Science
fiction tries to blend fiction and reality seamlessly so that the
viewer can be immersed in the imaginative world. This includes
characters, settings, and tools. Viewers often critique the scientific
plausibility and accuracy of technology and technological concepts.
In the 2020 series Away a notable plot point in the eight episode, Vital Signs
has astronauts listen intently for a sound boom picked up by a
real-life Mars rover called InSight. Similarity, in 2022 scientists used
InSight to listen for the landing of a real spacecraft.
Visual production process and methods
The
need to portray imaginary settings or characters with properties and
abilities beyond the reach of current reality obliges producers to make
extensive use of specialized techniques of television production.
Through most of the 20th century, many of these techniques were
expensive and involved a small number of dedicated craft practitioners,
while the reusability of props, models, effects, or animation techniques
made it easier to keep using them. The combination of high initial cost
and lower maintenance cost pushed producers into building these
techniques into the basic concept of a series, influencing all the
artistic choices.
By the late 1990s, improved technology and more training and
cross-training within the industry made all of these techniques easier
to use, so that directors of individual episodes could make decisions to
use one or more methods, so such artistic choices no longer needed to
be baked into the series concept.
3For the series The Starlost, the Magicam, a servo controlled dolly along with a secondary periscope camera filming a model background, was designed by Douglas Trumbull. However, the system did not work reliably and blue screen effects were used.
Special effects (or "SPFX") have been an essential tool throughout
the history of science fiction on television: small explosives to
simulate the effects of various rayguns, squibs of blood and gruesome prosthetics to simulate the monsters and victims in horror series, and the wire-flying entrances and exits of George Reeves as Superman.
The broad term "special effects" includes all the techniques here, but more commonly there are two categories of effects. Visual effects ("VFX") involve photographic or digital manipulation of the onscreen image, usually done in post-production. Mechanical or physical effects involve props, pyrotechnics, and other physical methods used during principal photography
itself. Some effects involved a combination of techniques; a ray gun
might require a pyrotechnic during filming, and then an optical glowing
line added to the film image in post-production. Stunts are another important category of physical effects. In general, all kinds of special effects must be carefully planned during pre-production.
Babylon 5 was the first series to use computer-generated imagery,
or "CGI", for all exterior space scenes, even those with characters in
space suits. The technology has made this more practical, so that today
models are rarely used. In the 1990s, CGI required expensive processors
and customized applications, but by the 2000s (decade), computing power
has pushed capabilities down to personal laptops running a wide array of
software.
Models have been an essential tool in science fiction television since the beginning, when Buck Rogers took flight in spark-scattering spaceships wheeling across a matte backdrop sky. The original Star Trek required a staggering array of models; the USS Enterprise
had to be built in several different scales for different needs. Models
fell out of use in filming in the 1990s as CGI became more affordable
and practical, but even today, designers sometimes construct scale
models which are then digitized for use in animation software.
Models of characters are puppets. Gerry Anderson created a series of shows using puppets living in a universe of models and miniature sets, notably Thunderbirds. ALF depicted an alien living in a family, while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters. In Stargate SG-1, the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. In Mystery Science Theater 3000, the characters of Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo, two of the show's main (and most iconic) characters, are puppets constructed from random household items.
Robot characters from the Japanese science fiction television series Ganbare!! Robocon were used to decorate this train car.
As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity,
momentum, and physical reality, it is an ideal technique for science
fiction and fantasy on television. In a sense, virtually all animated
series allow characters and objects to perform in unrealistic ways, so
they are almost all considered to fit within the broadest category of
speculative fiction (in the context of awards, criticism, marketing,
etc.) The artistic affinity of animation to comic books has led to a large amount of superhero-themed
animation, much of this adapted from comics series, while the
impossible characters and settings allowed in animation made this a
preferred medium for both fantasy and for series aimed at young audiences.
Originally, animation was all hand-drawn by artists, though in the 1980s, beginning with Captain Power, computers began to automate the task of creating repeated images; by the 1990s, hand-drawn animation became defunct.
Animation in live-action
In
recent years as technology has improved, this has become more common,
notably since the development of the Massive software application
permits producers to include hordes of non-human characters to storm a
city or space station. The robotic Cylons in the new version of Battlestar Galactica are usually animated characters, while the Asgard in Stargate SG-1 are animated when they are shown walking around or more than one is on screen at once.
Science fiction television economics and distribution
In
general, science fiction series are subject to the same financial
constraints as other television shows. However, high production costs
increase the financial risk, while limited audiences further complicate
the business case for continuing production. Star Trek was the first television series to cost more than $100,000 per episode, while Star Trek: The Next Generation was the first to cost more than $1 million per episode.
The innovative nature of science fiction means that new shows cannot rely on predictable market-tested formulas like legal dramas or sitcoms; the involvement of creative talent outside the Hollywood mainstream introduces more variables to the budget forecasts.
In the past, science fiction television shows have maintained a
family friendly format that rendered them suitable for all ages,
especially children, as the majority of them were of the
action-adventure format. This enabled merchandising such as toy lines,
animated cartoon adaptations, and other licensing. However, many modern
shows include a significant amount of adult themes (such as sexual
situations, nudity, profanity and graphic violence) rendering them
unsuitable for young audiences, and severely limiting the remaining
audience demographic and the potential for merchandising.
The perception, more than the reality, of science fiction series
being cancelled unreasonably is greatly increased by the attachment of
fans to their favorite series, which is much stronger in science fiction fandom
than it is in the general population. While mainstream shows are often
more strictly episodic, where ending shows can allow viewers to imagine
that characters live happily, or at least normally, ever after, science
fiction series generate questions and loose ends that, when unresolved,
cause dissatisfaction among devoted viewers. Creative settings also
often call for broader story arcs than is often found in mainstream
television, requiring science fiction series many episodes to resolve an
ongoing major conflict. Science fiction television producers will
sometimes end a season with a dramatic cliffhanger episode to attract viewer interest, but the short-term effect rarely influences financial partners. Dark Angel is one of many shows ending with a cliffhanger scene that left critical questions open when the series was cancelled.
Fans at a science fiction convention dressed as characters from Star Trek
One of the earliest forms of media fandom was Star Trek fandom. Fans of the series became known to each other through the science fiction fandom. In 1968, NBC decided to cancel Star Trek. Bjo Trimble
wrote letters to contacts in the National Fantasy Fan Foundation,
asking people to organize their local friends to write to the network to
demand the show remain on the air. Network executives were overwhelmed
by an unprecedented wave of correspondence, and they kept the show on
the air. Although the series continued to receive low ratings and was
canceled a year later, the enduring popularity of the series resulted in
Paramount creating a set of movies, and then a new series Star Trek: The Next Generation, which by the early 1990s had become one of the most popular dramas on American television.
Star Trek fans continued to grow in number, and first
began organizing conventions in the 1970s. No other show attracted a
large organized following until the 1990s, when Babylon 5 attracted both Star Trek
fans and a large number of literary SF fans who previously had not been
involved in media fandom. Other series began to attract a growing
number of followers. The British series, Doctor Who, has similarly attracted a devoted following.
In the late 1990s, a market for celebrity autographs emerged on eBay,
which created a new source of income for actors, who began to charge
money for autographs that they had previously been doing for free. This
became significant enough that lesser-known actors would come to
conventions without requesting any appearance fee, simply to be allowed
to sell their own autographs (commonly on publicity photos). Today most
events with actor appearances are organized by commercial promoters,
though a number of fan-run conventions still exist, such as Toronto Trek and Shore Leave.
The 1985 series Robotech is most often credited as the catalyst for the Western interest in anime. The series inspired a few fanzines such as Protoculture Addicts and Animag
both of which in turn promoted interest in the wide world of anime in
general. Anime's first notable appearance at SF or comic book
conventions was in the form of video showings of popular anime,
untranslated and often low quality VHS bootlegs. Starting in the 1990s, anime
fans began organizing conventions. These quickly grew to sizes much
larger than other science fiction and media conventions in the same
communities; many cities now have anime conventions attracting five to
ten thousand attendees. Many anime conventions are a hybrid between
non-profit and commercial events, with volunteer organizers handling
large revenue streams and dealing with commercial suppliers and
professional marketing campaigns.
For decades, the majority of science fiction media fandom has
been represented by males of all ages and for most of its modern
existence, a fairly diverse racial demographic. The most highly
publicized demographic for science fiction fans is the male adolescent;
roughly the same demographic for American comic books.
Female fans, while always present, were far fewer in number and less
conspicuously present in fandom. With the rising popularity of fanzines,
female fans became increasingly vocal. Starting in the 2000s (decade),
genre series began to offer more prominent female characters. Many
series featured women as the main characters with males as supporting
characters. True Blood is an example. Also, such shows premises moved away from heroic action-adventure and focused more on characters and their relationships. This has caused the rising popularity of fanfiction, a large majority of which is categorized as slash fanfiction. Female fans comprise the majority of fanfiction writers.
British television science fiction began in 1938 when the broadcast medium was in its infancy with the transmission of a partial adaptation of Karel Čapek's play R.U.R.. Despite an occasionally chequered history, programmes in the genre have been produced by both the BBC and the largest commercial channel, ITV. Doctor Who is listed in the Guinness World Records as the longest-running science fiction television show in the world and as the "most successful" science fiction series of all time.
Science fiction in Canada was produced by the CBC as early as the 1950s. In the 1970s, CTV produced The Starlost. In the 1980s, Canadian animation studios including Nelvana, began producing a growing proportion of the world market in animation.
In the 1990s, Canada became an important player in live action speculative fiction on television, with dozens of series like Forever Knight, Robocop, and most notably The X-Files and Stargate SG-1. Many series have been produced for youth and children's markets, including Deepwater Black and MythQuest.
Because of the small size of the domestic television market, most
Canadian productions involve partnerships with production studios based
in the United States and Europe. However, in recent years, new
partnership arrangements are allowing Canadian investors a growing share
of control of projects produced in Canada and elsewhere.
In addition, several dramas
utilize science fiction elements as framing devices, but are not
labeled as "tokusatsu" as they do not utilize actors in full body suits
and other special effects.
Continental European science fiction series
German series
Among the notable German language productions are:
Raumpatrouille, a German series first broadcast in 1966,
Danish television broadcast the children's TV-series Crash in 1984 about a boy who finds out that his room is a space ship.
Dutch series
Early Dutch television series were Morgen gebeurt het [nl] (Tomorrow it will happen), broadcast from 1957 to 1959, about a group of Dutch space explorers and their adventures, De duivelsgrot
(The devil's cave), broadcast from 1963 to 1964, about a scientist who
finds the map of a cave that leads to the center of the earth and Treinreis naar de Toekomst
(Train journey to the future) about two young children who are taken to
the future by robots who try to recreate humanity, but are unable to
give the cloned humans a soul. All three of these television series were
aimed mostly at children.
Later television series were Professor Vreemdeling (1977) about a strange professor who wants to make plants speak and Zeeuws Meisje [nl]
(1997) a nationalistic post-apocalyptic series where the Netherlands
has been built full of housing and the highways are filled with traffic
jams. The protagonist, a female superhero, wears traditional folkloric
clothes and tries to save traditional elements of Dutch society against
the factory owners.
French series are Highlander: The Series, French
science-fiction/fantasy television series (both co-produced with
Canada) and a number of smaller fiction/fantasy television series,
including Tang in 1971, about a secret organization that attempts
to control the world with a new super weapon, "Les atomistes" and 1970
miniseries "La brigade des maléfices".
The first Spanish SF series was Diego Valor, a 22 episode TV adaption of a radio show hero of the same name based on Dan Dare,
aired weekly between 1958 and 1959. Nothing was survived of this
series, not a single still; it is not known if the show was even
recorded or just a live broadcast.
The 60s were dominated by Chicho Ibáñez Serrador and Narciso Ibáñez Menta, who adapted SF works from Golden Age authors and others to a series titled Mañana puede ser verdad. Only 11 episodes were filmed. The 70s saw three important television films, Los pajaritos (1974), La Gioconda está triste (1977), and La cabina
(1972), this last one, about a man who becomes trapped in a telephone
booth, while passersby seem unable to help him, won the 1973 International Emmy Award for Fiction.
The latest success is El ministerio del tiempo (The ministry of time), premiered on February 24, 2015 on TVE's main channel La 1.
The series follows the exploits of a patrol of the fictional Ministry
of Time, which deals with incidents caused by time travel. It has garnered several national prizes in 2015, like the Ondas Prize, and has a thick following on-line, called los ministéricos.
Návštěvníci(The Visitors)
was a Czechoslovak (and Federal German, Swiss and French) TV series
produced in 1981 to 1983. The family show aired in a larger number of
European countries.
Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African American boy who was abducted, tortured, and lynched in Mississippi
in 1955 at the age of 14, after being accused of offending a white
woman, Carolyn Bryant, in her family's grocery store. The brutality of
his murder and the acquittal of his killers drew attention to the long
history of violent persecution of African Americans in the United States. Till posthumously became an icon of the civil rights movement.
Till was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. During summer vacation in August 1955, he was visiting relatives near Money, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta
region. He spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the white, married
proprietor of a small grocery store there. Although what happened at the
store is a matter of dispute, Till was accused of flirting with,
touching, or whistling at
Bryant. Till's interaction with Bryant, perhaps unwittingly, violated
the unwritten code of behavior for a black male interacting with a white
female in the Jim Crow-era South.
Several nights after the incident in the store, Bryant's husband Roy
and his half-brother J. W. Milam, who were armed, went to Till's
great-uncle's house and abducted Emmett. They took him away then beat
and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body
in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, the boy's mutilated and bloated body was discovered and retrieved from the river.
Till's body was returned to Chicago, where his mother insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket, which was held at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ. It was later said that "The open-coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till's bloated, mutilated body. Her decision focused attention on not only American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy".
Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his open casket, and
images of his mutilated body were published in black-oriented magazines
and newspapers, rallying popular black support and white sympathy across
the U.S. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the lack of black
civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the U.S. critical of
the state. Although local newspapers and law enforcement officials
initially decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they
responded to national criticism by defending Mississippians,
temporarily giving support to the killers.
In September 1955, an all-white jury found Bryant and Milam not guilty of Till's murder. Protected against double jeopardy, the two men publicly admitted in a 1956 interview with Look
magazine that they had tortured and murdered the boy, selling the story
of how they did it for $4,000 (equivalent to $43,000 in 2022). Till's murder was seen as a catalyst for the next phase of the civil rights movement. In December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott
began in Alabama and lasted more than a year, resulting eventually in a
U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional.
According to historians, events surrounding Till's life and death
continue to resonate.
An Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established in the early
21st century. The Sumner County Courthouse was restored and includes the
Emmett Till Interpretive Center. Fifty-one sites in the Mississippi
Delta are memorialized as associated with Till. The Emmett Till Antilynching Act, an American law which makes lynching a federal hate crime, was signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.
Early childhood
Emmett Till was born in 1941 in Chicago; he was the son of Mamie Carthan (1921–2003) and Louis Till (1922–1945). Emmett's mother Mamie was born in the small Delta town of Webb, Mississippi. The Delta region encompasses the large, multi-county area of northwestern Mississippi in the watershed of the Yazoo and Mississippi rivers. When Carthan was two years old, her family moved to Argo, Illinois, near Chicago, as part of the Great Migration
of rural black families out of the South to the North to escape
violence, lack of opportunity and unequal treatment under the law.
Argo received so many Southern migrants that it was named "Little
Mississippi"; Carthan's mother's home was often used by other recent
migrants as a way station while they were trying to find jobs and housing.
Mississippi was the poorest state in the U.S. in the 1950s, and the Delta counties were some of the poorest in Mississippi. Mamie Carthan was born in Tallahatchie County,
where the average income per white household in 1949 was $690
(equivalent to $8,500 in 2022). For black families, the figure was $462
(equivalent to $5,700 in 2022). In the rural areas, economic opportunities for blacks were almost nonexistent. They were mostly sharecroppers who lived on land owned by whites. Blacks had essentially been disenfranchised
and excluded from voting and the political system since 1890 when the
white-dominated legislature passed a new constitution that raised
barriers to voter registration. Whites had also passed ordinances
establishing racial segregation and Jim Crow laws.
Mamie largely raised Emmett with her mother; she and Louis Till
separated in 1942 after she discovered that he had been unfaithful.
Louis later assaulted her, choking her to unconsciousness, to which she
responded by throwing scalding water at him.
For violating court orders to stay away from Mamie, Louis Till was
forced by a judge in 1943 to choose between jail or enlisting in the U.S. Army. In 1945, a few weeks before his son's fourth birthday, he was court-martialed and executed in Italy for the murder of an Italian woman and the rape of two others.
At the age of six, Emmett contracted polio, which left him with a persistent stutter.
Mamie and Emmett moved to Detroit, where she met and married "Pink"
Bradley in 1951. Emmett preferred living in Chicago, so he returned
there to live with his grandmother; his mother and stepfather rejoined
him later that year. After the marriage dissolved in 1952, "Pink"
Bradley returned alone to Detroit.
Mamie Till Bradley and Emmett lived together in a busy neighborhood in Chicago's South Side near distant relatives. She began working as a civilian clerk for the U.S. Air Force
for a better salary. She recalled that Emmett was industrious enough to
help with chores at home, although he sometimes got distracted. His
mother remembered that he did not know his own limitations at times.
Following the couple's separation, Bradley visited Mamie and began
threatening her. At eleven years old, Emmett, with a butcher knife in
hand, told Bradley he would kill him if the man did not leave.
Usually, however, Emmett was happy. He and his cousins and friends
pulled pranks on each other (Emmett once took advantage of an extended
car ride when his friend fell asleep and placed the friend's underwear
on his head), and they also spent their free time in pickup baseball
games. He was a smart dresser, and was often the center of attention among his peers.
Plans to visit relatives in Mississippi
In 1955, Mamie Till Bradley's uncle, 64-year-old Mose Wright, visited
her and Emmett in Chicago during the summer and told Emmett stories
about living in the Mississippi Delta. Emmett wanted to see for himself.
Wright planned to accompany Till with a cousin, Wheeler Parker; another
cousin, Curtis Jones, would join them soon after. Wright was a
sharecropper and part-time minister who was often called "Preacher". He lived in Money, Mississippi, a small town in the Delta that consisted of three stores, a school, a post office, a cotton gin, and a few hundred residents, 8 miles (13 km) north of Greenwood.
Before Emmett departed for the Delta, his mother cautioned him that
Chicago and Mississippi were two different worlds, and he should know
how to behave in front of whites in the South. He assured her he understood.
Statistics on lynchings
began to be collected in 1882. Since that time, more than 500 African
Americans have been killed by extrajudicial violence in Mississippi
alone, and more than 3,000 across the South.
Most of the incidents took place between 1876 and 1930; though far less
common by the mid-1950s, these racially motivated murders still
occurred. Throughout the South, interracial relationships were
prohibited as a means to maintain white supremacy.
Even the suggestion of sexual contact between black men and white women
could carry severe penalties for black men. A resurgence of the
enforcement of such Jim Crow laws was evident following World War II, when African-American veterans started pressing for equal rights in the South.
Racial tensions increased after the United States Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education
to end segregation in public education, which it ruled
unconstitutional. Many segregationists believed the ruling would lead to
interracial dating and marriage. Whites strongly resisted the court's
ruling; one Virginia county closed all its public schools to prevent
integration. Other jurisdictions simply ignored the ruling. In other
ways, whites used stronger measures to keep blacks politically
disenfranchised, which they had been since the turn of the century.
Segregation in the South was used to constrain blacks forcefully from
any semblance of social equality.
A week before Till arrived in Mississippi, a black activist named Lamar Smith was shot and killed in front of the county courthouse in Brookhaven for political organizing. Three white suspects were arrested, but they were soon released.
Encounter between Till and Carolyn Bryant
Till arrived at the home of Mose and Elizabeth Wright in Money,
Mississippi, on August 21, 1955. On the evening of August 24, Till and
several young relatives and neighbors were driven by his cousin Maurice
Wright to Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market to buy candy. Till's
companions were children of sharecroppers and had been picking cotton
all day. The market mostly served the local sharecropper population and
was owned by a white couple, 24-year-old Roy Bryant and his 21-year-old
wife Carolyn.
Carolyn was alone in the front of the store that day; her sister-in-law
Juanita Milam was in the rear of the store watching children. A number
of other local youths were playing or watching a checkers game on a board the Bryants had set up outside the store.
The facts of what took place in the store are still disputed. Journalist William Bradford Huie
reported that Till showed the youths outside the store a photograph of a
white girl in his wallet, and bragged that she was his girlfriend. Till's cousin Curtis Jones said the photograph was of an integrated class at the school Till attended in Chicago. According to Huie and Jones, one or more of the local boys then dared Till to speak to Bryant.
However, in his 2009 book, Till's cousin Simeon Wright, who was
present, disputed the accounts of Huie and Jones. According to Wright,
Till did not have a photo of a white girl, and no one dared him to flirt
with Bryant.
Speaking in 2015, Wright said: "We didn't dare him to go to the
store—the white folk said that. They said that he had pictures of his
white girlfriend. There were no pictures. They never talked to me. They
never interviewed me."
The FBI report completed in 2006 notes: "[Curtis] Jones recanted his
1955 statements prior to his death and apologized to Mamie Till-Mobley".
According to Simeon Wright and Wheeler Parker, Till wolf-whistled
at Bryant. Wright said "I think [Emmett] wanted to get a laugh out of
us or something," adding, "He was always joking around, and it was hard
to tell when he was serious." Wright stated that following the whistle
he became immediately alarmed. "Well, it scared us half to death,"
Wright recalled. "You know, we were almost in shock. We couldn't get out
of there fast enough, because we had never heard of anything like that
before. A black boy whistling at a white woman? In Mississippi? No."
Wright stated "The Ku Klux Klan and night riders were part of our daily lives". Following his disappearance, a newspaper account stated that Till sometimes whistled to alleviate his stuttering.
His speech was sometimes unclear; his mother said he had particular
difficulty with pronouncing "b" sounds, and he may have whistled to
overcome problems asking for bubble gum. She said that, to help with his articulation, she taught Till how to whistle softly to himself before pronouncing his words.
During the murder trial, Bryant testified that Till grabbed her hand while she was stocking candy and said, "How about a date, baby?" She said that after she freed herself from his grasp, the young man followed her to the cash register, grabbed her waist and said, "What's the matter baby, can't you take it?" Bryant said she freed herself, and Till said, "You needn't be afraid of me, baby", used "one 'unprintable' word" and said "I've been with white women before." Bryant also alleged that one of Till's companions came into the store, grabbed him by the arm, and ordered him to leave.
According to historian Timothy Tyson, Bryant admitted to him in a 2008
interview that her testimony during the trial that Till had made verbal
and physical advances was false. Bryant had testified Till grabbed her waist and uttered obscenities but later told Tyson "that part's not true". As for the rest of what happened, the 72-year-old stated she could not remember. Bryant is quoted by Tyson as saying "Nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him".
However, the tape recordings that Tyson made of the interviews with
Bryant do not contain Bryant saying this. In addition, Bryant's
daughter-in-law, who was present during Tyson's interviews, says that
Bryant never said it.
Decades later, Simeon Wright also challenged the account given by Carolyn Bryant at the trial. Wright claims he entered the store "less than a minute" after Till was left inside alone with Bryant, and he saw no inappropriate behavior and heard "no lecherous conversation". Wright said Till "paid for his items and we left the store together".
In their 2006 investigation of the cold case, the FBI noted that a
second anonymous source, who was confirmed to have been in the store at
the same time as Till and his cousin, supported Wright's account.
Author Devery Anderson writes that in an interview with the
defense's attorneys, Bryant told a version of the initial encounter that
included Till grabbing her hand and asking her for a date, but not Till
approaching her and grabbing her waist, mentioning past relationships
with white women, or having to be dragged unwillingly out of the store
by another boy. Anderson further notes that many remarks prior to Till's
kidnapping made by those involved indicate that it was his remarks to
Bryant that angered his killers, rather than any alleged physical
harassment. For instance, Mose Wright (a witness to the kidnapping) said
that the kidnappers mentioned only "talk" at the store, and Sheriff
George Smith only spoke of the arrested killers accusing Till of "ugly
remarks". Anderson suggests that this evidence taken together implies
that the more extreme details of Bryant's story were invented after the
fact as part of the defense's legal strategy.
After Wright and Till left the store, Bryant went outside to
retrieve a pistol from underneath the seat of a car. Till and his
companions saw her do this and left immediately. It was acknowledged that Till whistled while Bryant was going to her car.
However, one witness, Roosevelt Crawford, maintained that Till's
whistle was directed not at Bryant, but at the checkers game that was
taking place outside the store.
Carolyn's husband Roy Bryant was on an extended trip hauling shrimp to Texas and did not return home until August 27.
Historian Timothy Tyson said an investigation by civil rights activists
concluded Carolyn Bryant did not initially tell her husband Roy Bryant
about the encounter with Till, and that Roy was told by a person who
frequented their store.
Roy was reportedly angry at his wife for not telling him. Carolyn
Bryant told the FBI she did not tell her husband because she feared he
would assault Till.
When Roy Bryant was informed of what had happened, he aggressively
questioned several young black men who entered the store. That evening,
Bryant, with a black man named J. W. Washington, approached a black
teenager walking along a road. Bryant ordered Washington to seize the
boy, put him in the back of a pickup truck, and took him to be
identified by a companion of Carolyn's who had witnessed the episode
with Till. Friends or parents vouched for the boy in Bryant's store, and
Carolyn's companion denied that the boy Bryant and Washington seized
was the one who had accosted her. Somehow, Bryant learned that the boy
in the incident was from Chicago and was staying with Mose Wright.
Several witnesses overheard Bryant and his 36-year-old half-brother,
John William "J. W." Milam, discussing taking Till from his house.
In the early morning hours of August 28, 1955, sometime between 2
and 3:30 a.m., Bryant and Milam drove to Mose Wright's house. Milam was
armed with a pistol and a flashlight. He asked Wright if he had three
boys in the house from Chicago. Till was sharing a bed with another
cousin and there were a total of eight people in the cabin.
Milam asked Wright to take them to "the nigger who did the talking".
Till's great-aunt offered the men money, but Milam refused as he rushed
Emmett to put on his clothes. Mose Wright informed the men that Till was
from up north and did not know any better. Milam reportedly then asked,
"How old are you, preacher?" to which Wright responded "64". Milam
threatened that if Wright told anybody he would not live to see 65. The
men marched Till out to the truck. Wright said he heard them ask someone
in the car if this was the boy, and heard someone say "yes". When asked
if the voice was that of a man or a woman Wright said "it seemed like
it was a lighter voice than a man's". In a 1956 interview with Look
magazine, in which they confessed to the killing, Bryant and Milam said
they would have brought Till by the store in order to have Carolyn
identify him, but stated they did not do so because they said Till
admitted to being the one who had talked to her.
They tied up Till in the back of a green pickup truck and drove
toward Money, Mississippi. According to some witnesses, they took Till
back to Bryant's Groceries and recruited two black men. The men then
drove to a barn in Drew. They pistol-whipped him on the way and reportedly knocked him unconscious. Willie Reed,
who was 18 years old at the time, saw the truck passing by. Reed
recalled seeing two white men in the front seat, and "two black males"
in the back.
Some have speculated that the two black men worked for Milam and were
forced to help with the beating, although they later denied being
present.
Willie Reed said that while walking home, he heard the beating
and crying from the barn. He told a neighbor and they both walked back
up the road to a water well near the barn, where they were approached by
Milam. Milam asked if they heard anything. Reed responded "No". Others
passed by the shed and heard yelling. A local neighbor also spotted "Too
Tight" (Leroy Collins) at the back of the barn washing blood off the
truck and noticed Till's boot. Milam explained he had killed a deer and
that the boot belonged to him.
Some have claimed that Till was shot and tossed over the Black Bayou Bridge in Glendora, Mississippi, near the Tallahatchie River. The group drove back to Roy Bryant's home in Money, where they reportedly burned Emmett's clothes.
Well, what else could we do? He was hopeless. I'm no bully; I never
hurt a nigger in my life. I like niggers—in their place—I know how to
work 'em. But I just decided it was time a few people got put on notice.
As long as I live and can do anything about it, niggers are gonna stay
in their place. Niggers ain't gonna vote where I live. If they did,
they'd control the government. They ain't gonna go to school with my
kids. And when a nigger gets close to mentioning sex with a white woman,
he's tired o' livin'. I'm likely to kill him. Me and my folks fought
for this country, and we got some rights. I stood there in that shed and
listened to that nigger throw that poison at me, and I just made up my
mind. 'Chicago boy,' I said, 'I'm tired of 'em sending your kind down
here to stir up trouble. Goddam you, I'm going to make an example of
you—just so everybody can know how me and my folks stand.'
—J. W. Milam, Look magazine, 1956
In an interview with William Bradford Huie that was published in Look
magazine in 1956, Bryant and Milam said that they intended to beat Till
and throw him off an embankment into the river to frighten him. They
told Huie that while they were beating Till, he called them bastards,
declared he was as good as they and said that he had sexual encounters
with white women. They put Till in the back of their truck, and drove to
a cotton gin to take a 70-pound (32 kg) fan—the only time they admitted
to being worried, thinking that by this time in early daylight they
would be spotted and accused of stealing—and drove for several miles
along the river looking for a place to dispose of Till. They shot him by
the river and weighted his body with the fan.
Mose Wright stayed on his front porch for twenty minutes waiting
for Till to return. He did not go back to bed. He and another man went
into Money, got gasoline, and drove around trying to find Till.
Unsuccessful, they returned home by 8:00 am. After hearing from Wright that he would not call the police because he feared for his life, Curtis Jones placed a call to the Leflore County sheriff, and another to his mother in Chicago. Distraught, she called Emmett's mother Mamie Till Bradley. Wright and his wife Elizabeth drove to Sumner, where Elizabeth's brother contacted the sheriff.
Bryant and Milam were questioned by Leflore County sheriff George
Smith. They admitted they had taken the boy from his great-uncle's
yard, but claimed they had released him the same night in front of
Bryant's store. Bryant and Milam were arrested for kidnapping. Word got out that Till was missing, and soon Medgar Evers, Mississippi state field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Amzie Moore, head of the NAACP's Bolivar County
chapter, became involved. They disguised themselves as cotton pickers
and went into the cotton fields in search of any information that might
help find Till.
Three days after his abduction and murder, Till's swollen and
disfigured body was found by two boys who were fishing in the
Tallahatchie River. His head was very badly mutilated, he had been shot
above the right ear, an eye was dislodged from the socket, there was
evidence that he had been beaten on the back and the hips, and his body
weighted by a fan blade, which was fastened around his neck with barbed
wire. He was nude, but wearing a silver ring with the initials "L. T."
and "May 25, 1943" carved in it.
His face was unrecognizable due to trauma and having been submerged in
water. Mose Wright was called to the river to identify Till. The silver
ring that Till was wearing was removed, returned to Wright, and next
passed on to the district attorney as evidence.
Funeral and reaction
Although lynchings and racially motivated murders had occurred
throughout the South for decades, the circumstances surrounding Till's
murder and the timing acted as a catalyst to attract national attention
to the case of a 14-year-old boy who had allegedly been killed for
breaching a social caste
system. Till's murder aroused feelings about segregation, law
enforcement, relations between the North and South, the social status
quo in Mississippi, the activities of the NAACP and the White Citizens' Councils, and the Cold War, all of which were played out in a drama staged in newspapers all over the U.S. and abroad.
After Till went missing, a three-paragraph story was printed in The Greenwood Commonwealth
and quickly picked up by other Mississippi newspapers. They reported on
his death when the body was found. The next day, when a picture of him
his mother had taken the previous Christmas showing them smiling
together appeared in the Jackson Daily News and Vicksburg Evening Post,
editorials and letters to the editor were printed expressing shame at
the people who had caused Till's death. One read, "Now is the time for
every citizen who loves the state of Mississippi to 'Stand up and be
counted' before hoodlum white trash brings us to destruction." The
letter said that Negroes were not the downfall of Mississippi society,
but whites like those in White Citizens' Councils that condoned
violence.
Till's body was clothed, packed in lime, placed into a pine coffin, and prepared for burial. It may have been embalmed
while in Mississippi. Mamie Till Bradley demanded that the body be sent
to Chicago; she later said that she worked to halt an immediate burial
in Mississippi and called several local and state authorities in
Illinois and Mississippi to make sure that her son was returned to
Chicago. A doctor did not examine Till post-mortem.
Mississippi's governor, Hugh L. White,
deplored the murder, asserting that local authorities should pursue a
"vigorous prosecution". He sent a telegram to the national offices of
the NAACP, promising a full investigation and assuring them "Mississippi
does not condone such conduct". Delta residents, both black and white,
also distanced themselves from Till's murder, finding the circumstances
abhorrent. Local newspaper editorials denounced the murderers without
question.Leflore County Deputy Sheriff John Cothran stated, "The white people
around here feel pretty mad about the way that poor little boy was
treated, and they won't stand for this."
Soon, however, discourse about Till's murder became more complex. Robert B. Patterson, executive secretary of the segregationist White Citizens' Council, used Till's death to claim that racial segregation
policies were to provide for blacks' safety and that their efforts were
being neutralized by the NAACP. In response, NAACP executive secretary Roy Wilkins
characterized the incident as a lynching and said that Mississippi was
trying to maintain white supremacy through murder. He said, "there is in
the entire state no restraining influence of decency, not in the state
capital, among the daily newspapers, the clergy, nor any segment of the
so-called better citizens."
Mamie Till Bradley told a reporter that she would seek legal aid to
help law enforcement find her son's killers and that the State of
Mississippi should share the financial responsibility. She was
misquoted; it was reported as "Mississippi is going to pay for this."
The A. A. Rayner Funeral Home in Chicago received Till's body. Upon
arrival, Bradley insisted on viewing it to make a positive
identification, later stating that the stench from it was noticeable two
blocks away. She decided to have an open-casket funeral, saying: "There was just no way I could describe what was in that box. No way. And I just wanted the world to see."
Tens of thousands of people lined the street outside the mortuary to
view Till's body, and days later thousands more attended his funeral at
Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.
Photographs of his mutilated corpse circulated around the country, notably appearing in Jet magazine and The Chicago Defender, both black publications, generating intense public reaction. According to The Nation and Newsweek, Chicago's black community was "aroused as it has not been over any similar act in recent history". Time later selected one of the Jet
photographs showing Mamie Till over the mutilated body of her dead son,
as one of the 100 "most influential images of all time": "For almost a
century, African Americans were lynched with regularity and impunity.
Now, thanks to a mother's determination to expose the barbarousness of
the crime, the public could no longer pretend to ignore what they
couldn't see." Till was buried on September 6 in Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois.
News about Emmett Till spread to both coasts. Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and Illinois Governor William Stratton
also became involved, urging Mississippi Governor White to see that
justice was done. The tone in Mississippi newspapers changed
dramatically. They falsely reported riots in the funeral home in
Chicago. Bryant and Milam appeared in photos smiling and wearing
military uniforms,
and Carolyn Bryant's beauty and virtue were extolled. Rumors of an
invasion of outraged blacks and northern whites were printed throughout
the state, and were taken seriously by the Leflore County Sheriff. T. R. M. Howard,
a local businessman, surgeon, and civil rights proponent and one of the
wealthiest black people in the state, warned of a "second civil war" if
"slaughtering of Negroes" was allowed.
Following Roy Wilkins' comments, white opinion began to shift. According to historian Stephen J. Whitfield, a specific brand of xenophobia
in the South was particularly strong in Mississippi. Whites were urged
to reject the influence of Northern opinion and agitation.
This independent attitude was profound enough in Tallahatchie County
that it earned the nickname "The Freestate of Tallahatchie", according
to a former sheriff, "because people here do what they damn well
please", making the county often difficult to govern.
Tallahatchie County Sheriff Clarence Strider, who initially
positively identified Till's body and stated that the case against Milam
and Bryant was "pretty good", on September 3 announced his doubts that
the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River was that of Till. He
speculated that the boy was probably still alive. Strider suggested that
the recovered body had been planted by the NAACP: a corpse stolen by
T. R. M. Howard, who colluded to place Till's ring on it.
Strider changed his account after comments were published in the press
denigrating the people of Mississippi, later saying: "The last thing I
wanted to do was to defend those peckerwoods. But I just had no choice about it."
Bryant and Milam were indicted for murder. The state's
prosecuting attorney, Hamilton Caldwell, was not confident that he could
get a conviction in a case of white violence against a black male
accused of insulting a white woman. A local black paper was surprised at
the indictment and praised the decision, as did The New York Times. The high-profile comments published in Northern newspapers and by the NAACP were of concern to the prosecuting attorney, Gerald Chatham;
he worried that his office would not be able to secure a guilty
verdict, despite the compelling evidence. Having limited funds, Bryant
and Milam initially had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them,
but five attorneys at a Sumner law firm offered their services pro bono.
Their supporters placed collection jars in stores and other public
places in the Delta, eventually gathering $10,000 for the defense.
Trial
The trial was held in the county courthouse in Sumner, the western
seat of Tallahatchie County, because Till's body was found in this area.
Sumner had one boarding house; the small town was besieged by reporters
from all over the country. David Halberstam called the trial "the first great media event of the civil rights movement". A reporter who had covered the trials of Bruno Hauptmann and Machine Gun Kelly remarked that this was the most publicity for any trial he had ever seen. No hotels were open to black visitors. Mamie Till Bradley arrived to testify, and the trial also attracted black congressman Charles Diggs from Michigan. Bradley, Diggs, and several black reporters stayed at T. R. M. Howard's home in Mound Bayou. Located on a large lot and surrounded by Howard's armed guards, it resembled a compound.
The day before the start of the trial, a young black man named
Frank Young arrived to tell Howard he knew of two witnesses to the
crime. Levi "Too Tight" Collins and Henry Lee Loggins were black
employees of Leslie Milam, J. W.'s brother, in whose shed Till was
beaten. Collins and Loggins were spotted with J. W. Milam, Bryant, and
Till. The prosecution team was unaware of Collins and Loggins. Sheriff
Strider, however, booked them into the Charleston, Mississippi, jail to keep them from testifying.
The trial was held in September 1955 and lasted for five days;
attendees remembered that the weather was very hot. The courtroom was
filled to capacity with 280 spectators; black attendees sat in
segregated sections.
Press from major national newspapers attended, including black
publications; black reporters were required to sit in the segregated
black section and away from the white press, farther from the jury.
Sheriff Strider welcomed black spectators coming back from lunch with a
cheerful, "Hello, Niggers!"
Some visitors from the North found the court to be run with surprising
informality. Jury members were allowed to drink beer on duty, and many
white male spectators wore handguns.
The defense sought to cast doubt on the identity of the body pulled
from the river. They said it could not be positively identified, and
they questioned whether Till was dead at all. The defense also asserted
that although Bryant and Milam had taken Till from his great-uncle's
house, they had released him that night. The defense attorneys attempted
to prove that Mose Wright—who was addressed as "Uncle Mose" by the
prosecution and "Mose" by the defense—could not identify Bryant and
Milam as the men who took Till from his cabin. They noted that only
Milam's flashlight had been in use that night, and no other lights in
the house were turned on. Milam and Bryant had identified themselves to
Wright the evening they took Till; Wright said he had only seen Milam
clearly. Wright's testimony was considered remarkably courageous. It may
have been the first time in the South that a black man had testified to
the guilt of a white man in court—and lived.
Journalist James Hicks, who worked for the black news wire
service, the National Negro Publishers Association (later renamed the National Newspaper Publishers Association),
was present in the courtroom; he was especially impressed that Wright
stood to identify Milam, pointing to him and saying "There he is", calling it a historic moment and one filled with "electricity". A writer for the New York Post
noted that following his identification, Wright sat "with a lurch which
told better than anything else the cost in strength to him of the thing
he had done". A reporter who covered the trial for the New Orleans Times-Picayune said it was "the most dramatic thing I saw in my career".
Mamie Till Bradley testified that she had instructed her son to
watch his manners in Mississippi and that should a situation ever come
to his being asked to get on his knees to ask forgiveness of a white
person, he should do it without a thought. The defense questioned her
identification of her son in the casket in Chicago and a $400 life
insurance policy she had taken out on him (equivalent to $4,400 in
2022).
While the trial progressed, Leflore County Sheriff George Smith,
Howard, and several reporters, both black and white, attempted to locate
Collins and Loggins. They could not, but found three witnesses who had
seen Collins and Loggins with Milam and Bryant on Leslie Milam's
property. Two of them testified that they heard someone being beaten,
blows, and cries.
One testified so quietly the judge ordered him several times to speak
louder; he said he heard the victim call out: "Mama, Lord have mercy.
Lord have mercy."
Sheriff Strider testified for the defense of his theory that Till was
alive and that the body retrieved from the river was white. A doctor
from Greenwood stated on the stand that the body was too decomposed to
identify, and therefore had been in the water too long for it to be
Till.
Carolyn Bryant was allowed to testify in court, but because Judge
Curtis Swango ruled in favor of the prosecution's objection that her
testimony was irrelevant to Till's abduction and murder, the jury was
not present. In the event that the defendants were convicted, the defense wanted her testimony on record to aid in a possible appeal.
In the concluding statements, one prosecuting attorney said that
what Till did was wrong, but that his action warranted a spanking, not
murder. Gerald Chatham passionately called for justice and mocked the
sheriff and doctor's statements that alluded to a conspiracy. Mamie
Bradley indicated she was very impressed with his summation.
The defense stated that the prosecution's theory of the events the
night Till was murdered was improbable, and said the jury's "forefathers
would turn over in their graves" if they convicted Bryant and Milam.
Only three outcomes were possible in Mississippi for capital murder:
life imprisonment, the death penalty, or acquittal. On September 23 the all-white, all-male jury (both women and blacks had been banned)
acquitted both defendants after a 67-minute deliberation; one juror
said, "If we hadn't stopped to drink pop, it wouldn't have taken that
long."
In post-trial analyses, the blame for the outcome varied. Mamie
Till Bradley was criticized for not crying enough on the stand. The jury
was noted to have been picked almost exclusively from the hill country
section of Tallahatchie County, which, due to its poorer economic
make-up, found whites and blacks competing for land and other agrarian
opportunities. Unlike the population living closer to the river (and
thus closer to Bryant and Milam in Leflore County), who possessed a noblesse oblige
outlook toward blacks, according to historian Stephen Whitaker, those
in the eastern part of the county were virulent in their racism. The
prosecution was criticized for dismissing any potential juror who knew
Milam or Bryant personally, for fear that such a juror would vote to
acquit. Afterward, Whitaker noted that this had been a mistake, as those
who knew the defendants usually disliked them. One juror voted twice to convict, but on the third discussion, voted with the rest of the jury to acquit.
In later interviews, the jurors acknowledged that they knew Bryant and
Milam were guilty, but simply did not believe that life imprisonment or
the death penalty were fit punishment for whites who had killed a black
man.
However, two jurors said as late as 2005 that they believed the
defense's case. They also said that the prosecution had not proved that
Till had died, nor that it was his body that was removed from the river.
In November 1955, a grand jury declined to indict Bryant and
Milam for kidnapping, despite their own admissions of having taken Till.
Mose Wright and a young man named Willie Reed, who testified to seeing
Milam enter the shed from which screams and blows were heard, both
testified in front of the grand jury.
After the trial, T. R. M. Howard paid the costs of relocating to
Chicago for Wright, Reed, and another black witness who testified
against Milam and Bryant, in order to protect the three witnesses from
reprisals for having testified.
Reed, who later changed his name to Willie Louis to avoid being found,
continued to live in the Chicago area until his death on July 18, 2013.
He avoided publicity and even kept his history secret from his wife
until she was told by a relative. Reed began to speak publicly about the
case in the PBS documentary The Murder of Emmett Till, aired in 2003.
Media discourse
Newspapers in major international cities as well as religious and socialist
publications reported outrage about the verdict and strong criticism of
American society, while Southern newspapers, particularly in
Mississippi, wrote that the court system had done its job.
Till's story continued to make the news for weeks following the trial,
sparking debate in newspapers, among the NAACP and various high-profile
segregationists about justice for blacks and the propriety of Jim Crow
society.
In October 1955, the Jackson Daily News reported facts
about Till's father that had been suppressed by the U.S. military. While
serving in Italy, Louis Till was court-martialed for the rape of two
women and the killing of a third. He was found guilty and executed by
hanging by the Army near Pisa
in July 1945. Mamie Till Bradley and her family knew none of this,
having been told only that Louis had been killed for "willful
misconduct". Mississippi senators James Eastland and John C. Stennis
probed Army records and revealed Louis Till's crimes. Although Emmett
Till's murder trial was over, news about his father was carried on the
front pages of Mississippi newspapers for weeks in October and November
1955. This renewed debate about Emmett Till's actions and Carolyn
Bryant's integrity. Stephen Whitfield writes that the lack of attention
paid to identifying or finding Till is "strange" compared to the amount
of published discourse about his father.
According to historians Davis Houck and Matthew Grindy, "Louis Till
became a most important rhetorical pawn in the high-stakes game of north
versus south, black versus white, NAACP versus White Citizens'
Councils". In 2016, reviewing the facts of the rapes and murder for which Louis Till had been executed, John Edgar Wideman
posited that, given the timing of the publicity about Emmett's father,
although the defendants had already confessed to taking Emmett from his
uncle's house, the post-murder trial grand jury refused to even indict
them for kidnapping.
Wideman also suggested that the conviction and punishment of Louis Till
may have been racially motivated, referring to his trial as a "kangaroo court-martial".
If the facts as stated in the Look magazine account of the
Till affair are correct, this remains: two adults, armed, in the dark,
kidnap a fourteen-year-old boy and take him away to frighten him.
Instead of which, the fourteen-year-old boy not only refuses to be
frightened, but unarmed, alone, in the dark, so frightens the two armed
adults that they must destroy him ... What are we Mississippians afraid
of?
Protected against double jeopardy, Bryant and Milam struck a deal with Look
magazine in 1956 to tell their story to journalist William Bradford
Huie for between $3,600 and $4,000. The interview took place in the law
firm of the attorneys who had defended Bryant and Milam. Huie did not
ask the questions; Bryant and Milam's own attorneys did. Neither
attorney had heard their clients' accounts of the murder before.
According to Huie, the older Milam was more articulate and sure of
himself than the younger Bryant. Milam admitted to shooting Till and
neither of them believed they were guilty or that they had done anything
wrong.
Reaction to Huie's interview with Bryant and Milam was explosive.
Their brazen admission that they had murdered Till caused prominent
civil rights leaders to push the federal government harder to
investigate the case. Till's murder contributed to congressional passage
of the Civil Rights Act of 1957: it authorized the U.S. Department of Justice to intervene in local law enforcement issues when individual civil rights were being compromised.
Huie's interview, in which Milam and Bryant said they had acted alone,
overshadowed inconsistencies in earlier versions of the stories. As a
consequence, details about others who had possibly been involved in
Till's abduction and murder, or the subsequent cover-up, were forgotten, according to historians David and Linda Beito.
Later events
Till's murder increased fears in the local black community that they
would be subjected to violence and the law would not protect them.
According to Deloris Melton Gresham, whose father was killed a few
months after Till, "At that time, they used to say that 'it's open
season on n*****s.' Kill'em and get away with it."
After Bryant and Milam admitted to Huie that they had killed Till, the support base of the two men eroded in Mississippi.
Many of their former friends and supporters, including those who had
contributed to their defense funds, cut them off. Blacks boycotted their
shops, which went bankrupt and closed, and banks refused to grant them
loans to plant crops.
After struggling to secure a loan and find someone who would rent to
him, Milam managed to secure 217 acres (88 ha) and a $4,000 loan to
plant cotton, but blacks refused to work for him. He was forced to pay
whites higher wages.
Eventually, Milam and Bryant relocated to Texas,
but their infamy followed them; they continued to generate animosity
from locals. In 1961, while in Texas, when Bryant recognized the license
plate of a Tallahatchie County resident, he called out a greeting and
identified himself. The resident, upon hearing the name, drove away
without speaking to Bryant. After several years, they returned to Mississippi.
Milam found work as a heavy equipment operator, but ill health
forced him into retirement. Over the years, Milam was tried for offenses
including assault and battery, writing bad checks, and using a stolen
credit card. He died of spinal cancer on December 30, 1980, at the age
of 61.
Bryant worked as a welder while in Texas, until increasing
blindness forced him to give up this employment. At some point, he and
Carolyn divorced; he remarried in 1980. He opened a store in Ruleville, Mississippi. He was convicted in 1984 and 1988 of food stamp fraud.
In a 1985 interview, he denied killing Till despite having admitted to
it in 1956, but said: "if Emmett Till hadn't got out of line, it
probably wouldn't have happened to him." Fearing economic boycotts and
retaliation, Bryant lived a private life and refused to be photographed
or reveal the exact location of his store, explaining: "this new
generation is different and I don't want to worry about a bullet some
dark night". He died of cancer on September 1, 1994, at the age of 63.
Till's mother married Gene Mobley, became a teacher, and changed
her surname to Till-Mobley. She continued to educate people about her
son's murder. In 1992, Till-Mobley had the opportunity to listen while
Bryant was interviewed about his involvement in Till's murder. With
Bryant unaware that Till-Mobley was listening, he asserted that Till had
ruined his life, expressed no remorse, and said: "Emmett Till is dead. I
don't know why he can't just stay dead."
In 1996, documentary filmmaker Keith Beauchamp, who was greatly moved by Till's open-casket photograph,
started background research for a feature film he planned to make about
Till's murder. He asserted that as many as 14 people may have been
involved, including Carolyn Bryant Donham (who by this point had
remarried). Mose Wright heard someone with "a lighter voice" affirm that
Till was the one in his front yard immediately before Bryant and Milam
drove away with the boy. Beauchamp spent the next nine years producing The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till, released in 2003.
That same year, PBS aired an installment of American Experience titled The Murder of Emmett Till. In 2005, CBS journalist Ed Bradley aired a 60 Minutes report investigating the Till murder, part of which showed him tracking down Carolyn Bryant at her home in Greenville, Mississippi.
A 1991 book written by Stephen J. Whitfield, another by
Christopher Metress in 2002, and Mamie Till-Mobley's memoirs the next
year all posed questions as to who was involved in the murder and
cover-up. Federal authorities in the 21st century worked to resolve the
questions about the identity of the body pulled from the Tallahatchie
River.
In 2004, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) announced that it
was reopening the case to determine whether anyone other than Milam and
Bryant was involved. David T. Beito, a professor at the University of Alabama, states that Till's murder "has this mythic quality like the Kennedy assassination".
The DOJ had undertaken to investigate numerous cold cases dating to the
civil rights movement, in the hope of finding new evidence in other
murders as well.
The body was exhumed, and the Cook Countycoroner
conducted an autopsy in 2005. Using DNA from Till's relatives, dental
comparisons to images taken of Till, and anthropological analysis, the
exhumed body was positively identified as that of Till. It had extensive
cranial damage, a broken left femur, and two broken wrists. Metallic
fragments found in the skull were consistent with bullets being fired
from a .45 caliber gun.
In February 2007, a Leflore County grand jury, composed primarily
of black jurors and empaneled by Joyce Chiles, a black prosecutor,
found no credible basis for Beauchamp's claim that 14 people took part
in Till's abduction and murder. Beauchamp was angry with the finding.
David Beito and Juan Williams, who worked on the reading materials for the Eyes on the Prize documentary, were critical of Beauchamp for trying to revise history and taking attention away from other cold cases.
The grand jury failed to find sufficient cause for charges against
Carolyn Bryant Donham. Neither the FBI nor the grand jury found any
credible evidence that Henry Lee Loggins, identified by Beauchamp as a
suspect who could be charged, had any role in the crime. Other than
Loggins, Beauchamp refused to name any of the people he alleged were
involved.
Historical markers
For 50 years nobody talked about Emmett Till. I think we just have to
be resilient and know there are folks out there that don't want to know
this history or who want to erase the history. We are just going to be
resilient in continuing to put them back up and be truthful in making
make sure that Emmett didn't die in vain.
—Patrick Weems, executive
director of the Emmett Till Memorial Commission, speaking in October
2019 at the unveiling of a bulletproof historical marker (the previous
three markers at the site having been shot up) near the Tallahatchie
River
The first highway marker remembering Emmett Till, erected in 2006,
was defaced with "KKK", and then completely covered with black paint.
In 2007, eight markers were erected at sites associated with
Till's lynching. The marker at the "River Spot" where Till's body was
found was torn down in 2008, presumably thrown in the river. A
replacement sign received more than 100 bullet holes over the next few
years. Another replacement was installed in June 2018, and in July it was vandalized by bullets. Three University of Mississippi
students were suspended from their fraternity after posing in front of
the bullet-riddled marker, with guns, and uploading the photo to Instagram.
As stated by reporter Jerry Mitchell, "It is not clear whether the
fraternity students shot the sign or are simply posing before it."
In 2019, a fourth sign was erected. It is made of steel, weighs 500
pounds (230 kg), is over 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick, and is said by its
manufacturer to be indestructible.
Claim that Carolyn Bryant recanted her testimony
In 2017, historian and author Timothy Tyson
released details of a 2008 interview with Carolyn Bryant, during which,
he alleged, she had disclosed that she had fabricated parts of her
testimony at the trial.
According to Tyson's account of the interview, Bryant retracted her
testimony that Till had grabbed her around her waist and uttered
obscenities, saying "that part's not true". The jury did not hear Bryant's testimony at the trial as the judge had
ruled it inadmissible, but the court spectators heard. The defense
wanted Bryant's testimony as evidence for a possible appeal in case of a
conviction.
In the 2007 interview, the 72-year-old Bryant said she could not
remember the rest of the events that occurred between her and Till in
the grocery store. Tyson also reported her as saying: "nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him".
Tyson said that Roy Bryant had been abusive toward Carolyn, and "it was
clear she was frightened of her husband". Tyson believed Bryant
embellished her testimony under coercive circumstances. Bryant described
Milam as "domineering and brutal and not a kind man". An editorial in The New York Times
said, regarding Bryant's admission that portions of her testimony were
false: "This admission is a reminder of how black lives were sacrificed
to white lies in places like Mississippi. It also raises anew the
question of why no one was brought to justice in the most notorious
racially motivated murder of the 20th century, despite an extensive
investigation by the F.B.I."
The New York Times quoted Wheeler Parker, a cousin of
Till's, who said: "I was hoping that one day she [Bryant] would admit
it, so it matters to me that she did, and it gives me some satisfaction.
It's important to people understanding how the word of a white person
against a black person was law, and a lot of black people lost their
lives because of it. It really speaks to history, it shows what black
people went through in those days."
However, the 'recanting' claim made by Tyson was not on his
tape-recording of the interview. "It is true that that part is not on
tape because I was setting up the tape recorder" Tyson said. The support
Tyson provided to back up his claim, was a handwritten note that he
said had been made at the time.
In a report to Congress in March 2018, the U.S. Department of
Justice stated that it was reopening the investigation into Till's death
due to new information. In December 2021, the DOJ announced that it had closed its investigation in the case.
Discovery of unserved arrest warrant
In June 2022, an unserved arrest warrant for Carolyn Bryant (now
known as Carolyn Bryant Donham), dated August 29, 1955, and signed by
the Leflore County Clerk, was discovered in a courthouse basement by
members of the Emmett Till Legacy Foundation. Following the discovery,
Till's family called for Donham's arrest. However, the district attorney declined to charge Donham, and said that there was no new evidence to reopen the case.
In August 2022, a grand jury concluded there was insufficient evidence to indict Donham.
In December 2022 Bowling Green, Kentucky,
cancelled its annual Christmas parade scheduled for December 3, 2022,
due to threats of violence against groups who planned to protest outside
Donham's home, an apartment at Shive Lane, Bowling Green. The protests
took place peacefully.
The memoir had been prepared by Donham's daughter-in-law Marsha
Bryant, who had shared the material with Timothy Tyson, with the
understanding that Tyson would edit the memoir. However, Tyson said
there had been no such agreement, and placed the memoir at the Southern
Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill library archives, with access restricted for twenty years or until Donham's death.
Bryant Donham died on April 25, 2023, at the age of 88.
Influence on civil rights
Till's case became emblematic of the injustices suffered by blacks in the South. Myrlie Evers, the widow of Medgar Evers, said years later that the case "struck a spark of indignation that... touched off a world-wide clamor and cast the glare of a world spotlight on Mississippi's racism."
Mamie Till Bradley toured the country in one of the NAACP's most successful fundraising campaigns ever. Journalist Louis Lomax
acknowledges Till's death to be the start of what he terms the "Negro
revolt", and scholar Clenora Hudson-Weems characterizes Till as a
"sacrificial lamb" for civil rights. NAACP operative Amzie Moore
considers Till the start of the Civil Rights Movement, at the very least
in Mississippi.
The 1987 Emmy award-winning documentary series Eyes on the Prize, begins with the murder of Emmett Till. Accompanying written materials for the series, Eyes on the Prize and Voices of Freedom
(for the second time period), exhaustively explore the major figures
and events of the Civil Rights Movement. Stephen Whitaker states that,
as a result of the attention Till's death and the trial received,
Mississippi became in the eyes of
the nation the epitome of racism and the citadel of white supremacy.
From this time on, the slightest racial incident anywhere in the state
was spotlighted and magnified. To the Negro race throughout the South
and to some extent in other parts of the country, this verdict indicated
an end to the system of noblesse oblige. The faith in the white power
structure waned rapidly. Negro faith in legalism declined, and the
revolt officially began on December 1, 1955, with the Montgomery,
Alabama, bus boycott.
I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back.
In Montgomery a few months after the murder, Rosa Parks attended a rally for Till, led by Martin Luther King Jr.
Soon after, she refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus to a
white passenger. The incident sparked a year-long well-organized
grassroots boycott of the public bus system. The boycott was designed to
force the city to change its segregation policies. Parks later said
when she did not get up and move to the rear of the bus, "I thought of
Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back."
According to author Clayborne Carson, Till's death and the widespread coverage of the students integrating Little Rock Central High School
in 1957 were especially profound for younger blacks: "It was out of
this festering discontent and an awareness of earlier isolated protests
that the sit-ins of the 1960s were born." After seeing pictures of Till's mutilated body, in Louisville, Kentucky, young Cassius Clay (later famed boxer Muhammad Ali) and a friend took out their frustration by vandalizing a local railyard, causing a locomotive engine to derail.
In 1963, Sunflower County resident and sharecropper Fannie Lou Hamer was jailed and beaten for attempting to register to vote. The next year, she led a massive voter registration drive
in the Delta region, and volunteers worked on Freedom Summer throughout
the state. Before 1954, 265 black people were registered to vote in
three Delta counties, where they were a majority of the population. At
this time, blacks made up 41% of the total state population. The summer
Emmett Till was killed, the number of registered voters in those three
counties dropped to 90. By the end of 1955, fourteen Mississippi
counties had no registered black voters.
The Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964 registered 63,000 black voters
in a simplified process administered by the project; they formed their
own political party because they were closed out of the Democratic
Regulars in Mississippi.
In 1984, a section of 71st Street in Chicago was named "Emmett Till
Road" and in 2005, the 71st street bridge was named in his honor.
In 1989, Till was included among the forty names of people who had died in the Civil Rights Movement; they are listed as martyrs on the granite sculpture of the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama.
A demonstration for Till was held in 2000 in Selma, Alabama, on the 35th anniversary of the march over the Edmund Pettus Bridge.
His mother Mamie Till-Mobley attended and later wrote in her memoirs:
"I realized that Emmett had achieved the significant impact in death
that he had been denied in life. Even so, I had never wanted Emmett to
be a martyr. I only wanted him to be a good son. Although I realized all
the great things that had been accomplished largely because of the
sacrifices made by so many people, I found myself wishing that somehow
we could have done it another way."
In 2005, James McCosh Elementary School in Chicago, where Till had
been a student, was renamed the "Emmett Louis Till Math And Science
Academy".
In 2006, the "Emmett Till Memorial Highway" was dedicated between Greenwood and Tutwiler, Mississippi;
this was the route his body was taken to the train station, to be
returned to his mother for burial in Chicago. It intersects with the H.
C. "Clarence" Strider Memorial Highway.
In 2006, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established by the Tallahatchie Board of Supervisors.
In 2007, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission issued a formal apology
to Till's family at an event attended by 400 people. It reads:
We the citizens of Tallahatchie County recognize that the
Emmett Till case was a terrible miscarriage of justice. We state
candidly and with deep regret the failure to effectively pursue justice.
We wish to say to the family of Emmett Till that we are profoundly
sorry for what was done in this community to your loved one.
The same year, Georgia congressman John Lewis sponsored a bill to provide a plan for investigating and prosecuting unsolved (cold case) Civil Rights-era murders. The Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act was signed into law in 2008.
In 2008, a memorial plaque that was erected in Tallahatchie County,
next to the Tallahatchie River at Graball Landing where Till's body was
retrieved, was stolen and never recovered. The plaque was a "frequent target for racist vandalism". The location is in a remote area and down a gravel road, meaning that vandals had to go out of the way to get to it. Its replacement was soon also shot up, as was the replacement sign after that. In October 2019, a new bulletproof sign costing over $10,000, and weighing over 500 pounds (230 kg) was installed.In November 2019, a group of white supremacists was caught making a
propaganda video in front of the sign raising new concerns that more
vandalism was being planned. The group was carrying a white flag with a
black St. Andrews cross, a flag commonly used by a racist Neo-Confederate group called the League of the South. The group quickly scattered when they set off alarms designed to protect the sign.
The Tallahatchie County Courthouse
in Sumner, site of the 1955 trial of Till's killers, was restored and
re-opened in 2012. The Emmett Till Interpretive Center opened across the
street and is also serving as a community center.
The Emmett Till Memorial Project is an associated website and
smartphone app to commemorate Till's death and his life. It identifies
51 sites in the Mississippi Delta associated with him. On August 29, 2015, the Center held a 60th anniversary event.
In 2020, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ, the site of Till's funeral, as one of America's most endangered historic places.
In October 2022, a bronze statue commemorating Till was unveiled in Greenwood, Mississippi's Rail Spike Park, partially funded by the State of Mississippi.
Casket
The story of Emmett Till is one of the most important of the last
half of the 20th century. And an important element was the casket ... It
is an object that allows us to tell the story, to feel the pain and
understand loss. I want people to feel like I did. I want people to feel
the complexity of emotions.
During a renewed investigation of the crime in 2005, the Department
of Justice exhumed Till's remains to conduct an autopsy and DNA analysis
which confirmed the identification of his body. As required by state
reburial law, Till was reinterred in a new casket later that year. In 2009, his original glass-topped casket was found, rusting in a dilapidated storage shed at the cemetery.
The casket was discolored and the interior fabric torn. It bore
evidence that animals had been living in it, although its glass top was
still intact. The Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C. acquired the casket a month later.
Representation in culture
Langston Hughes dedicated an untitled poem (eventually to be known as "Mississippi—1955") to Till in his October 1, 1955, column in The Chicago Defender. It was reprinted across the country and continued to be republished with various changes from different writers. William Faulkner,
a prominent white Mississippi native who often focused on racial
issues, wrote two essays on Till: one before the trial in which he
pleaded for American unity and one after, a piece titled "On Fear" that
was published in Harper's in 1956. In it he questioned why the tenets of segregation were based on irrational reasoning.
Till's murder was the focus of a 1957 television episode for the U.S. Steel Hour titled "Noon on Doomsday" written by Rod Serling.
He was fascinated by how quickly Mississippi whites supported Bryant
and Milam. Although the script was rewritten to avoid mention of Till,
and did not say that the murder victim was black, White Citizens'
Councils vowed to boycott U.S. Steel. The eventual episode bore little resemblance to the Till case.
Gwendolyn Brooks wrote a poem titled "A Bronzeville Mother Loiters in Mississippi. Meanwhile, A Mississippi Mother Burns Bacon" (1960). The same year Harper Lee published To Kill a Mockingbird,
in which a white attorney is committed to defending a black man named
Tom Robinson, accused of raping a white woman. Lee, whose novel had a
profound effect on civil rights, never commented on why she wrote about
Robinson. Literature professor Patrick Chura noted several similarities
between Till's case and that of Robinson. Writer James Baldwin loosely based his 1964 drama Blues for Mister Charlie on the Till case. He later divulged that Till's murder had been bothering him for several years.
Anne Moody mentioned the Till case in her autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, in which she states she first learned to hate during the fall of 1955. Audre Lorde's
poem "Afterimages" (1981) focuses on the perspective of a black woman
thinking of Carolyn Bryant 24 years after the murder and trial. Bebe Moore Campbell's 1992 novel Your Blues Ain't Like Mine centers on the events of Till's death. Toni Morrison mentions Till's death in the novel Song of Solomon (1977) and later wrote the play Dreaming Emmett (1986), which follows Till's life and the aftermath of his death.
The play is a feminist look at the roles of men and women in black
society, which she was inspired to write while considering "time through
the eyes of one person who could come back to life and seek vengeance". Emmylou Harris includes a song called "My Name is Emmett Till" on her 2011 album, Hard Bargain. According to scholar Christopher Metress, Till is often reconfigured in literature as a specter that haunts the white people of Mississippi, causing them to question their involvement in evil, or silence about injustice. The 2002 book Mississippi Trials, 1955 is a fictionalized account of Till's death. The 2015 song by Janelle Monáe, "Hell You Talmbout",
invokes the names of African-American people—including Emmett Till—who
died as a result of encounters with law enforcement or racial violence.
In 2016 artist Dana Schutz painted Open Casket, a work based on photographs of Till in his coffin as well as on an account by Till's mother of seeing him after his death.