In philosophy of mind and cognitive science, folk psychology, or commonsense psychology, is a human capacity to explain and predict the behavior and mental state of other people.
Processes and items encountered in daily life such as pain, pleasure,
excitement, and anxiety use common linguistic terms as opposed to
technical or scientific jargon.
Folk psychology allows for an insight into social interactions and
communication, thus stretching the importance of connection and how it
is experienced.
Traditionally, the study of folk psychology has focused on how
everyday people—those without formal training in the various academic
fields of science—go about attributing mental states. This domain has
primarily been centered on intentional states reflective of an
individual's beliefs and desires; each described in terms of everyday
language and concepts such as "beliefs", "desires", "fear", and "hope".
Belief and desire have been the main idea of folk psychology as
both suggest the mental states we partake in. Belief comes from the
mindset of how we take the world to be while desire comes from how we
want the world to be. From both of these mindsets, our intensity of
predicting others mental states can have different results.
Key folk concepts
Intentionality
When perceiving, explaining, or criticizing human behaviour, people distinguish between intentional and unintentional actions.
An evaluation of an action as stemming from purposeful action or
accidental circumstances is one of the key determinants in social
interaction. Others are the environmental conditions or pre-cognitive
matters. For example, a critical remark that is judged to be intentional
on the part of the receiver of the message can be viewed as a hurtful
insult. Conversely, if considered unintentional, the same remark may be
dismissed and forgiven.
The folk concept of intentionality is used in the legal system to distinguish between intentional and unintentional behavior.
When looking at an individual, there is an unconventional way of
explaining behavior in law. By looking at behaviors and expressions,
folk psychology is used to predict behaviors that have been acted out in
the past.
The importance of this concept transcends almost all aspects of
everyday life: with empirical studies in social and developmental
psychology exploring perceived intentionality's role as a mediator for
aggression, relationship conflict, judgements of responsibility blame or
punishment.
Recent empirical literature on folk psychology has shown that
people's theories regarding intentional actions involve four distinct
factors: beliefs, desires, causal histories, and enabling factors. Here, beliefs and desires represent the central variables responsible for the folk theories of intention.
Desires embody outcomes that an individual seeks, including those that are impossible to achieve.
The key difference between desires and intentions is that desires can
be purely hypothetical, whereas intentions specify an outcome that the
individual is actually trying to bring to fruition.
In terms of beliefs, there are several types that are relevant to
intentions—outcome beliefs and ability beliefs. Outcome beliefs are
beliefs as to whether a given action will fulfill an intention, as in
"purchasing a new watch will impress my friends".
Ability consists of an actor's conviction regarding his or her ability
to perform an action, as in "I really can afford the new watch". In
light of this, Heider postulated that ability beliefs could be
attributed with causing individuals to form goals that would not
otherwise have been entertained.
Comprehension and prediction
Context model
Folk
psychology is crucial to evaluating and ultimately understanding novel
concepts and items. Developed by Medin, Altom, and Murphy, the Context
Model
hypothesizes that as a result of mental models in the form of prototype
and exemplar representations, individuals are able to more accurately
represent and comprehend the environment around them.
According to the model, the overall similarity between the
prototype and a given instance of a category is evaluated based on
multiple dimensions (e.g., shape, size, color). A multiplicative
function modeled after this phenomenon was created.
Here, represents the similarity between the prototype and the th exemplar, is the subscript for the dimensions , and is the similarity between the prototype and the th exemplar on the th dimension.
Prediction model
There
are other prediction models when it comes to the different cognitive
thoughts an individual might have when trying to predict human behavior
or human mental states. From Lewis, one platitude includes individuals
casually expressing stimuli and behavior. The other platitude includes
assuming a type of mental state another has.
Consequence of prediction model
The
prediction model has received some cautions as the idea of folk
psychology has been apart of Lewis's ideas. Common statements about
mental health have been considered in Lewis's prediction model,
therefore there was an assumed lack of quality scientific research.
Explanation
Conversational Model
Given that folk psychology represents causal knowledge associated with the mind's categorization processes, it follows that folk psychology is actively employed in aiding the explanation of everyday actions. Denis Hilton's
(1990) Conversational Model was created with this causal explanation in
mind, with the model having the ability to generate specific
predictions. Hilton coined his model the 'conversational' model because
he argued that as a social activity, unlike prediction, explanation
requires an audience: to whom the individual explains the event or
action.
According to the model, causal explanations follow two particular
conversational maxims from Grice's (1975) models of conversation—the
manner maxim and the quantity maxim. Grice indicated that the content of
a conversation should be relevant, informative, and fitting of the
audience's gap in knowledge.
Cognizant of this, the Conversational Model indicates that the
explainer, upon evaluation of his audience, will modify his explanation
to cater their needs. In essence, demonstrating the inherent need for
mental comparison and in subsequent modification of behaviour in
everyday explanations.
Application and functioning
Belief–desire model
The belief–desire model of psychology illustrates one method in which
folk psychology is utilized in everyday life. According to this model,
people perform an action if they want an outcome and believe that it can
be obtained by performing the action. However, beliefs and desires are
not responsible for immediate action; intention acts as a mediator of
belief/desire and action.
In other words, consider a person who wants to achieve a goal, "G", and
believes action "A" will aid in attaining "G"; this leads to an
intention to perform "A", which is then carried out to produce action
"A".
Schank & Abelson (1977) described this inclusion of typical
beliefs, desires, and intentions underlying an action as akin to a
"script" whereby an individual is merely following an unconscious
framework that leads to the ultimate decision of whether an action will
be performed.
Similarly, Barsalou (1985) described the category of the mind as an
"ideal" whereby if a desire, a belief, and an intention were all
present, they would "rationally" lead to a given action. They coined
this phenomenon the "ideal of rational action".
Goal-intentional action model
Existing literature has widely corroborated the fact that social behavior is greatly affected by the causes to which people attribute actions.
In particular, it has been shown that an individual's interpretation of
the causes of behavior reflects their pre-existing beliefs regarding
the actor's mental state and motivation behind his or her actions.
It follows that they draw on the assumed intentions of actors to guide
their own responses to punish or reward the actor. This concept is
extended to cover instances in which behavioral evidence is lacking.
Under these circumstances, it has been shown that the individual will
again draw on assumed intentions in order to predict the actions of the
third party.
Although the two components are often used interchangeably in
common parlance, there is an important distinction between the goals and
intentions. This discrepancy lies in the fact that individuals with an
intention to perform an action also foster the belief that it will be
achieved, whereas the same person with a goal may not necessarily
believe that the action is able to be performed in spite of having a
strong desire to do so.
Predicting goals and actions, much like the Belief-Desire Model,
involves moderating variables that determine whether an action will be
performed. In the Goal-Intentional Action Model, the predictors of goals
and actions are: the actors' beliefs about his or her abilities and
their actual possession of preconditions required to carry out the
action.
Additionally, preconditions consist of the various conditions necessary
in order for realization of intentions. This includes abilities and
skills in addition to environmental variables that may come into play.
Schank & Abelson raises the example of going to a restaurant, where
the preconditions include the ability to afford the bill and get to the
correct venue, in addition to the fact that the restaurant must be open
for business.
Traditionally, people prefer to allude to preconditions to explain
actions that have a high probability of being unattainable, whereas
goals tend to be described as a wide range of common actions.
Model of everyday inferences
Models
of everyday inferences capture folk psychology of human informal
reasoning. Many models of this nature have been developed. They express
and refine our folk psychological ways of understanding of how one makes
inferences.
For example, one model
describes human everyday reasoning as combinations of simple, direct
rules and similarity-based processes. From the interaction of these
simple mechanisms, seemingly complex patterns of reasoning emerge. The
model has been used to account for a variety of reasoning data.
Folk psychology remains the subject of much contention in academic
circles with respect to its scope, method and the significance of its
contributions to the scientific community.
A large part of this criticism stems from the prevailing impression
that folk psychology is a primitive practice reserved for the uneducated
and non-academics in discussing their everyday lives.
There is significant debate over whether folk psychology is
useful for academic purposes; specifically, whether it can be relevant
with regard to the scientific psychology domain. It has been argued that
a mechanism used for laypeople's understanding, predicting, and
explaining each other's actions is inapplicable with regards to the
requirements of the scientific method.
Conversely, opponents have called for patience, seeing the mechanism
employed by laypeople for understanding each other's actions as
important in their formation of bases for future action when
encountering similar situations. Malle & Knobe hailed this
systematization of people's everyday understanding of the mind as an
inevitable progression towards a more comprehensive field of psychology. Medin et al. provide another advantage of conceptualizing folk psychology with their Mixture Model of Categorization: it is advantageous as it helps predict action.
Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially) of humanindividuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli
throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental
factors that affect an individual. Behavior is also driven, in part, by thoughts and feelings, which provide insight into individual psyche, revealing such things as attitudes and values. Human behavior is shaped by psychological traits, as personality types vary from person to person, producing different actions and behavior.
Social behavior accounts for actions directed at others. It is concerned with the considerable influence of social interaction and culture, as well as ethics, interpersonal relationships, politics, and conflict. Some behaviors are common while others are unusual. The acceptability of behavior depends upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Social norms also condition behavior, whereby humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors that are deemed acceptable or unacceptable depending on the given society or culture.
Cognitive behavior accounts for actions of obtaining and using knowledge.
It is concerned with how information is learned and passed on, as well
as creative application of knowledge and personal beliefs such as religion.
Physiological behavior accounts for actions to maintain the body. It is
concerned with basic bodily functions as well as measures taken to
maintain health. Economic behavior accounts for actions regarding the
development, organization, and use of materials as well as other forms
of work.
Ecological behavior accounts for actions involving the ecosystem. It is
concerned with how humans interact with other organisms and how the
environment shapes human behavior.
Human behavior is studied by the social sciences, which include psychology, sociology, ethology, and their various branches and schools of thought. There are many different facets of human behavior, and no one definition or field study encompasses it in its entirety. The nature versus nurture
debate is one of the fundamental divisions in the study of human
behavior; this debate considers whether behavior is predominantly
affected by genetic or environmental factors. The study of human behavior sometimes receives public attention due to its intersection with cultural issues, including crime, sexuality, and social inequality.
Human behavior may be evaluated through questionnaires, interviews, and experimental methods. Animal testing may also be used to test behaviors that can then be compared to human behavior. Twin studies are a common method by which human behavior is studied. Twins with identical genomes
can be compared to isolate genetic and environmental factors in
behavior. Lifestyle, susceptibility to disease, and unhealthy behaviors
have been identified to have both genetic and environmental indicators
through twin studies.
Human social behavior is the behavior that considers other humans,
including communication and cooperation. It is highly complex and
structured, based on advanced theory of mind that allows humans to attribute thoughts and actions to one another. Through social behavior, humans have developed society and culture distinct from other animals.
Human social behavior is governed by a combination of biological
factors that affect all humans and cultural factors that change
depending on upbringing and societal norms. Human communication is based heavily on language, typically through speech or writing. Nonverbal communication and paralanguage can modify the meaning of communications by demonstrating ideas and intent through physical and vocal behaviors.
Social norms
Human behavior in a society is governed by social norms.
Social norms are unwritten expectations that members of society have
for one another. These norms are ingrained in the particular culture
that they emerge from, and humans often follow them unconsciously or
without deliberation. These norms affect every aspect of life in human
society, including decorum, social responsibility, property rights, contractual agreement, morality, justice, and meaning.
Many norms facilitate coordination between members of society and prove
mutually beneficial, such as norms regarding communication and
agreements. Norms are enforced by social pressure, and individuals that violate social norms risk social exclusion.
Systems of ethics
are used to guide human behavior to determine what is moral. Humans are
distinct from other animals in the use of ethical systems to determine
behavior. Ethical behavior is human behavior that takes into
consideration how actions will affect others and whether behaviors will
be optimal for others. What constitutes ethical behavior is determined
by the individual value judgments
of the person and the collective social norms regarding right and
wrong. Value judgments are intrinsic to people of all cultures, though
the specific systems used to evaluate them may vary. These systems may
be derived from divine law, natural law, civil authority, reason, or a combination of these and other principles. Altruism
is an associated behavior in which humans consider the welfare of
others equally or preferentially to their own. While other animals
engage in biological altruism, ethical altruism is unique to humans.
Deviance
is behavior that violates social norms. As social norms vary between
individuals and cultures, the nature and severity of a deviant act is
subjective. What is considered deviant by a society may also change over
time as new social norms are developed. Deviance is punished by other
individuals through social stigma, censure, or violence. Many deviant actions are recognized as crimes and punished through a system of criminal justice.
Deviant actions may be punished to prevent harm to others, to maintain a
particular worldview and way of life, or to enforce principles of
morality and decency.
Cultures also attribute positive or negative value to certain physical
traits, causing individuals that do not have desirable traits to be seen
as deviant.
Interpersonal relationships can be evaluated by the specific choices
and emotions between two individuals, or they can be evaluated by the
broader societal context of how such a relationship is expected to
function. Relationships are developed through communication, which
creates intimacy, expresses emotions, and develops identity. An individual's interpersonal relationships form a social group
in which individuals all communicate and socialize with one another,
and these social groups are connected by additional relationships. Human
social behavior is affected not only by individual relationships, but
also by how behaviors in one relationship may affect others. Individuals that actively seek out social interactions are extraverts, and those that do not are introverts.
Romantic love is a significant interpersonal attraction toward another. Its nature varies by culture, but it is often contingent on gender, occurring in conjunction with sexual attraction and being either heterosexual or homosexual.
It takes different forms and is associated with many individual
emotions. Many cultures place a higher emphasis on romantic love than
other forms of interpersonal attraction. Marriage is a union between two people, though whether it is associated with romantic love is dependent on the culture. Individuals that are closely related by consanguinity form a family. There are many variations on family structures that may include parents and children as well as stepchildren or extended relatives. Family units with children emphasize parenting, in which parents engage in a high level of parental investment to protect and instruct children as they develop over a period of time longer than that of most other mammals.
When humans make decisions as a group, they engage in politics. Humans have evolved to engage in behaviors of self-interest,
but this also includes behaviors that facilitate cooperation rather
than conflict in collective settings. Individuals will often form in-group and out-group
perceptions, through which individuals cooperate with the in-group and
compete with the out-group. This causes behaviors such as unconsciously
conforming, passively obeying authority, taking pleasure in the
misfortune of opponents, initiating hostility toward out-group members,
artificially creating out-groups when none exist, and punishing those
that do not comply with the standards of the in-group. These behaviors
lead to the creation of political systems that enforce in-group standards and norms.
When humans oppose one another, it creates conflict. It may occur when the involved parties have a disagreement of opinion, when one party obstructs the goals of another, or when parties experience negative emotions such as anger toward one another. Conflicts purely of disagreement are often resolved through communication or negotiation, but incorporation of emotional or obstructive aspects can escalate conflict. Interpersonal conflict is that between specific individuals or groups of individuals. Social conflict
is that between different social groups or demographics. This form of
conflict often takes place when groups in society are marginalized, do
not have the resources they desire, wish to instigate social change, or
wish to resist social change. Significant social conflict can cause civil disorder. International conflict is that between nations or governments. It may be solved through diplomacy or war.
Human cognition is distinct from that of other animals. This is
derived from biological traits of human cognition, but also from shared knowledge
and development passed down culturally. Humans are able to learn from
one another due to advanced theory of mind that allows knowledge to be
obtained through education. The use of language allows humans to directly pass knowledge to one another. The human brain has neuroplasticity, allowing it to modify its features in response to new experiences. This facilitates learning in humans and leads to behaviors of practice, allowing the development of new skills in individual humans. Behavior carried out over time can be ingrained as a habit, where humans will continue to regularly engage in the behavior without consciously deciding to do so.
Humans engage in reason to make inferences
with a limited amount of information. Most human reasoning is done
automatically without conscious effort on the part of the individual.
Reasoning is carried out by making generalizations from past experiences
and applying them to new circumstances. Learned knowledge is acquired
to make more accurate inferences about the subject. Deductive reasoning infers conclusions that are true based on logical premises, while inductive reasoning infers what conclusions are likely to be true based on context.
Emotion is a cognitive experience innate to humans. Basic emotions such as joy, distress, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust
are common to all cultures, though social norms regarding the
expression of emotion may vary. Other emotions come from higher
cognition, such as love, guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, envy, and jealousy. These emotions develop over time rather than instantly and are more strongly influenced by cultural factors. Emotions are influenced by sensory information, such as color and music, and moods of happiness and sadness.
Humans typically maintain a standard level of happiness or sadness
determined by health and social relationships, though positive and
negative events have short-term influences on mood. Humans often seek to
improve the moods of one another through consolation, entertainment, and venting. Humans can also self-regulate mood through exercise and meditation.
Creativity is the use of previous ideas or resources to produce something original. It allows for innovation, adaptation to change, learning new information, and novel problem solving. Expression of creativity also supports quality of life. Creativity includes personal creativity, in which a person presents new ideas authentically, but it can also be expanded to social creativity, in which a community or society produces and recognizes ideas collectively. Creativity is applied in typical human life to solve problems as they occur. It also leads humans to carry out art and science.
Individuals engaging in advanced creative work typically have
specialized knowledge in that field, and humans draw on this knowledge
to develop novel ideas. In art, creativity is used to develop new
artistic works, such as visual art or music. In science, those with knowledge in a particular scientific field can use trial and error to develop theories that more accurately explain phenomena.
Religious behavior
is a set of traditions that are followed based on the teachings of a
religious belief system. The nature of religious behavior varies
depending on the specific religious traditions. Most religious
traditions involve variations of telling myths, practicing rituals, making certain things taboo, adopting symbolism, determining morality, experiencing altered states of consciousness, and believing in supernatural beings. Religious behavior is often demanding and has high time, energy, and material costs, and it conflicts with rational choice
models of human behavior, though it does provide community-related
benefits. Anthropologists offer competing theories as to why humans
adopted religious behavior.
Religious behavior is heavily influenced by social factors, and group
involvement is significant in the development of an individual's
religious behavior. Social structures such as religious organizations
or family units allow the sharing and coordination of religious
behavior. These social connections reinforce the cognitive behaviors
associated with religion, encouraging orthodoxy and commitment. According to a Pew Research Center report, 54% of adults around the world state that religion is very important in their lives as of 2018.
Humans undergo many behaviors common to animals to support the processes of the human body. Humans eat food to obtain nutrition. These foods may be chosen for their nutritional value, but they may also be eaten for pleasure. Eating often follows a food preparation process to make it more enjoyable. Humans dispose of excess food through waste. Excrement is often treated as taboo, particularly in developed and urban communities where sanitation is more widely available and excrement has no value as fertilizer. Humans also regularly engage in sleep, based on homeostatic and circadian factors. The circadian rhythm
causes humans to require sleep at a regular pattern and is typically
calibrated to the day-night cycle and sleep-wake habits. Homeostasis is
also be maintained, causing longer sleep longer after periods of sleep deprivation. The human sleep cycle takes place over 90 minutes, and it repeats 3–5 times during normal sleep.
There are also unique behaviors that humans undergo to maintain physical health. Humans have developed medicine
to prevent and treat illnesses. In industrialized nations, eating
habits that favor better nutrition, hygienic behaviors that promote sanitation, medical treatment to eradicate diseases, and the use of birth control significantly improve human health. Humans can also engage in exercise beyond that required for survival to maintain health. Humans engage in hygiene to limit exposure to dirt and pathogens.
Some of these behaviors are adaptive while others are learned. Basic
behaviors of disgust evolved as an adaptation to prevent contact with
sources of pathogens, resulting in a biological aversion to feces, body fluids, rotten food, and animals that are commonly disease vectors. Personal grooming, disposal of human corpses, use of sewerage, and use of cleaning agents are hygienic behaviors common to most human societies.
Humans reproduce sexually, engaging in sexual intercourse for both reproduction and sexual pleasure. Human reproduction is closely associated with human sexuality and an instinctive desire to procreate, though humans are unique in that they intentionally control the number of offspring that they produce. Humans engage in a large variety of reproductive behaviors relative to other animals, with various mating structures that include forms of monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry. How humans engage in mating behavior is heavily influenced by cultural norms and customs. Unlike most mammals, human women ovulate spontaneously rather than seasonally, with a menstrual cycle that typically lasts 25–35 days.
Humans are bipedal and move by walking. Human walking corresponds to the bipedal gait cycle, which involves alternating heel contact and toe off with the ground and slight elevation and rotation of the pelvis. Balance while walking learned during the first 7–9 years of life, and individual humans develop unique gaits while learning to displace weight, adjust center of mass, and correspond neural control with movement. Humans can achieve higher speed by running. The endurance running hypothesis
proposes that humans can outpace most other animals over long distances
through running, though human running causes a higher rate of energy
exertion. The human body self-regulates through perspiration during periods of exertion, allowing humans more endurance than other animals. The human hand is prehensile and capable of grasping objects and applying force with control over the hand's dexterity and grip strength. This allows the use of complex tools by humans.
Humans engage in predictable behaviors when considering economic decisions, and these behaviors may or may not be rational. Like all animals, humans make basic decisions through cost–benefit analysis and the risk–return spectrum, though humans are able to contemplate these decisions more thoroughly. Human economic decision making is often reference dependent, in which options are weighed in reference to the status quo rather than absolute gains and losses. Humans are also loss averse, fearing loss rather than seeking gain. Advanced economic behavior developed in humans after the Neolithic Revolution and the development of agriculture. These developments led to a sustainable supply of resources that allowed specialization in more complex societies.
The nature of human work is defined by the complexity of society. The simplest societies are tribes that work primarily for sustenance as hunter-gatherers.
In this sense, work is not a distinct activity but a constant that
makes up all parts of life, as all members of the society must work
consistently to stay alive. More advanced societies developed after the
Neolithic Revolution, emphasizing work in agricultural and pastoral
settings. In these societies, production is increased, ending the need
for constant work and allowing some individuals to specialize and work
in areas outside of food-production. This also created non-laborious
work, as increasing occupational complexity required some individuals to
specialize in technical knowledge and administration.
Laborious work in these societies has variously been carried out by
slaves, serfs, peasants, and guild craftsmen. The nature of work changed
significantly during the Industrial Revolution in which the factory system
was developed for use by industrializing nations. In addition to
further increasing general quality of life, this development changed the
dynamic of work. Under the factory system, workers increasingly
collaborate with others, employers serve as authority figures during
work hours, and forced labor is largely eradicated. Further changes
occur in post-industrial societies where technological advance makes industries obsolete, replacing them with mass production and service industries.
Humans approach work differently based on both physical and
personal attributes, and some work with more effectiveness and
commitment than others. Some find work to contribute to personal
fulfillment, while others work only out of necessity. Work can also serve as an identity, with individuals identifying themselves based on their occupation. Work motivation is complex, both contributing to and subtracting from various human needs. The primary motivation for work is for material gain, which takes the form of money
in modern societies. It may also serve to create self-esteem and
personal worth, provide activity, gain respect, and express creativity. Modern work is typically categorized as laborious or blue-collar work and non-laborious or white-collar work.
Leisure is activity or lack of activity that takes place outside of work. It provides relaxation, entertainment, and improved quality of life for individuals. Engaging in leisure can be beneficial for physical and mental health. It may be used to seek temporary relief from psychological stress, to produce positive emotions, or to facilitate social interaction. Leisure can also facilitate health risks and negative emotions caused by boredom, substance abuse, or high-risk behavior.
Leisure may be defined as serious or casual. Serious leisure behaviors involve non-professional pursuit of arts and sciences, the development of hobbies, or career volunteering in an area of expertise.
Casual leisure behaviors provide short-term gratification, but they do
not provide long-term gratification or personal identity. These include play, relaxation, casual social interaction, volunteering, passive entertainment, active entertainment, and sensory stimulation. Passive entertainment is typically derived from mass media, which may include written works or digital media.
Active entertainment involves games in which individuals participate.
Sensory stimulation is immediate gratification from behaviors such as
eating or sexual intercourse.
Humans operate as consumers that obtain and use goods. All production is ultimately designed for consumption, and consumers adapt their behavior based on the availability of production. Mass consumption began during the Industrial Revolution, caused by the development of new technologies that allowed for increased production.
Many factors affect a consumer's decision to purchase goods through
trade. They may consider the nature of the product, its associated cost,
the convenience of purchase, and the nature of advertising around the product. Cultural factors may influence this decision, as different cultures value different things, and subcultures within these cultures may have distinct priorities as buyers. Social class,
including wealth, education, and occupation may affect one's purchasing
behavior. A consumer's interpersonal relationships and reference groups may also influence purchasing behavior.
Like all living things, humans live in ecosystems
and interact with other organisms. Human behavior is affected by the
environment in which a human lives, and environments are affected by
human habitation. Humans have also developed man-made ecosystems such as
urban areas and agricultural land. Geography and landscape ecology determine how humans are distributed within an ecosystem, both naturally and through planned urban morphology.
Humans exercise control over the animals that live within their environment. Domesticated animals are trained and cared for by humans. Humans can develop social and emotional bonds with animals in their care. Pets are kept for companionship within human homes, including dogs and cats that have been bred for domestication over many centuries. Livestock animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, are kept on agricultural land to produce animal products. Domesticated animals are also kept in laboratories for animal testing. Non-domesticated animals are sometimes kept in nature reserves and zoos for tourism and conservation.
Causes and factors
Human behavior is influenced by biological and cultural elements. The structure and agency debate considers whether human behavior is predominantly led by individual human impulses or by external structural forces. Behavioral genetics
considers how human behavior is affected by inherited traits. Though
genes do not guarantee certain behaviors, certain traits can be
inherited that make individuals more likely to engage in certain
behaviors or express certain personalities. An individual's environment can also affect behavior, often in conjunction with genetic factors. An individual's personality and attitudes affect how behaviors are expressed, formed in conjunction by genetic and environmental factors.
Infants are limited in their ability to interpret their surroundings shortly after birth. Object permanence and understanding of motion typically develop within the first six months of an infant's life, though the specific cognitive processes are not understood. The ability to mentally categorize different concepts and objects that they perceive also develops within the first year.
Infants are quickly able to discern their body from their surroundings
and often take interest in their own limbs or actions they cause by two
months of age. Infants practice imitation of other individuals to engage socially and learn new behaviors. In young infants, this involves imitating facial expressions, and imitation of tool use takes place within the first year. Communication develops over the first year, and infants begin using gestures
to communicate intention around nine to ten months of age. Verbal
communication develops more gradually, taking form during the second
year of age.
Children develop fine motor skills shortly after infancy, in the range of three to six years of age, allowing them to engage in behaviors using the hands and eye–hand coordination and perform basic activities of self sufficiency.
Children begin expressing more complex emotions in the three- to
six-year-old range, including humor, empathy, and altruism, as well
engaging in creativity and inquiry. Aggressive
behaviors also become varied at this age as children engage in
increased physical aggression before learning to favor diplomacy over
aggression. Children at this age can express themselves using language with basic grammar. As children grow older, they develop emotional intelligence. Young children engage in basic social behaviors with peers, typically forming friendships centered on play with individuals of the same age and gender. Behaviors of young children are centered around play, which allows them to practice physical, cognitive, and social behaviors. Basic self-concept first develops as children grow, particularly centered around traits such as gender and ethnicity, and behavior is heavily affected by peers for the first time.
Adolescents undergo changes in behavior caused by puberty and the associated changes in hormone production. Production of testosterone increases sensation seeking and sensitivity to rewards in adolescents as well as aggression and risk-taking in adolescent boys. Production of estradiol
causes similar risk-taking behavior among adolescent girls. The new
hormones cause changes in emotional processing that allow for close
friendships, stronger motivations and intentions, and adolescent sexuality.
Adolescents undergo social changes on a large scale, developing a full
self-concept and making autonomous decisions independently of adults.
They typically become more aware of social norms and social cues than
children, causing an increase in self-consciousness and adolescent egocentrism that guides behavior in social settings throughout adolescence.
Culture and environment
Human brains, as with those of all mammals, are neuroplastic. This means that the structure of the brain changes over time as neural pathways are altered in response to the environment. Many behaviors are learned through interaction with others during early development of the brain. Human behavior is distinct from the behavior of other animals in that it is heavily influenced by culture and language. Social learning
allows humans to develop new behaviors by following the example of
others. Culture is also the guiding influence that defines social norms.
Physical disabilities can prevent individuals from engaging in typical human behavior or necessitate alternative behaviors. Accommodations and accessibility are often made available for individuals with physical disabilities in developed nations, including health care, assistive technology, and vocational services.
Severe disabilities are associated with increased leisure time but also
with a lower satisfaction in the quality of leisure time. Productivity
and health both commonly undergo long term decline following the onset
of a severe disability. Mental disabilities are those that directly affect cognitive and social behavior. Common mental disorders include mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and substance dependence.
Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo[kriˈstɔːforokoˈlombo]) was an Italian explorer (from Genoa) who led a Spanish maritime expedition to cross the Atlantic Ocean in search of an alternative route to the Far East, only to land in the New World. Columbus's first voyage to the New World on the Spanish ships the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María, and took about three months. Columbus and his crew's arrival in the New World initiated the colonisation of the Americas
by Spain, followed in the ensuing centuries by other European powers,
as well as the transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations,
and technology between the New and Old Worlds, an event referred to by some late 20th‐century historians as the Columbian exchange.
The landing is celebrated as Columbus Day in the United States,
but the name varies internationally. The United States celebrates this
day as "The Discovery of America". In some Latin American countries, October 12 is known as Día de la Raza or "Day of the Race". This was the case for Mexico, until it renamed it to “Day of the Pluricultural Nation” (still called Dia de la Raza locally). Some countries such as Spain refer to the holiday as the Day of Hispanicity or Día de la Hispanidad and is also Spain's National Day or Fiesta Nacional de España, where it coincides with the religious festivity of La Virgen del Pilar. Since 2009, Peru has celebrated Día de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural ("Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day"). Belize and Uruguay celebrate it as Pan American Day and Día de las Américas ("Day of the Americas"). Columbus Day is also celebrated in Italy, as Giornata Nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo or Festa Nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo, and in the Little Italys around the world.
United States observance
History
The first Columbus Day celebration took place on October 12, 1792, when the Columbian Order of New York, better known as Tammany Hall, held an event to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the historic landing.
Many Italian Americans
observe Columbus Day as a celebration of their heritage and not of
Columbus himself, and the day was celebrated in New York City on October
12, 1866.
The day was first enshrined as a legal holiday in the United States
through the lobbying of Angelo Noce, a first-generation American, in
Denver.
The first statewide holiday was proclaimed by Colorado governor Jesse
F. McDonald in 1905, and it was made a statutory holiday in 1907.
For the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1892, following a lynching in New Orleans, where a mob had murdered 11 Italian immigrants, President Benjamin Harrison declared Columbus Day as a one-time national celebration. The proclamation was part of a wider effort after the lynching incident
to placate Italian Americans and ease diplomatic tensions with Italy.
During the anniversary in 1892, teachers, preachers, poets, and
politicians used rituals to teach ideals of patriotism. These rituals
took themes such as citizenship boundaries, the importance of loyalty to
the nation, and the celebration of social progress, included among them was the Pledge of Allegiance by Francis Bellamy.
In 1934, as a result of lobbying by the Knights of Columbus and New York City Italian leader Generoso Pope,
Congress passed a statute stating: "The President is requested to issue
each year a proclamation (1) designating October 12 as Columbus Day;
(2) calling on United States government officials to display the flag of
the United States on all government buildings on Columbus Day; and (3)
inviting the people of the United States to observe Columbus Day, in
schools and churches, or other suitable places, with appropriate
ceremonies that express the public sentiment befitting the anniversary
of the discovery of America." President Franklin Delano Roosevelt
responded by making such a proclamation. This proclamation did not lead
to the modern federal holiday; it was similar to language regarding
Thomas Jefferson's birthday and Gold Star Mothers Day. In 1941, Italian and Italian Americans were interned and lost rights as "enemy aliens"
due to a belief they would be loyal to Italy and not America in World
War II; in 1942, Franklin Roosevelt had the removal of the designation
of Italian Americans as "enemy aliens" announced on Columbus Day along
with a plan to offer citizenship to 200,000 elderly Italians living in
the United States who had been unable to acquire citizenship due to a
literacy requirement, but the implementation of the announcement was not
completed until those interned in camps were released after Italy's
surrender to the Allies on September 8, 1943.
In 1966, Mariano A. Lucca, from Buffalo, New York, founded the National Columbus Day Committee, which lobbied to make Columbus Day a federal holiday. These efforts were successful and legislation to create Columbus Day as a federal holiday was signed by President Lyndon Johnson on June 28, 1968, to be effective beginning in 1971.
Since 1971, when Columbus Day became an officially recognized
Federal holiday in the United States, it has been observed on the second
Monday in October, as commemorated by annual Presidential proclamation
noting Columbus' achievements.It is generally observed by banks, the bond market, the U.S. Postal Service,
other federal agencies, most state government offices, many businesses,
and most school districts. Some businesses and some stock exchanges
remain open, and some states and municipalities abstain from observing
the holiday. The traditional date of the holiday also adjoins the anniversary of the United States Navy (founded October 13, 1775), and thus both occasions are customarily observed by the Navy and the Marine Corps with either a 72- or 96-hour liberty period.
On October 10, 1992, Pope John Paul II visited the Dominican
Republic to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the discovery of the
Americas and the arrival of Christianity in the "New World". His visit
ended with a mass in the nation's cathedral, the first cathedral in the Western Hemisphere.
Local observance of Columbus Day
Actual observance varies in different parts of the United States,
ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete nonobservance.
Most states do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official state holiday.
Some mark it as a "Day of Observance" or "Recognition.” Most states
that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others
operate as normal.
San Francisco claims the nation's oldest continuously existing celebration with the Italian-American community's annual Columbus Day Parade, which was established by Nicola Larco in 1868, while New York City boasts the largest, with over 35,000 marchers and one million viewers around 2010.
As in the mainland United States, Columbus Day is a legal holiday in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. In the United States Virgin Islands, the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and "Puerto Rico Friendship Day."
Virginia also celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War.
Nonobservance
The
celebration of Columbus Day in the United States began to decline at
the end of the 20th century, although many Americans continue to
celebrate it. The District of Columbia and the states of Hawaii, Alaska, Vermont, South Dakota, New Mexico, Maine, Minnesota and parts of California including, for example, Los Angeles County do not recognize it and have each replaced it with celebrations of Indigenous Peoples' Day (in Hawaii, "Discoverers' Day", in South Dakota, "Native American Day"). In the states of Oregon and Washington, Columbus Day is not an official holiday.
Iowa and Nevada do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official
holiday, but the states' respective governors are "authorized and
requested" by statute to proclaim the day each year.
Several states have removed the day as a paid holiday for state
government workers, while maintaining it either as a day of recognition,
or as a legal holiday for other purposes, including California and
Texas.
Columbus, Ohio, has chosen to honor veterans instead of Christopher Columbus, and removed Columbus Day as a city holiday in 2018. Various tribal governments in Oklahoma designate the day as Native American Day, or name it after their own tribe.
In 2017, the city council of Akron, Ohio,
became split along racial lines with the decision to replace Columbus
Day with Indigenous Peoples' Day, creating pushback from the city's
Italian-American community. In 2018, a compromise was reached, with the
city council voting to name the first Monday of October as North
American First People's Day while keeping Columbus Day, and in 2020,
Columbus Day was renamed Italian-American Heritage and Culture Day.
Latin American observance
The date Columbus arrived in the Americas is celebrated in some
countries of Latin America. The most common name for the celebration in
Spanish (including some Latin American communities in the United States) is the Día de la Raza ("day of the race" or the "day of the [Hispanic] people"), commemorating the first encounters of Europeans and the Native Americans. The day was first celebrated in Argentina in 1917, in Venezuela and Colombia in 1921, in Chile
in 1922, and in Mexico, it was first celebrated in 1928. The day was
also celebrated under this title in Spain until 1957, when it was
changed to the Día de la Hispanidad ("Hispanicity Day"), and in Venezuela, it was celebrated under this title until 2002, when it was changed to the Día de la Resistencia Indígena
(Day of Indigenous Resistance). Originally conceived of as a
celebration of Hispanic influence in the Americas, as evidenced by the
complementary celebrations in Spain and Latin America, Día de la Raza
has come to be seen by nationalist activists throughout Latin America
as a counter to Columbus Day – a celebration of the native races and
cultures and their resistance to the arrival of Europeans in the
Americas.
In the United States, Día de la Raza has served as a time of mobilization for panethnic Latino activists, particularly since the 1960s. Since then, La Raza
has served as a periodic rallying cry for Hispanic activists. The first
Hispanic March on Washington occurred on Columbus Day in 1996. The name
was used by the largest Hispanic social justice organization in the
nation, UnidosUS, which was known as the National Council of La Raza from 1968 to 2017.
Argentina
The Day of the Race was established in Argentina in 1916 by a decree of President Hipólito Yrigoyen. The name was changed to "Day of Respect of Cultural Diversity" by a presidential decree in 2010 issued by President Cristina Kirchner. The statue of Columbus was removed from its original position near the Casa Rosada and replaced by one of Juana Azurduy, a patriot and leader in the struggle for independence who had indigenous ancestors.
Colombia
Colombia, whose name originated from Columbus himself, celebrates El día de la Raza y de la Hispanidad
(meaning "Day of the Race and Hispanicity"), and is taken as an
opportunity to celebrate the encounter of "the two worlds" and to
reflect on the richness that the racial diversity has brought to the
culture. In 2021 the Ministry of Culture changed the name of the holiday
to ‘Día de la Diversidad Étnica y Cultural de la Nación Colombiana
(meaning "Day of Ethnical and Cultural Diversity of the Colombian
nation").
Peru
In Peru, it was known as Día del descubrimiento de América ("Day of the discovery of America"). Since 2009, it has been celebrated as Día de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural (Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day).
Venezuela
Between 1921 and 2002, Venezuela celebrated Día de la Raza along with many other Latin American nations. The original holiday was officially established in 1921 under President Juan Vicente Gómez. In 2002, under President Hugo Chávez, the holiday was changed to Día de la Resistencia Indígena (Day of Indigenous Resistance) to commemorate the Indigenous peoples' resistance to European settlement.
On October 12, 2004, a crowd of progovernment activists toppled a statue of Christopher Columbus by Rafael de la Cova in Caracas. The activists also sprayed allusive graffiti
over its pedestal. The walk where the statue had stood was renamed in
2008 "Indigenous Resistance Walk". Later, a statue of an indigenous
leader, Guaicaipuro, was erected on the plinth.
Costa Rica
On September 21, 1994, Costa Rica changed the official holiday from Día de la Raza to Día del Encuentro de las Culturas (Day of the Encounter of Cultures) to recognize the mix of European, Native American (autochthonous populations), African and Asian cultures that constitute modern Costa Rican (and Latin American)
culture and ethnicity. In accordance to the Costa Rican labor law, the
holiday is observed on October 12. However, should this date coincide
with a Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, or Friday, the employer shall agree
that said holiday be postponed to the following Monday.
In 2020, Costa Ricans eliminated this holiday, which was under debate
in years prior. Hence, in exchange Costa Rica now celebrates the
'Military Abolition Day' on December 1.
El Salvador
In June 1915, the official holiday of 'Fiesta de la Raza'
was established, with October 12 being the date of the national
holiday. Presently, since October 12, 2021, the Legislative Assembly of
El Salvador abolished the previous national Fiesta de la Raza
holiday, " [to] vindicate the origin and identity of indigenous peoples
who were forgotten by previous governments, who for decades celebrated
Race Day as a positive event and who never adopted mechanisms to enhance
human rights." The holiday is no longer celebrated officially.
Mexico
In Mexico, the date was known as Columbus Day or Day of the Race. On December 18, 2020, by decree of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the name of October 12 was changed to "Day of the Pluricultural Nation". The statue of Columbus along Mexico City's Paseo de la Reforma was removed and replaced with a replica of The Young Woman of Amajac, a sculpture depicting an Indigenous woman.
Caribbean observance
Only a handful of Caribbean countries observe holidays related to Columbus Day. In Belize, October 12 is celebrated as Day of the Americas or Pan American Day. In the Bahamas, it was formerly known as Discovery Day, until 2001 when it was replaced by National Heroes Day. In 1937, Cuban President Federico Laredo Brú
(1936–1940) spoke to the nation and countries of America in Cuba on
October 12 commemorating Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World.
Federico Laredo Brú spoke about Columbus's impact on the land and the
future of its settlement. He ended his speech with venerating
Christopher Columbus's efforts to colonize and establish settlements
along the new front and the pride of one's nation. He added "Por mi raza hablo mi espiritu," which translates to "For my race my spirit called," to support the political infrastructure at the time.
Columbus's legacy in the Caribbean
In December 1937, Cuban president Federico Laredo Brú and Dominican Republic president Rafael Trujillo
ordered a crew of aviators to travel through Latin America collecting
funds from large capital cities for a monumental light house in the
Dominican Republic. The exploration Escuadrilla Binacional Pro Faro de Colón was inspired by Columbus's journey across the North Atlantic Ocean to America. The expedition consisted of three Stinson Reliant SR-9s borrowed from the Cuban Air Force – named Santa María, Niña and La Pinta after the vessels commanded by Columbus – and a Curtiss Wright CW-19R from the Dominican military aviation named Colon after Columbus. On December 15, after visiting a majority of South America, their flight to the Peruvian capital Lima was hampered by an unexpected sandstorm. Two planes (Colon and La Pinta) were forced to land in Pisco and Niña disappeared in the storm. The Santa Maria was the only plane to reach Lima as planned, landing at Las Palmas on the day of the storm. After extensive searches, Niña
radioed their whereabouts after their radio was damaged in the storm.
The aircraft restrategized in Las Palmas, and on December 29 their
expedition took off from El Techo airport in Bogotá en route to El Guabito airport in Cali. Later that day, the crew flew into an unexpected storm over the Valley of Cauca. With minimal visibility and poor navigation, Niña, La Pinta, and Santa Maria crashed into high mountains, while Colon,
unaware of the other aircraft, flew over the storm and safely made it
to Panama City. The plane is preserved today as remembrance of the
bravery of the crew and Christopher Columbus's journey.
In 1992, in remembrance of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, the Columbus Lighthouse, in Santo Domingo Este was inaugurated. The monument is both a mausoleum and a museum showcasing objects including a boat from Cuba and Colombian jewelry. Constructed of concrete, the monument is 680 feet (210 m) long.
Its architecture is cross-shaped and represents the Christianization of
the Americas. According to the Dominican authorities, remains of Christopher Columbus are sheltered at the lighthouse. However, Spanish authorities have proved through DNA tests that the remains in the Cathedral of Seville
are the real remains of Columbus. The Dominican authorities haven't
allowed the same DNA tests to be done to the remains in the lighthouse,
so it is impossible to know if the remains of Columbus are divided or if
the remains in the lighthouse belonged to another person.
European observance
Italy
Since the 18th century, many Italian communities in the Americas have observed the Discovery of the New World
as a celebration of their heritage, despite Italy not existing as a
unified country when Columbus was born, and despite his public
renunciation of his Genovese nationality to swear allegiance to the King of Spain.
In Italy, Columbus Day has been officially celebrated since 2004. It is officially named Giornata nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo ("National Christopher Columbus Day").
The "Lega Navale Italiana" has created a Regata di Colombo ("Columbus Regatta") as a celebration of the Columbus achievement. Italians have celebrated Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo[kriˈstɔːforokoˈlombo]) naming after him many civilian and military ships, like the ocean liner SS Cristoforo Colombo.
The first celebration of the Discovery of the Américas by Columbus in Spain was as early as 1642 when the city of Zaragoza designated the Virgen del Pilar (Our Lady of the Pillar) as symbol of the Hispanidad (Hispanicity) on the date of the Spanish expedition's arrival to the New World. This holiday was declared a religious feast day throughout the Spanish Empire in 1730.
In 1892, the 12 of October was declared a one-time national day in
commemoration of the 4th centenary of the Discovery of America and the
perpetuation of the festivity was then first considered. The Spanish
government suggested other nations (Hispanic American countries, Italy
and the United States of America) to join the celebration, which was
followed with enthusiasm by them, with a few exceptions.
The Discovery of America and the Hispanicity has been celebrated as a
national day since 1918 under different names like "Día de la
Hispanidad" or "Dia de la Raza", due to changes of political regimes in
the 20th century. The national day emphasises Spain's ties with the Hispanidad, the international Hispanic community and Spanish legacy to the world. In 1981 a royal decree established the Fiesta Nacional y Día de la Hispanidad as a national holiday. However, in 1987 the name was changed again to Fiesta Nacional and October 12 became one of two national celebrations, along with Constitution Day
on December 6 as part of a compromise between conservatives, who wanted
to emphasize the status of the monarchy and Spain's history, and
Republicans, who wanted to commemorate Spain's burgeoning democracy with
an official holiday. Since 2000, October 12 has also been Spain's Day of the Armed Forces, celebrated each year with a military parade in Madrid.
The holiday is widely celebrated in Spain with official and cultural
events throughout the country. Shops and businesses are closed as with
other bank holidays. The observation is enhanced with the feast day of Our Lady of the Pillar (Fiestas del Pilar), the so-called Mother of Hispanidad, and of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura (Santa María de Guadalupe) (appointed Queen of Hispanicity in 1928 by the Vatican) from Guadalupe, Caceres, whose Monastery was the venue in June 1492 for the decisive meeting between the Catholic Monarchs
and Columbus to start organizing the travel and where the latter came
back in 1493, right after returning from his first voyage, to thank Her for his success.
For years after the first Columbus Day celebration in 1892,
opposition to Columbus Day recognized the suffering inflicted on
American Indians with westward expansion.
It also originated from anti-immigrant nativists who sought to eliminate its celebration because of its association with immigrants from the Catholic countries of Ireland and Italy, and the American Catholic fraternal organization, the Knights of Columbus. Some anti-Catholics, notably including the Ku Klux Klan and the Women of the Ku Klux Klan, opposed celebrations of Columbus or monuments about him because they thought that it increased Catholic influence in the United States, which was largely a Protestant country.
In the summer of 1990, 350 representatives from American Indian groups from all over the hemisphere met in Quito,
Ecuador, at the first Intercontinental Gathering of Indigenous People
in the Americas, to mobilize against the 500th anniversary
(quin-centennial) celebration of Columbus Day planned for 1992. The
following summer, in Davis, California,
more than a hundred Native Americans gathered for a follow-up meeting
to the Quito conference. They declared October 12, 1992, to be
"International Day of Solidarity with Indigenous People."
More recently, mainly since the 1990s, more people oppose
Columbus's and other Europeans' actions against the indigenous
populations of the Americas. This opposition was initially led by Native
Americans and was expanded upon by left-wing political parties.
Various holidays commemorating Columbus have now been abolished, with
various Latin American countries altering the holidays to now recognise
indigenous populations.
Two surveys, conducted in 2013 and 2015 by Rasmussen Reports,
found 26% to 38% of American adults are not in favor of celebrating
Columbus Day. A similar survey by Catholic Marist Polls showed 26%
opposition
A second strain of criticism of Columbus Day focuses on the
character of Columbus himself. In time for the 2004 observation of the
day, the final volume of a compendium of Columbus-era documents was
published by the University of California, Los Angeles'
Medieval and Renaissance Center. It stated that Columbus, while a
brilliant mariner, exploited and enslaved the indigenous population.
Journalist and media critic Norman Solomon reflects, in Columbus Day: A Clash of Myth and History,
that many people choose to hold on to the myths instead of reality in
the events surrounding Columbus. He disputes the idea that the
Spaniards' arrival was beneficial towards the Indians by quoting History of the Indies by the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas,
who observed the region where Columbus was governor. Las Casas writes
that the Spaniards were driven by "insatiable greed" as they killed and
tortured native populations with "the strangest and most varied new
methods of cruelty" and laments that "my eyes have seen these acts so
foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write."