Oppression
can refer to an authoritarian regime controlling its citizens via state
control of politics, the monetary system, media, and the military;
denying people any meaningful human or civil rights;
and terrorizing the populace through harsh, unjust punishment, and a
hidden network of obsequious informants reporting to a vicious secret
police force.
Oppression also refers to a less overtly malicious pattern of subjugation, although in many ways this social oppression represents a particularly insidious and ruthlessly effective form of manipulation and control. In this instance, the subordination and injustices do not afflict everyone—instead it targets specific groups of people for restrictions, ridicule, and marginalization. No universally accepted term has yet emerged to describe this variety of oppression, although some scholars will parse the multiplicity of factors into a handful of categories, e.g., social (or sociocultural) oppression; institutional (or legal) oppression; and economic oppression.
Oppression also refers to a less overtly malicious pattern of subjugation, although in many ways this social oppression represents a particularly insidious and ruthlessly effective form of manipulation and control. In this instance, the subordination and injustices do not afflict everyone—instead it targets specific groups of people for restrictions, ridicule, and marginalization. No universally accepted term has yet emerged to describe this variety of oppression, although some scholars will parse the multiplicity of factors into a handful of categories, e.g., social (or sociocultural) oppression; institutional (or legal) oppression; and economic oppression.
Authoritarian oppression
The word oppress comes from the Latin oppressus, past participle of opprimere, ("to press against", "to squeeze", "to suffocate"). Thus, when authoritarian governments
use oppression to subjugate the people, they want their citizenry to
feel that "pressing down", and to live in fear that if they displease
the authorities they will, in a metaphorical sense, be "squeezed" and
"suffocated", e.g., thrown in a dank, dark, state prison or summarily
executed. Such governments oppress the people using restriction,
control, terror, hopelessness, and despair.
The tyrant's tools of oppression include, for example, extremely harsh
punishments for "unpatriotic" statements; developing a loyal, guileful secret police force; prohibiting freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press;
controlling the monetary system and economy; and imprisoning or killing
activists or other leaders who might pose a threat to their power.
Socioeconomic, political, legal, cultural, and institutional oppression
Oppression
also refers to a more insidious type of manipulation and control, in
this instance involving the subjugation and marginalization of specific
groups of people within a country or society, such as: girls and women, boys and men, people of color, religious communities, citizens in poverty, LGBT people, youth and children, and many more. This socioeconomic,
cultural, political, legal, and institutional oppression (hereinafter,
"social oppression") probably occurs in every country, culture, and
society, including the most advanced democracies, such as the United States, Japan, Costa Rica, Sweden, and Canada.
A single, widely accepted definition of social oppression does not yet exist, although there are commonalities. Taylor (2016) defined (social) oppression in this way:
Oppression is a form of injustice that occurs when one social group is subordinated while another is privileged, and oppression is maintained by a variety of different mechanisms including social norms, stereotypes and institutional rules. A key feature of oppression is that it is perpetrated by and affects social groups. ... [Oppression] occurs when a particular social group is unjustly subordinated, and where that subordination is not necessarily deliberate but instead results from a complex network of social restrictions, ranging from laws and institutions to implicit biases and stereotypes. In such cases, there may be no deliberate attempt to subordinate the relevant group, but the group is nonetheless unjustly subordinated by this network of social constraints.
Harvey (1999) suggested the term "civilized oppression", which he introduced as follows:
It is harder still to become aware of what I call 'civilized Oppression,' that involves neither physical violence nor the use of law. Yet these subtle forms are by far the most prevalent in Western industrialized societies. This work will focus on issues that are common to such subtle oppression in several different contexts (such as racism, classism, and sexism) ... Analyzing what is involved in civilized oppression includes analyzing the kinds of mechanisms used, the power relations at work, the systems controlling perceptions and information, the kinds of harms inflicted on the victims, and the reasons why this oppression is so hard to see even by contributing agents.
Research and theory development on social oppression has advanced
apace since the 1980s with the publication of seminal books and
articles,
and the cross-pollination of ideas and discussion among diverse
disciplines, such as: feminism, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and
political science. Nonetheless, more fully understanding the problem
remains an extremely complicated challenge for scholars. Improved
understanding will likely involve, for example, comprehending more
completely the historical antecedents of current social oppression; the
commonalities (and lack thereof) among the various social groups damaged
by social oppression (and the individual human beings who make up those
groups); and the complex interplay between and amongst sociocultural,
political, economic, psychological, and legal forces that cause and
support oppression.
Social oppression
Social
oppression is when a single group in society takes advantage of, and
exercises power over, another group using dominance and subordination. This results in the socially supported mistreatment and exploitation of a group of individuals by those with relative power.
In a social group setting, oppression may be based on many ideas, such
as poverty, gender, class, race, or other categories. Oppression by
institution, or systematic oppression, is when the laws of a place
create unequal treatment of a specific social identity group or groups.
Another example of social oppression is when a specific social group is
denied access to education that may hinder their lives in later life.
Economic oppression is the divide between two classes of society. These
were once determined by factors such slavery, property rights,
disenfranchisement, and forced displacement of livelihood. Each divide
yielded various treatments and attitudes towards each group.
Social oppression derives from power dynamics and imbalances related to the social location of a group or individual. Social location,
as defined by Lynn Weber, is "an individual's or a group's social
'place' in the race, class, gender and sexuality hierarchies, as well as
in other critical social hierarchies such as age, ethnicity, and
nation".
An individual's social location often determines how they will be
perceived and treated by others in society. Three elements shape whether
a group or individual can exercise power: the power to design or
manipulate the rules and regulations, the capacity to win competitions
through the exercise of political or economic force, and the ability to
write and document social and political history. There are four predominant social hierarchies, race, class, gender and sexuality, that contribute to social oppression.
Privilege
Weber,
among some other political theorists, argues that oppression persists
because most individuals fail to recognize it; that is, discrimination
is often not visible to those who are not in the midst of it. Privilege refers to a sociopolitical immunity one group has over others derived from particular societal benefits.
Many of the groups who have privilege over gender, race, or sexuality,
for example, can be unaware of the power their privilege holds. These
inequalities further perpetuate themselves because those who are
oppressed rarely have access to resources that would allow them to
escape their maltreatment. This can lead to internalized oppression,
where subordinate groups essentially give up the fight to get access to
equality, and accept their fate as a non-dominant group.
Racial oppression
The
first social hierarchy is race or racial oppression, which is defined
as: " ... burdening a specific race with unjust or cruel restraints or
impositions. Racial oppression may be social, systematic,
institutionalized, or internalized. Social forms of racial oppression
include exploitation and mistreatment that is socially supported."
United States history consists of five primary forms of racial
oppression including genocide and geographical displacement, slavery,
second-class citizenship, non-citizen labor, and diffuse racial
discrimination.
The first, primary form of racial oppression—genocide and geographical displacement—in the US context refers to Western Europe and settlers taking over an Indigenous population's land. Many Indigenous people, commonly known today as Native Americans, were relocated to Indian Reservations or killed during wars fought over the land. The second form of racial oppression, slavery, refers to Africans being taken from their homeland and sold as property to white Americans.
Racial oppression was a significant part of daily life and routine in
which African-Americans worked on plantations and did other labor
without pay and the freedom to leave their workplace. The third form of
racial oppression, second-class citizenship,
refers to some categories of citizens having fewer rights than others.
Second-class citizenship became a pivotal form of racial oppression in
the United States following the Civil War,
as African-Americans who were formerly enslaved continued to be
considered unequal to white citizens, and had no voting rights.
Moreover, immigrants and foreign workers in the US are also treated like
second-class citizens, with fewer rights than people born in the US.
The fourth form of racial oppression in American history, non-citizen
labor, refers to the linkage of race and legal citizenship status.
During the middle of the 19th century, some categories of immigrants,
such as Mexicans and Chinese, were sought as physical laborers, but were
nonetheless denied legal access to citizenship status. The last form of
racial oppression in American history is diffuse discrimination. This
form of racial oppression refers to discriminatory actions that are not
directly backed by the legal powers of the state, but take place in
widespread everyday social interactions. This can include employers not
hiring or promoting someone on the basis of race, landlords only renting
to people of certain racial groups, salespeople treating customers
differently based on race, and racialized groups having access only to
impoverished schools. Even after the civil rights legislation abolishing
segregation, racial oppression is still a reality in the United States.
According to Robert Blauner, author of Racial Oppression in America, "racial groups and racial oppression are central features of the American social dynamic".
Class oppression
The
second social hierarchy, class oppression, sometimes referred to as
classism, can be defined as prejudice and discrimination based on social
class.
Class is an unspoken social ranking based on income, wealth, education,
status, and power. A class is a large group of people who share similar
economic or social positions based on their income, wealth, property
ownership, job status, education, skills, and power in the economic and
political sphere. The most commonly used class categories include: upper
class, middle class, working class, and poor class. A majority of
people in the United States self-identify in surveys as middle class,
despite vast differences in income and status. Class is also experienced
differently depending on race, gender, ethnicity, global location,
disability, and more. Class oppression of the poor and working class can
lead to deprivation of basic needs and a feeling of inferiority to
higher-class people, as well as shame towards one's traditional class,
race, gender, or ethnic heritage. In the United States, class has become
racialized leaving the greater percentage of people of color living in
poverty.
Since class oppression is universal among the majority class in
American society, at times it can seem invisible, however, it is a
relevant issue that causes suffering for many.
Gender oppression
The third social hierarchy is gender oppression, which is instituted through gender norms
society has adopted. In some cultures today, gender norms suggest that
masculinity and femininity are opposite genders, however it is an
unequal binary pair, with masculinity being dominant and femininity
being subordinate. However, in the West, this binary distinction has
largely been erased - indeed, in some fields, such as higher education,
women are now dominant.
"Many have argued that cultural practices concerning gender norms of
child care, housework, appearance, and career impose an unfair burden on
women and as such are oppressive."
According to feminist Barbara Cattunar, women have always been
"subjected to many forms of oppression, backed up by religious texts
which insist upon women's inferiority and subjugation".
Femininity has always been looked down upon, perpetuated by socially
constructed stereotypes, which has affected women's societal status and
opportunity. In current society, sources like the media further impose
gendered oppression as they shape societal views. Females in pop-culture
are objectified and sexualized, which can be understood as degrading to
women by depicting them as sex objects with little regard for their
character, political views, cultural contributions, creativity or
intellect. Some argue that feminism, or struggles for women's cultural,
political and economic equality, has challenged gender oppression.
Others, such as Christina Hoff Sommers and Camille Paglia, argue that
modern "fourth wave" feminism is holding women back by cementing them in
a culture of victimization. Gender oppression also takes place against
trans, gender-non-conforming, gender queer, or non-binary individuals
who do not identify with binary categories of masculine/feminine or
male/female.
Age oppression
Young people are a commonly, yet rarely acknowledged, oppressed demographic. Minors are denied many democratic and human rights, including the rights to vote, marry, and give sexual consent. Society as a whole also tends to discriminate against young people and view them as inferior.
Sexuality oppression
The fourth social hierarchy is sexuality oppression or heterosexism.
Dominant societal views with respect to sexuality, and sex partner
selection, have formed a sexuality hierarchy oppressing people who do
not conform to heteronormativity.
Heteronormativity is an underlying assumption that everyone in society
is heterosexual, and those who are not are treated as different or even
abnormal by society, excluded, oppressed, and sometimes subject to
violence. Heterosexism also derives from societal views of the nuclear
family which is presumed to be heterosexual, and dominated or controlled
by the male partner. Social actions by oppressed groups such as LGBTQI movements have organized to create social change.
Religious persecution
Different types of religious symbols
Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual because of their religious beliefs. According to Iris Young oppression can be divided into different categories such as powerlessness, exploitation, and violence.
The first category of powerlessness in regards to religious persecution
is when a group of people that follow one religion have less power than
the dominant religious followers. An example of powerlessness would be
during the 17th century when the pilgrims, wanting to escape the Church of England came to what is now called the United States. The pilgrims created their own religion of Protestantism,
and after doing so they eventually passed laws to keep other religions
from prospering. The Protestants used their power of legislature to
oppress the other religions in the United States.
The second category of oppression: exploitation, has been seen in many
different forms around the world when it comes to religion. The
definition of exploitation is the action or fact of treating someone
unfairly in order to benefit from their work. For example, during, and particularly after, the American Civil War, white Americans used Chinese immigrants in order to build the transcontinental railroads. During this time it was common for the Chinese immigrants to follow the religions of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism,
because of this the Chinese were looked at as different and not equal
to the white Americans. Due to this view it led them to unequal pay, and
many hardships during their time working on the railroad.
The third category that can be seen in religious persecution is
violence. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary violence is "the
use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy". An
example of violence in regards to religious persecution is hate crimes
that occur in the United States against Muslims. Since September 11th, 2001
hate crimes against people of the Muslim faith have greatly increased.
One incident occurred on August 5, 2017 when three men bombed a Mosque because they felt that Muslims "'push their beliefs on everyone else'". This violence happens to not only Muslims but other religions as well.
Domination
Addressing social oppression on both a macro and micro level, feminist Patricia Hill Collins discusses her "matrix of domination". The matrix of domination discusses the interrelated nature of four domains of power, including the structural, disciplinary, hegemonic,
and interpersonal domains. Each of these spheres works to sustain
current inequalities that are faced by marginalized, excluded or
oppressed groups. The structural, disciplinary and hegemonic domains all
operate on a macro level, creating social oppression through macro
structures such as education, or the criminal justice system, which play
out in the interpersonal sphere of everyday life through
micro-oppressions.
Standpoint theory
can help us to understand the interpersonal domain. Standpoint theory
deals with an individual's social location in that each person will have
a very different perspective based on where they are positioned in
society. For instance, a white male living in America will have a very
different take on an issue such as abortion than a black female living
in Africa. Each will have different knowledge claims and experiences
that will have shaped how they perceive abortion. Standpoint theory is
often used to expose the powerful social locations of those speaking, to
justify claims of knowledge through closer experience of an issue, and
to deconstruct the construction of knowledge of oppression by
oppressors.
Institutionalized oppression
"Institutional
Oppression occurs when established laws, customs, and practices
systemically reflect and produce inequities based on one's membership in
targeted social identity groups. If oppressive consequences accrue to
institutional laws, customs, or practices, the institution is oppressive
whether or not the individuals maintaining those practices have
oppressive intentions."
U.S.
Capitol - oil painting by Allyn Cox - The Monroe Doctrine (1823), plus a
quote from President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1940). (photograph:
Architect of the Capitol)
Institutionalized oppression allows for government, religious and
business organizations and their employees to systematically favor
specific groups of people based upon group identity. Dating back to
colonization, the United States implemented the annihilation of Native Americans from lands that Euro-Americans wanted, and condoned the institution of slavery where Africans were brought to the 'New World' to be a source of free labor to expand the cotton and tobacco industry.
Implementing these systems by the United States government was
justified through religious grounding where "servants [were] bought and
established as inheritable property".
Although the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments
freed African Americans, gave them citizenship, and provided them the
right to vote, institutions such as some police departments continue to
use oppressive systems against minorities. They train their officers to
profile individuals based upon their racial heritage, and to exert
excessive force to restrain them. Racial profiling and police brutality are "employed to control a population thought to be undesirable, undeserving, and under punished by established law".
In both situations, police officers "rely on legal authority to
exonerate their extralegal use of force; both respond to perceived
threats and fears aroused by out-groups, especially— but not
exclusively— racial minorities".
For example, "blacks are: approximately four times more likely to be
targeted for police use of force than their white counterparts; arrested
and convicted for drug-related criminal activities at higher rates than
their overall representation in the U.S. population; and are more
likely to fear unlawful and harsh treatment by law enforcement
officials".
The International Association of Chiefs of Police collected data from
police departments between the years 1995 and 2000 and found that 83% of
incidents involving use-of-force against subjects of different races
than the officer executing it involved a white officer and a black
subject.
Institutionalized oppression is not only experienced by people of
racial minorities, but can also affect those in the LGBT community.
Oppression of the LGBT community in the United States dates back to
President Eisenhower's presidency where he passed Executive Order 10450 in April 1953 which permitted non-binary sexual behaviors to be investigated by federal agencies.
As a result of this order, "More than 800 federal employees resigned or
were terminated in the two years following because their files linked
them in some way with homosexuality."
Oppression of the LGBT community continues today through some
religious systems and their believers' justifications of discrimination
based upon their own freedom of religious belief. States such as Arizona
and Kansas passed laws in 2014 giving religious-based businesses "the
right to refuse service to LGBT customers".
The proposal of the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (EDNA) offers
full protection of LGBT workers from job discrimination; however, the
act does not offer protection against religious-based corporations and
businesses, ultimately allowing the LGBT community to be discriminated
against in environments such as churches and religious-based hospitals. The LGBT community is further oppressed by the United States government with the passage of the First Amendment Defense Act which states, "Protecting religious freedom from Government intrusion is a Government interest of the highest order."
This act essentially allows for institutions of any kind—schools,
businesses, hospitals—to deny service to people based upon their
sexuality because it goes against a religious belief.
Economic oppression
The
term economic oppression changes in meaning and significance over time,
depending on its contextual application. In today's context, economic
oppression may take several forms, including, but not limited to: the
practice of bonded labour in some parts of India, serfdom, forced labour, low wages, denial of equal opportunity, and practicing employment discrimination, and economic discrimination based on sex, nationality, race, and religion.
Ann Cudd
describes the main forces of economic oppression as oppressive economic
systems and direct and indirect forces. Even though capitalism and
socialism are not inherently oppressive, they "lend themselves to
oppression in characteristic ways".
She defines direct forces of economic oppression as "restrictions on
opportunities that are applied from the outside on the oppressed,
including enslavement, segregation, employment discrimination,
group-based harassment, opportunity inequality, neocolonialism,
and governmental corruption". This allows for a dominant social group
to maintain and maximize its wealth through the intentional exploitation
of economically inferior subordinates. With indirect forces (also known
as oppression by choice), "the oppressed are co-opted into making
individual choices that add to their own oppression". The oppressed are
faced with having to decide to go against their social good, and even
against their own good. If they choose otherwise, they have to choose
against their interests, which may lead to resentment by their group.
An example of direct forces of economic oppression is employment discrimination in the form of the gender pay gap.
Restrictions on women's access to and participation in the workforce
like the wage gap is an "inequality most identified with industrialized
nations with nominal equal opportunity laws; legal and cultural
restrictions on access to education and jobs, inequities most identified
with developing nations; and unequal access to capital, variable but
identified as a difficulty in both industrialized and developing
nations". In the United States, the median weekly earnings for women were 82 percent of the median weekly earnings for men in 2016.
Some argue women are prevented from achieving complete gender equality
in the workplace because of the "ideal-worker norm," which "defines the
committed worker as someone who works full-time and full force for forty
years straight," a situation designed for the male sex.
Women, in contrast, are still expected to fulfill the caretaker
role and take time off for domestic needs such as pregnancy and ill
family members, preventing them from conforming to the "ideal-worker
norm". With the current norm in place, women are forced to juggle
full-time jobs and family care at home.
Others believe that this difference in wage earnings is likely due to
the supply and demand for women in the market because of family
obligations.
Eber and Weichselbaumer argue that "over time, raw wage differentials
worldwide have fallen substantially. Most of this decrease is due to
better labor market endowments of females".
Indirect economic oppression is exemplified when individuals work abroad to support their families. Outsourced
employees, working abroad generally little to no bargaining power not
only with their employers, but with immigration authorities as well.
They could be forced to accept low wages and work in poor living
conditions. And by working abroad, an outsourced employee contributes to
the economy of a foreign country instead of their own. Veltman and
Piper describe the effects of outsourcing on female laborers abroad:
Her work may be oppressive first in respects of being heteronomous: she may enter work under conditions of constraint; her work may bear no part of reflectively held life goals; and she may not even have the: freedom of bodily movement at work. Her work may also fail to permit a meaningful measure of economic independence or to help her support herself or her family, which she identifies as the very purpose of her working.
By deciding to work abroad, laborers are "reinforcing the forces of
economic oppression that presented them with such poor options".
Feminism and Equal Rights
A woman breaking free of chains.
Although
a relatively modern form of resistance, feminism's origins can be
traced back to the events leading up to the introduction of the Equal Rights Amendment
(ERA) in 1923. While the ERA was created to address the need for equal
protection under the law between men and women in the workplace, it
spurred increased feminism that has come to represent the search for
equal opportunity and respect for women in patriarchal societies, across
all social, cultural, and political spheres. Demonstrations and marches have been a popular medium of support, with the January 21, 2017, Women's March's replication in major cities across the world drawing tens of thousands of supporters. Feminists' main talking points consist of women's reproductive rights, the closing of the pay gap between men and women, the glass ceiling and workplace discrimination, and the intersectionality of feminism with other major issues such as African-American rights, immigration freedoms, and gun violence.
"Resistance"
Resistance
to oppression has been linked to a moral obligation, an act deemed
necessary for the preservation of self and society.
Still, resistance to oppression has been largely overlooked in terms of
the amount of research and number of studies completed on the topic,
and therefore, is often largely misinterpreted as "lawlessness,
belligerence, envy, or laziness".
Over the last two centuries, resistance movements have risen that
specifically aim to oppose, analyze, and counter various types of
oppression, as well as to increase public awareness and support of
groups marginalized and disadvantaged by systematic oppression. Late
20th century resistance movements such as liberation theology and anarchism
set the stage for mass critiques of, and resistance to, forms of social
and institutionalized oppression that have been subtly enforced and
reinforced over time. Resistance movements of the 21st century have
furthered the missions of activists across the world, and movements such
as liberalism, Black Lives Matter and feminism are some of the most prominent examples of resistance to oppression today.
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