensurate with the discourses of
modernity. Buddhist modernist traditions have also been characterized as
being "detraditionalized," often being presented in a way that occludes
their historical construction. Instead, Buddhist modernists often
employ an essentialized description of their tradition, where key tenets
are described as universal and sui generis. It was this form of Zen that has been popularized in the West:
The popular "lay" image of Zen, notably the notion that Zen refers not to a specific school of Buddhism but rather to a mystical or spiritual gnosis that transcends sectarian boundaries, is largely a twentieth-century construct. Beginning with the persecution of Buddhism in the early Meiji (haibutsu kishaku) Zen apologists have been forced to respond to secular and empiricist critiques of religion in general, and to Japanese nativist critiques of Buddhism as a "foreign funerary cult" in particular. In response, partisans of Zen drew upon Western philosophical and theological strategies in their attempt to adapt their faith to the modern age.
Criticism
Suzuki has been criticized for this essentialist approach. As early as 1951 Hu Shih, criticized Suzuki for presenting an idealist picture of Zen.
McMahan states:
In his discussion of humanity and nature, Suzuki takes Zen literature out of its social, ritual, and ethical contexts and reframes it in terms of a language of metaphysics derived from German Romantic idealism, English Romanticism, and American Transcendentalism.
Suzuki's approach has been marked as "incomprehensible":
... D. T. Suzuki, whose most cherished methodology seems to have been to describe some aspect of Zen as beyond ordinary explanation, then offer a suitably incomprehensible story or two by way of illustration. Obviously, Suzuki's approach captured the imaginations of generations of readers. However, while this approach substantiated Suzuki's authority as one with insider access to the profound truths of the tradition, another result was to increase the confusion in reader's minds. To question such accounts was to admit one did not "get it", to distance oneself even further from the goal of achieving what Suzuki termed the "Zen enlightenment experience".
Involvement with Japanese nationalism
According
to Sharf and Victoria, Suzuki was associated with Japanese nationalism
and its propagation via the appraisal of Japanese Zen. He has been criticised for defending the Japanese war-efforts,
though Suzuki's thoughts on these have also been placed in the context
of western supremacy in the first half of the 20th century, and the
reaction against this supremacy in Asian countries.
Sympathy for Nazism and anti-Semitism
Brian Victoria delivered lectures in Germany in 2012 in which he revealed evidence of Suzuki's sympathy for the Nazi regime. Victoria writes,
"D. T. Suzuki left a record of his early view of the Nazi movement that was included in a series of articles published in the Japanese Buddhist newspaper, Chūgai Nippō, on October 3, 4, 6, 11, and 13, 1936." In this Suzuki expresses his agreement with Hitler's policies as explained to him by a relative living in Germany.
"While they don't know much about politics, they have never enjoyed greater peace of mind than they have now. For this alone, they want to cheer Hitler on. This is what my relative told me. It is quite understandable, and I am in agreement with him." He also expresses agreement with Hitler's expulsion of the Jews from Germany.
"Changing the topic to Hitler's expulsion of the Jews, it appears that in this, too, there are a lot of reasons for his actions. While it is a very cruel policy, when looked at from the point of view of the current and future happiness of the entire German people, it may be that, for a time, some sort of extreme action is necessary in order to preserve the nation."
Suzuki expressed sympathy with individual Jews. "As regards individuals, this is truly a regrettable situation."
Suzuki was a friend of Karlfried Graf von Dürckheim.
Durkheim, also a noted expounder of Japanese Zen philosophy in the
West, was a committed Nazi and worked for the German Foreign Office in Tokyo during the war. He helped his friend Suzuki introduce Zen Buddhism to the West.
New Buddhism
At
the onset of modernization in the Meji period, in 1868, when Japan
entered the international community, Buddhism was briefly persecuted in
Japan
as "a corrupt, decadent, anti-social, parasitic, and superstitious
creed, inimical to Japan's need for scientific and technological
advancement".
The Japanese government intended to eradicate the tradition, which was
seen as a foreign "other", incapable of fostering the nativist
sentiments that would be vital for national, ideological cohesion. In
addition to this, industrialization led to the breakdown of the
parishioner system that had funded Buddhist monasteries for centuries. However, a group of modern Buddhist leaders emerged to argue for the Buddhist cause.
These leaders stood in agreement with the government persecution of
Buddhism, accepting the notion of a corrupt Buddhist institution in need
of revitalization.
As a response to the modernisation of Japan and the persecution of Buddhism, the shin bukkyo,
or "New Buddhism" came into existence. It was led by
university-educated intellectuals who had been exposed to a vast body of
Western intellectual literature. Advocates of New Buddhism, like
Suzuki's teachers Kosen and his successor Soyen Shaku, saw this movement
as a defense of Buddhism against government persecution, and also saw
it as a way to bring their nation into the modern world as a competitive
cultural force.
Scholars such as Martin Verhoeven and Robert Sharf, as well as Japanese Zen monk G. Victor Sogen Hori,
have argued that the breed of Japanese Zen that was propagated by New
Buddhism ideologues, such as Imakita Kosen and Soyen Shaku, was not
typical of Japanese Zen during their time, nor is it typical of Japanese
Zen now. Its importance lies especially within western Zen:
Suffice it to say that, just as the writings of Suzuki and Hisamatsu are not representative of traditional (i.e., pre-Meiji) Zen exegetics, the style of Zen training most familiar to Western Zen practitioners can be traced to relatively recent and sociologically marginal Japanese lay movements which have neither the sanction nor the respect of the modern Rinzai or Sōtō monastic orthodoxies.
Indeed, the one feature shared by virtually all of the figures responsible for the Western interest in Zen is their relatively marginal status within the Japanese Zen establishment. While Suzuki, Nishida, and their intellectual heirs may have shaped the manner in which Westerners have come to think of Zen, the influence of these Japanese intellectuals on the established Zen sects in Japan has been negligible. At this point, it is necessary to affirm that Japanese Zen monasticism is indeed still alive, despite the shrill invectives of some expatriate Zen missionaries who insist that authentic Zen can no longer be found in Japan.
The traditional form of Zen has been greatly altered by the Meiji
restoration, but Japanese Zen still flourishes as a monastic tradition.
The Zen tradition in Japan, in its customary form, required a great deal
of time and discipline from monks that laity would have difficulty
finding. Zen monks were often expected to have spent several years in
intensive doctrinal study, memorizing sutras and poring over
commentaries, before even entering the monastery to undergo kōan practice in sanzen with a Zen master. The fact that Suzuki himself was able to do so (as a layman) was largely the invention of New Buddhism.
Japanese nationalism
During the Meiji restoration the Nihonjinron philosophy took prevalence. It emphasizes the uniqueness of the Japanese people.
This uniqueness has been attributed to many different factors. Suzuki
attributed it to Zen. In his view, Zen embodies the ultimate essence of
all philosophy and religion. He pictured Zen as a unique expression of
Asian spirituality, which was considered to be superior to the western
ways of thinking.
Sharf criticizes this uniqueness-thesis, as propagated by Suzuki:
The nihonjinron cultural exceptionalism polemic in Suzuki's work—the grotesque caricatures of 'East' versus 'West'—is no doubt the most egregiously inane manifestation of his nationalist leanings.
Sharf also doubts the motivations of Suzuki:
One is led to suspect that Suzuki's lifelong effort to bring Buddhist enlightenment to the Occident had become inextricably bound to a studied contempt for the West.
Kemmyō Taira Satō does not agree with this critical assessment of Suzuki:
In cases where Suzuki directly expresses his position on the contemporary political situation—whether in his articles, public talks, or letters to friends (in which he would have had no reason to misrepresent his views)—he is clear and explicit in his distrust of and opposition to State Shinto, rightwing thought, and the other forces that were pushing Japan toward militarism and war, even as he expressed interest in decidedly non-rightist ideologies like socialism. In this Suzuki's standpoint was consistent from the late nineteenth century through to the postwar years. These materials reveal in Suzuki an intellectual independence, a healthy scepticism of political ideology and government propaganda, and a sound appreciation for human rights.
Praise of Suzuki's work
Contemporaries of Suzuki acclaimed his works.
Suzuki's books have been widely read and commented on by many important figures. A notable example is An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, which includes a 30-page commentary by famous analytical psychologist Carl Jung, who wrote of Suzuki:
Suzuki's works on Zen Buddhism are among the best contributions to the knowledge of living Buddhism. We cannot be sufficiently grateful to the author, first for the fact of his having brought Zen closer to Western understanding, and secondly for the manner in which he has achieved this task.
But Jung was also critical, warning against an uncritical borrowing from Asian spirituality.
Bibliography
These essays were enormously influential when they came out, making Zen known in the West for the very first time:
- Essays in Zen Buddhism: First Series (1927), New York: Grove Press.
- Essays in Zen Buddhism: Second Series (1933), New York: Samuel Weiser, Inc. 1953–1971. Edited by Christmas Humphreys.
- Essays in Zen Buddhism: Third Series (1934), York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser, Inc. 1953. Edited by Christmas Humphreys.
- Dr. Suzuki also completed the translation of the Lankavatara Sutra from the original Sanskrit. Boulder, CO: Prajña Press, 1978, ISBN 0-87773-702-9, first published Routledge Kegan Paul, 1932.
Shortly after, a second series followed:
- An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist Soc. 1934. Republished with Foreword by C.G. Jung, London: Rider & Company, 1948. Suzuki calls this an "outline of Zen teaching."
- The Training of the Zen Buddhist Monk, Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist Soc. 1934. New York: University Books, 1959. This work covers a "description of the Meditation Hall and its life".
- Manual of Zen Buddhism, Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist Soc. 1935. London: Rider & Company, 1950, 1956. New York: Random House, 1960 and subsequent editions. A collection of Buddhist sutras, classic texts from the masters, icons & images, including the "Ten Ox-Herding Pictures". Suzuki writes that this work is to "inform the reader of the various literary materials relating to the monastic life...what the Zen monk reads before the Buddha in his daily service, where his thoughts move in his leisure hours, and what objects of worship he has in the different quarters of his institution."
After WWII, a new interpretation:
- The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind,London: Rider & Company, 1949. York Beach, Maine: Red Wheel/Weiser 1972, ISBN 0-87728-182-3.
- Living by Zen. London: Rider & Company, 1949.
- Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist: The Eastern and Western Way, Macmillan, 1957. "A study of the qualities Meister Eckhart shares with Zen and Shin Buddhism". Includes translation of myokonin Saichi's poems.
- Zen and Japanese Culture, New York: Pantheon Books, 1959. A classic.
- Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis, Erich Fromm, D. T. Suzuki, and De Martino. Approximately one third of this book is a long discussion by Suzuki that gives a Buddhist analysis of the mind, its levels, and the methodology of extending awareness beyond the merely discursive level of thought. In producing this analysis, Suzuki gives a theoretical explanation for many of the swordsmanship teaching stories in Zen and Japanese Culture that otherwise would seem to involve mental telepathy, extrasensory perception, etc.
Miscellaneous:
- An anthology of his work until the mid-1950s: Zen Buddhism: Selected Writings of D. T. Suzuki, Doubleday, New York: 1956. Edited by William Barrett.
- Very early work on Western mystic-philosopher.Swedenborg: Buddha of the North, West Chester, Pa: Swedenborg Foundation, 1996. Trans. by Andrew Bernstein of Swedenborugu, 1913.
- A Miscellany on the Shin Teaching of Buddhism; Kyōto, Shinshū Ōtaniha, 1949.
- Shin Buddhism; New York, Harper & Row, 1970.
- Gutoku Shaku Shinran, The Kyōgyōshinshō, The Collection of Passages Expounding the True Teaching, Living, Faith, and Realizing of the Pure Land, translated by Daisetz Teitarō Suzuki (ed. by The Eastern Buddhist Society); Kyōto, Shinshū Ōtaniha, 1973.
- Collected Writings on Shin Buddhism (ed. by The Eastern Buddhist Society); Kyōto, Shinshū Ōtaniha, 1973.
- Transcription of talks on Shin Buddhism.Buddha of Infinite Light. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1998. Edited by Taitetsu Unno.
- 'Tribute; anthology of essays by great thinkers. D. T. Suzuki: A Zen Life Remembered. Wheatherhill, 1986. Reprinted by Shambhala Publications.
- See also the works of Alan Watts, Paul Reps et al.
