SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, describes a collection of related techniques to separate proteins according to their electrophoretic mobility (a function of the molecular weight of a polypeptide chain) while in the denatured
(unfolded) state. In most proteins, the binding of SDS to the
polypeptide chain imparts an even distribution of charge per unit mass,
thereby resulting in a fractionation by approximate size during
electrophoresis.
SDS is a strong detergent agent used to denature native proteins to unfolded, individual polypeptides. When a protein mixture is heated to 100 °C in presence of SDS, the detergent
wraps around the polypeptide backbone. In this process, the intrinsic
charges of polypeptides becomes negligible when compared to the negative
charges contributed by SDS. Thus polypeptides after treatment become
rod-like structures possessing a uniform charge density, that is same
net negative charge per unit length. The electrophoretic mobilities of
these proteins will be a linear function of the logarithms of their molecular weights.
Native gel methods
Native
gels, also known as non-denaturing gels, analyze proteins that are
still in their folded state. Thus, the electrophoretic mobility depends
not only on the charge-to-mass ratio, but also on the physical shape
and size of the protein.
CN-PAGE (commonly referred to as Native PAGE) separates acidic water-soluble and membrane proteins in a polyacrylamide
gradient gel. It uses no charged dye so the electrophoretic mobility of
proteins in CN-PAGE (in contrast to the charge shift technique BN-PAGE)
is related to the intrinsic charge of the proteins.
The migration distance depends on the protein charge, its size and the
pore size of the gel. In many cases this method has lower resolution
than BN-PAGE, but CN-PAGE offers advantages whenever Coomassie
dye would interfere with further analytical techniques, for example it
has been described as a very efficient microscale separation technique
for FRET analyses. Also CN-PAGE is milder than BN-PAGE so it can retain labile supramolecular assemblies of membrane protein complexes that are dissociated under the conditions of BN-PAGE.
Quantitative native PAGE
The foldedprotein complexes
of interest separate cleanly and predictably due to the specific
properties of the polyacrylamide gel. The separated proteins are
continuously eluted into a physiological eluent and transported to a
fraction collector. In four to five PAGE fractions each the metal
cofactors can be identified and absolutely quantified by high-resolution
ICP-MS. The respective structures of the isolated metalloproteins can be determined by solution NMR spectroscopy.
Buffer systems
Postulated
migration of proteins in a Laemmli gel system A: Stacking gel, B:
Resolving gel, o: sample application c: discontinuities in the buffer
and electrophoretic matrix
Most protein separations are performed using a "discontinuous" (or DISC) buffer
system that significantly enhances the sharpness of the bands within
the gel. During electrophoresis in a discontinuous gel system, an ion
gradient is formed in the early stage of electrophoresis that causes all
of the proteins to focus into a single sharp band. The formation of the
ion gradient is achieved by choosing a pH value at which the ions of
the buffer are only moderately charged compared to the SDS-coated
proteins. These conditions provide an environment in which Kohlrausch's reactions determine the molar conductivity.
As a result, SDS-coated proteins are concentrated to several fold in a
thin zone of the order of 19 μm within a few minutes. At this stage all
proteins migrate at the same migration speed by isotachophoresis.
This occurs in a region of the gel that has larger pores so that the
gel matrix does not retard the migration during the focusing or
"stacking" event.
Separation of the proteins by size is achieved in the lower,
"resolving" region of the gel. The resolving gel typically has a much
smaller pore size, which leads to a sieving effect that now determines
the electrophoretic mobility of the proteins. At the same time, the
separating part of the gel also has a pH value in which the buffer ions
on average carry a greater charge, causing them to "outrun" the
SDS-covered proteins and eliminate the ion gradient and thereby the
stacking effect.
A very widespread discontinuous buffer system is the tris-glycine or "Laemmli" system that stacks at a pH of 6.8 and resolves at a pH of ~8.3-9.0. A drawback of this system is that these pH values may promote disulfide bond formation between cysteine residues in the proteins because the pKa
of cysteine ranges from 8-9 and because reducing agent present in the
loading buffer doesn't co-migrate with the proteins. Recent advances in
buffering technology alleviate this problem by resolving the proteins at
a pH well below the pKa of cysteine (e.g., bis-tris,
pH 6.5) and include reducing agents (e.g. sodium bisulfite) that move
into the gel ahead of the proteins to maintain a reducing environment.
An additional benefit of using buffers with lower pH values is that the
acrylamide gel is more stable at lower pH values, so the gels can be
stored for long periods of time before use.
SDS gradient gel electrophoresis of proteins
As
voltage is applied, the anions (and negatively charged sample
molecules) migrate toward the positive electrode (anode) in the lower
chamber, the leading ion is Cl−
( high mobility and high concentration); glycinate is the trailing ion
(low mobility and low concentration). SDS-protein particles do not
migrate freely at the border between the Cl− of the gel buffer and the Gly− of the cathode buffer. Friedrich Kohlrausch found that Ohm's law also applies to dissolved electrolytes. Because of the voltage drop between the Cl− and Glycine-buffers, proteins are compressed (stacked) into micrometer thin layers.
The boundary moves through a pore gradient and the protein stack
gradually disperses due to a frictional resistance increase of the gel
matrix. Stacking and unstacking occurs continuously in the gradient gel,
for every protein at a different position. For a complete protein
unstacking the polyacrylamide-gel concentration must exceed 16% T. The
two-gel system of "Laemmli" is a simple gradient gel. The pH
discontinuity of the buffers is of no significance for the separation
quality, and a "stacking-gel" with a different pH is not needed.
Visualization
The most popular protein stain is Coomassie Brilliant Blue.
It is an anionic dye, which non-specifically binds to proteins.
Proteins in the gel are fixed by acetic acid and simultaneously stained.
The excess dye incorporated into the gel can be removed by destaining
with the same solution without the dye. The proteins are detected as
blue bands on a clear background.
When more sensitive method than staining by Coomassie is needed
silver staining is usually used. Silver staining is a sensitive
procedure to detect trace amounts of proteins in gels, but can also
visualize nucleic acid or polysaccharides.
Visualization methods without using a dye such as Coomassie and silver are available on the market. For example Bio-Rad Laboratories markets ”stain-free” gels for SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis.
Similarly as in nucleic acid gel electrophoresis, tracking dye
is often used. Anionic dyes of a known electrophoretic mobility are
usually included in the sample buffer. A very common tracking dye is Bromophenol blue.
This dye is coloured at alkali and neutral pH and is a small negatively
charged molecule that moves towards the anode. Being a highly mobile
molecule it moves ahead of most proteins.
Medical applications
Schematic representation of a protein electrophoresis gel.
Serum protein electrophoresis showing a paraprotein (peak in the gamma zone) in a patient with multiple myeloma.
In medicine, protein electrophoresis is a method of analysing the proteins mainly in blood serum. Before the widespread use of gel electrophoresis, protein electrophoresis was performed as free-flow electrophoresis (on paper) or as immunoelectrophoresis.
Traditionally, two classes of blood proteins are considered: serum albumin and globulin. They are generally equal in proportion, but albumin
as a molecule is much smaller and lightly, negatively-charged, leading
to an accumulation of albumin on the electrophoretic gel. A small band
before albumin represents transthyretin
(also named prealbumin). Some forms of medication or body chemicals can
cause their own band, but it usually is small. Abnormal bands (spikes)
are seen in monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance and multiple myeloma, and are useful in the diagnosis of these conditions.
The globulins are classified by their banding pattern (with their main representatives):
The alpha (α) band consists of two parts, 1 and 2:
The gamma (γ) band - immunoglobulin (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM). Paraproteins (in multiple myeloma) usually appear in this band.
Normal present medical procedure involves determination of numerous
proteins in plasma including hormones and enzymes, some of them also
determined by electrophoresis. However, gel electrophoresis is mainly a
research tool, also when the subject is blood proteins.
There is no cure for PKU, but treatment can prevent intellectual disabilities and other health problems.1 A person with PKU should receive treatment at a medical center that specializes in the disorder. (Visit the Resources and Publications section for ways to locate a center.)
The PKU Diet
People with PKU need to follow a diet that limits foods with
phenylalanine. The diet should be followed carefully and be started as
soon after birth as possible. In the past, experts believed that it was
safe for people to stop following the diet as they got older. However,
they now recommend that people with PKU stay on the diet throughout
their lives for better physical and mental health.
It is especially important for a pregnant woman with PKU to strictly follow the low-phenylalanine diet throughout her pregnancy to ensure the healthy development of her infant.
People with PKU need to avoid various high-protein foods, including:
Milk and cheese
Eggs
Nuts
Soybeans
Beans
Chicken, beef, or pork
Fish
Peas
Beer
People with PKU also need to avoid the sweetener aspartame,
which is in some foods, drinks, medications, and vitamins. Aspartame
releases phenylalanine when it is digested, so it raises the level of
phenylalanine in a person's blood.
Often, people with PKU also have to limit their intake of
lower-protein foods, such as certain fruits and vegetables. However, a
PKU diet can include low-protein noodles and other special products.
The amount of phenylalanine that is safe to consume differs for each
person. Therefore, a person with PKU needs to work with a health care
professional to develop an individualized diet. The goal is to eat only
the amount of phenylalanine necessary for healthy growth and body
processes but not any extra. Frequent blood tests and doctor visits are
necessary to help determine how well the diet is working. Some
relaxation of the diet may be possible as a child gets older, but the
recommendation today is lifelong adherence to the diet. Following the diet is especially important during pregnancy.
However, the PKU diet can be very challenging. Getting support from
friends and family or a support group can help. Sticking with the diet
ensures better functioning and improved overall health.
A PKU Formula
People who follow the PKU diet will not get enough essential nutrients from food. Therefore, they must drink a special formula.
A newborn who is diagnosed with PKU should receive special infant
formula. The formula may be mixed with a small amount of breast milk or
regular infant formula to make sure the child gets enough phenylalanine
for normal development but not enough to cause harm.
Older children and adults receive a different formula to meet their
nutritional needs. This formula should be consumed every day throughout a
person's life.
In addition to the formula, health care professionals may recommend
other supplements. For example, fish oil may be recommended to help with
fine motor coordination and other aspects of development.1
Medication for PKU
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the drug
sapropterin dihydrochloride (Kuvan®) for the treatment of PKU. Kuvan® is
a form of BH4, which is a substance in the body that helps break down
phenylalanine. However, having too little BH4 is only one reason a
person may not break down phenylalanine. Therefore, Kuvan® only helps
some people reduce the phenylalanine in their blood. Even if the
medication helps, it will not decrease the phenylalanine to the desired
amount and must be used together with the PKU diet.
When the FDA approved Kuvan®, the agency suggested that research on
the medication continue to determine its long-term safety and
effectiveness.
Other Treatments for PKU
NICHD-supported researchers and other scientists are exploring
additional treatments for PKU. These treatments include large neutral
amino acid supplementation, which may help prevent phenylalanine from
entering the brain, and enzyme replacement therapy, which uses a
substance similar to the enzyme that usually breaks down phenylalanine.
Researchers are also investigating the possibility of using gene
therapy, which involves injecting new genes to break down phenylalanine.
That would result in the breakdown of phenylalanine and decreased blood
phenylalanine levels.
Phenylketonuria is a genetic disorder inherited from a person's parents. It is due to mutations in the PAH gene, which results in low levels of the enzymephenylalanine hydroxylase. This results in the buildup of dietary phenylalanine to potentially toxic levels. It is autosomal recessive, meaning that both copies of the gene must be mutated for the condition to develop. There are two main types, classic PKU and variant PKU, depending on whether any enzyme function remains. Those with one copy of a mutated gene typically do not have symptoms. Many countries have newborn screening programs for the disease.
Treatment is with a diet low in foods that contain phenylalanine and special supplements. Babies should use a special formula with a small amount of breast milk. The diet should begin as soon as possible after birth and be continued for at least 10 years, if not lifelong. People who are diagnosed early and maintain a strict diet can have normal health and a normal life span. Effectiveness is monitored through periodic blood tests. The medication sapropterin dihydrochloride may be useful in some.
Phenylketonuria affects about 1 in 12,000 babies. Males and females are affected equally. The disease was discovered in 1934 by Ivar Asbjørn Følling, with the importance of diet determined in 1953. Gene therapy, while promising, requires a great deal more study as of 2014.
Because the mother's body is able to break down phenylalanine
during pregnancy, infants with PKU are normal at birth. The disease is
not detectable by physical examination at that time, because no damage
has yet been done. Newborn screening is performed to detect the disease
and initiate treatment before any damage is done. The blood sample is
usually taken by a heel prick,
typically performed 2–7 days after birth. This test can reveal elevated
phenylalanine levels after one or two days of normal infant feeding.
If a child is not diagnosed during the routine newborn screening
test and a phenylalanine restricted diet is not introduced, then
phenylalanine levels in the blood will increase over time. Toxic levels
of phenylalanine (and insufficient levels of tyrosine) can interfere
with infant development in ways which have permanent effects. The
disease may present clinically with seizures, hypopigmentation (excessively fair hair and skin), and a "musty odor" to the baby's sweat and urine (due to phenylacetate,
a carboxylic acid produced by the oxidation of phenylketone). In most
cases, a repeat test should be done at approximately two weeks of age to
verify the initial test and uncover any phenylketonuria that was
initially missed.
Untreated children often fail to attain early developmental
milestones, develop microcephaly, and demonstrate progressive impairment
of cerebral function. Hyperactivity, EEG abnormalities, and seizures, and severe learning disabilities are major clinical problems later in life. A characteristic "musty or mousy" odor on the skin, as well as a predisposition for eczema, persist throughout life in the absence of treatment.
The damage done to the brain if PKU is untreated during the first
months of life is not reversible. It is critical to control the diet of
infants with PKU very carefully so that the brain has an opportunity to
develop normally. Affected children who are detected at birth and
treated are much less likely to develop neurological problems or have
seizures and intellectual disability (though such clinical disorders are
still possible.)
In general, however, outcomes for people treated for PKU are
good. Treated people may have no detectable physical, neurological, or
developmental problems at all.
PKU is an autosomal recessive metabolic genetic disorder. As an autosomal recessive disorder, two PKU alleles
are required for an individual to experience symptoms of the disease.
If both parents are carriers for PKU, there is a 25% chance any child
they have will be born with the disorder, a 50% chance the child will be
a carrier, and a 25% chance the child will neither develop nor be a
carrier for the disease.
PKU is characterized by homozygous or compound heterozygousmutations in the gene for the hepatic enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), rendering it nonfunctional. This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) to the amino acid tyrosine (Tyr). When PAH activity is reduced, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which can be detected in the urine.
Carriers of a single PKU allele do not exhibit symptoms of the
disease but appear to be protected to some extent against the fungal
toxin ochratoxin A. This accounts for the persistence of the allele in certain populations in that it confers a selective advantage—in other words, being a heterozygote is advantageous.
The PAH gene is located on chromosome 12 in the bands 12q22-q24.2. As of 2000, around 400 disease-causing mutations had been found in the PAH gene. This is an example of allelic genetic heterogeneity.
Pathophysiology
When
Phe cannot be metabolized by the body, a typical diet that would be
healthy for people without PKU causes abnormally high levels of Phe to
accumulate in the blood, which is toxic to the brain. If left untreated,
complications of PKU include severe intellectual disability, brain
function abnormalities, microcephaly, mood disorders, irregular motor
functioning, and behavioral problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as well as physical symptoms such as a "musty" odor, eczema, and unusually light skin and hair coloration.
Classical PKU
Classical PKU, and its less severe forms "mild PKU" and "mild hyperphenylalaninemia" are caused by a mutated gene for the enzymephenylalanine hydroxylase
(PAH), which converts the amino acid phenylalanine ("Phe") to other
essential compounds in the body, in particular tyrosine. Tyrosine is a
conditionally essential amino acid
for PKU patients because without PAH it cannot be produced in the body
through the breakdown of phenylalanine. Tyrosine is necessary for the
production of neurotransmitters like epinephrine, norepinephrine, and
dopamine.
PAH deficiency causes a spectrum of disorders, including classic
phenylketonuria (PKU) and mild hyperphenylalaninemia (also known as
"hyperphe"
or "mild HPA"), a less severe accumulation of phenylalanine. Patients
with "hyperphe" may have more functional PAH enzyme and be able to
tolerate larger amounts of phenylalanine in their diets than those with
classic PKU, but unless dietary intake is at least somewhat restricted,
their blood Phe levels are still higher than the levels in people with
normal PAH activity.
Phenylalanine is a large, neutral amino acid (LNAA). LNAAs compete for transport across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) via the large neutral amino acid transporter
(LNAAT). If phenylalanine is in excess in the blood, it will saturate
the transporter. Excessive levels of phenylalanine tend to decrease the
levels of other LNAAs in the brain. As these amino acids are necessary
for protein and neurotransmitter synthesis, Phe buildup hinders the
development of the brain, causing intellectual disability.
Recent research suggests that neurocognitive, psychosocial,
quality of life, growth, nutrition, bone pathology are slightly
suboptimal even for patients who are treated and maintain their Phe
levels in the target range, if their diet is not supplemented with other
amino acids.
Classic PKU dramatically affects myelination and white matter
tracts in untreated infants; this may be one major cause of neurological
disorders associated with phenylketonuria. Differences in white matter
development are observable with magnetic resonance imaging.
Abnormalities in gray matter can also be detected, particularly in the
motor and pre-motor cortex, thalamus and the hippocampus.
It was recently suggested that PKU may resemble amyloid
diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, due to
the formation of toxic amyloid-like assemblies of phenylalanine.
A rarer form of hyperphenylalaninemia is tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency, which occurs when the PAH enzyme is normal, and a defect is found in the biosynthesis or recycling of the cofactortetrahydrobiopterin (BH4). BH4 is necessary for proper activity of the enzyme PAH, and this coenzyme
can be supplemented as treatment. Those who suffer from this form of
hyperphenylalaninemia may have a deficiency of tyrosine (which is
created from phenylalanine by PAH), in which case treatment is
supplementation of tyrosine to account for this deficiency.
Levels of dopamine can be used to distinguish between these two types. Tetrahydrobiopterin is required to convert Phe to Tyr and is required to convert Tyr to L-DOPA via the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. L-DOPA, in turn, is converted to dopamine. Low levels of dopamine lead to high levels of prolactin. By contrast, in classical PKU (without dihydrobiopterin involvement), prolactin levels would be relatively normal.
Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency can be caused by defects in four genes. They are known as HPABH4A, HPABH4B, HPABH4C, and HPABH4D.
Metabolic pathways
Pathophysiology
of phenylketonuria, which is due to the absence of functional
phenylalanine hydroxylase (classical subtype) or functional enzymes for
the recycling of tetrahydrobiopterin (new variant subtype) utilized in the first step of the metabolic pathway.
The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase normally converts the amino acidphenylalanine into the amino acid tyrosine.
If this reaction does not take place, phenylalanine accumulates and
tyrosine is deficient. Excessive phenylalanine can be metabolized into
phenylketones through the minor route, a transaminase pathway with glutamate. Metabolites include phenylacetate, phenylpyruvate and phenethylamine.
Elevated levels of phenylalanine in the blood and detection of
phenylketones in the urine is diagnostic, however most patients are
diagnosed via newborn screening.
Screening
Blood is taken from a two-week-old baby to test for phenylketonuria
PKU is commonly included in the newborn screening
panel of many countries, with varied detection techniques. Most babies
in developed countries are screened for PKU soon after birth. Screening for PKU is done with bacterial inhibition assay (Guthrie test), immunoassays using fluorometric or photometric detection, or amino acid measurement using tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Measurements done using MS/MS determine the concentration of Phe and the ratio of Phe to tyrosine, the ratio will be elevated in PKU.
Treatment
PKU
is not curable. However, if PKU is diagnosed early enough, an affected
newborn can grow up with normal brain development by managing and
controlling phenylalanine ("Phe") levels through diet, or a combination
of diet and medication.
Diet
People who
follow the prescribed dietary treatment from birth may have no symptoms.
Their PKU would be detectable only by a blood test. People must adhere
to a special diet low in Phe for optimal brain development. Since Phe is
necessary for the synthesis of many proteins, it is required for
appropriate growth, but levels must be strictly controlled.
For people who do not have phenylketonuria, the U.S. Institute of
Medicine set recommended at least 33 mg/kg body weight/day
phenylalanine plus tyrosine for adults 19 years and older.
For people with PKU, a recommendation for children up to age 10 years
is 200 to 500 mg/d; for older children and adults 220 to 1200 mg/day.
Where in the range depends on body weight and age, and on monitoring
blood concentration.
Optimal health ranges (or "target ranges") are between 120 and 360 µmol/L or equivalently 2 to 6 mg/dL, and aimed to be achieved during at least the first 10 years, to allow the brain to develop normally.
The age at which people with PKU may safely go off diet is
subject to some debate. The diet should be maintained at least until the
age of eight or ten. Some evidence supports discontinued after 10 years
as a normal diet after that does not appear to have negative effects. One study however has shown temporarily detrimental effects when off the diet. There is no evidence for permanent brain damage in people who have gone off diet in adulthood. In case of mild neurocognitive impairment, the re-introduction of diet is indicated.
The diet requires restricting or eliminating foods high in Phe, such as soybeans, egg whites, shrimp, chicken breast, spirulina, watercress, fish, nuts, crayfish, lobster, tuna, turkey, legumes, and lowfat cottage cheese. Starchy foods, such as potatoes and corn
are generally acceptable in controlled amounts, but the quantity of Phe
consumed from these foods must be monitored. A food diary is usually
kept to record the amount of Phe consumed with each meal, snack, or
drink. An "exchange" system can be used to calculate the amount of Phe
in a food from the protein content identified on a nutritional
information label. Lower-protein "medical food" substitutes are often
used in place of normal bread, pasta,
and other grain-based foods, which contain a significant amount of Phe.
Many fruits and vegetables are lower in Phe and can be eaten in larger
quantities. Infants may still be breastfed to provide all of the
benefits of breastmilk, but the quantity must also be monitored and
supplementation for missing nutrients will be required. The sweetener aspartame, present in many diet foods and soft drinks, must also be avoided, as aspartame is metabolised into phenylalanine.
Different people can tolerate different amounts of Phe in their
diet. Regular blood tests are used to determine the effects of dietary
Phe intake on blood Phe level.
Nutritional supplements
Supplementary
"protein substitute" formulas are typically prescribed for people PKU
(starting in infancy) to provide the amino acids and other necessary
nutrients that would otherwise be lacking in a low-phenylalanine diet.
Tyrosine, which is normally derived from phenylalanine and which is
necessary for normal brain function, is usually supplemented.
Consumption of the protein substitute formulas can actually reduce
phenylalanine levels, probably because it stops the process of protein catabolism
from releasing Phe stored in the muscles and other tissues into the
blood. Many PKU patients have their highest Phe levels after a period of
fasting (such as overnight), because fasting triggers catabolism.
A diet that is low in phenylalanine but does not include protein
substitutes may also fail to lower blood Phe levels, since a
nutritionally insufficient diet may also trigger catabolism. For all
these reasons, the prescription formula is an important part of the
treatment for patients with classic PKU.
Tentative evidence supports dietary supplementation with large neutral amino acids (LNAAs).The LNAAs (e.g. leu, tyr, trp, met, his, ile, val, thr)
may compete with phe for specific carrier proteins that transport LNAAs
across the intestinal mucosa into the blood and across the blood–brain barrier into the brain. Its use is really only indicated in adults who will not follow an appropriate diet.
Another interesting treatment strategy is casein
glycomacropeptide (CGMP), which is a milk peptide naturally free of Phe
in its pure formCGMP can substitute for the main part of the free amino acids in the
PKU diet and provides several beneficial nutritional effects compared to
free amino acids. The fact that CGMP is a peptide ensures that the
absorption rate of its amino acids is prolonged compared to free amino
acids and thereby results in improved protein retention and increased satiety compared to free amino acids. Another important benefit of CGMP is that the taste is significantly improved[37] when CGMP substitutes part of the free amino acids and this may help ensure improved compliance to the PKU diet.
Furthermore, CGMP contains a high amount of the Phe-lowering LNAAs, which constitutes about 41 g per 100 g protein and will therefore help maintain plasma phe levels in the target range.
Enzyme substitutes
In 2018, the FDA approved an enzyme substitute called pegvaliase which metabolizes phenylalanine. It is for adults who are poorly managed on other treatments.
Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) (a cofactor for the oxidation of phenylalanine) when taken by mouth can reduce blood levels of this amino acid in some people. Most people, however, with the "classical" sequence of mutations, will have little or no benefit.
Mothers
For women with PKU, it is important for the health of their children to maintain low Phe levels before and during pregnancy.
Though the developing fetus may only be a carrier of the PKU gene, the
intrauterine environment can have very high levels of phenylalanine,
which can cross the placenta. The child may develop congenital heart
disease, growth retardation, microcephaly and intellectual disability as
a result. PKU-affected women themselves are not at risk of additional complications during pregnancy.
In most countries, women with PKU who wish to have children are
advised to lower their blood Phe levels (typically to between 2 and
6 mg/dL) before they become pregnant, and carefully control their levels
throughout the pregnancy. This is achieved by performing regular blood
tests and adhering very strictly to a diet, in general monitored on a
day-to-day basis by a specialist metabolic dietitian. In many cases, as
the fetus' liver begins to develop and produce PAH normally, the
mother's blood Phe levels will drop, requiring an increased intake to
remain within the safe range of 2–6 mg/dL. The mother's daily Phe intake
may double or even triple by the end of the pregnancy, as a result.
When maternal blood Phe levels fall below 2 mg/dL, anecdotal reports
indicate that the mothers may suffer adverse effects, including
headaches, nausea, hair loss, and general malaise. When low
phenylalanine levels are maintained for the duration of pregnancy, there
are no elevated levels of risk of birth defects compared with a baby
born to a non-PKU mother.
The average number of new cases of PKU varies in different human
populations. United States Caucasians are affected at a rate of 1 in
10,000.[50]
Turkey has the highest documented rate in the world, with 1 in 2,600
births, while countries such as Finland and Japan have extremely low
rates with fewer than one case of PKU in 100,000 births. A 1987 study
from Slovakia reports a Roma population with an extremely high incidence
of PKU (one case in 40 births) due to extensive inbreeding.[51] It is the most common amino acid metabolic problem in the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
History
Before
the causes of PKU were understood, PKU caused severe disability in most
people who inherited the relevant mutations. Nobel and Pulitzer Prize
winning author Pearl S. Buck
had a daughter named Carol who lived with PKU before treatment was
available, and wrote a moving account of its effects in a book called The Child Who Never Grew.
Many untreated PKU patients born before widespread newborn screening
are still alive, largely in dependent living homes/institutions.
Phenylketonuria was discovered by the Norwegian physician Ivar Asbjørn Følling in 1934
when he noticed hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) was associated with
intellectual disability. In Norway, this disorder is known as Følling's
disease, named after its discoverer. Følling was one of the first physicians to apply detailed chemical analysis to the study of disease.
In 1934 at Rikshospitalet,
Følling saw a young woman named Borgny Egeland. She had two children,
Liv and Dag, who had been normal at birth but subsequently developed
intellectual disability. When Dag was about a year old, the mother
noticed a strong smell to his urine. Følling obtained urine samples from
the children and, after many tests, he found that the substance causing
the odor in the urine was phenylpyruvic acid. The children, he
concluded, had excess phenylpyruvic acid in the urine, the condition
which came to be called phenylketonuria (PKU).
His careful analysis of the urine of the two affected siblings
led him to request many physicians near Oslo to test the urine of other
affected patients. This led to the discovery of the same substance he
had found in eight other patients. He conducted tests and found
reactions that gave rise to benzaldehyde and benzoic acid, which led him to conclude that the compound contained a benzene ring. Further testing showed the melting point to be the same as phenylpyruvic acid, which indicated that the substance was in the urine.
In 1954, Horst Bickel, Evelyn Hickmans and John Gerrard published a paper that described how they created a diet that was low in phenylalanine and the patient recovered. Bickel, Gerrard and Hickmans were awarded the John Scott Medal in 1962 for their discovery.
PKU was the first disorder to be routinely diagnosed through widespread newborn screening. Robert Guthrie introduced the newborn screening test for PKU in the early 1960s.
With the knowledge that PKU could be detected before symptoms were
evident, and treatment initiated, screening was quickly adopted around
the world. Ireland was the first country to introduce a national
screening programme in February 1966, Austria also started screening in 1966 and England in 1968.
Other therapies are currently under investigation, including gene therapy.
Biomarin is currently conducting clinical trials to investigate PEG-PAL (PEGylated recombinant phenylalanine ammonia lyase
or ‘PAL’) is an enzyme substitution therapy in which the missing PAH
enzyme is replaced with an analogous enzyme that also breaks down Phe.
PEG-PAL is now in Phase 2 clinical development.
An allele (/əˈliːl/, from German Allel and Greek ἄλλος állos “other”) is a variant form of a given gene, meaning it is one of two or more versions of a known mutation at the same place on a chromosome.
It can also refer to different sequence variations for a
several-hundred base-pair or more region of the genome that codes for a
protein. Alleles can come in different extremes of size. At the lowest
possible end one can be the single base choice of an SNP.
At the higher end, it can be the sequence variations for the regions of
the genome that code for the same protein which can be up to several
thousand base-pairs long.
Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation. A notable example of this trait of color variation is Gregor Mendel's discovery that the white and purple flower colors in pea
plants were the result of "pure line" traits which could be used as a
control for future experiments. However, most alleles result in little
or no observable phenotypic variation.
Most multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes; that is, they are diploid. In this case, the chromosomes can be paired: each pair is made up of two homologous chromosomes. If both alleles of a gene at the locus on the homologous chromosomes are the same, they and the organism are homozygous with respect to that gene. If the alleles are different, they and the organism are heterozygous with respect to that gene.
Etymology
The word "allele" is a short form of allelomorph ("other form", a word coined by British geneticists William Bateson and Edith Rebecca Saunders), which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. It derives from the Greek prefix ἀλληλο-, allelo-, meaning "mutual", "reciprocal", or "each other", which itself is related to the Greek adjective ἄλλος, allos (cognate with Latinalius), meaning "other".
Alleles that lead to dominant or recessive phenotypes
In many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as dominant or recessive, according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes the heterozygote
most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of
the homozygotes, the allele expressed is the one that leads to the
"dominant" phenotype,
and the other allele is said to be "recessive". The degree and pattern
of dominance varies among loci. This type of interaction was first
formally described by Gregor Mendel. However, many traits defy this simple categorization and the phenotypes are modeled by co-dominance and polygenic inheritance.
The term "wild type"
allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that is thought to
contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in "wild"
populations of organisms, such as fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster).
Such a "wild type" allele was historically regarded as leading to a
dominant (overpowering - always expressed), common, and normal
phenotype, in contrast to "mutant"
alleles that lead to recessive, rare, and frequently deleterious
phenotypes. It was formerly thought that most individuals were
homozygous for the "wild type" allele at most gene loci, and that any
alternative "mutant" allele was found in homozygous form in a small
minority of "affected" individuals, often as genetic diseases, and more frequently in heterozygous form in "carriers"
for the mutant allele. It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci
are highly polymorphic, with multiple alleles, whose frequencies vary
from population to population, and that a great deal of genetic
variation is hidden in the form of alleles that do not produce obvious
phenotypic differences.
Multiple alleles
Eye color is an inherited trait influenced by more than one gene, including OCA2 and HERC2.
The interaction of multiple genes—and the variation in these genes
("alleles") between individuals—help to determine a person's eye color phenotype. Eye color is influenced by pigmentation of the iris and the frequency-dependence of the light scattering by the turbid medium within the stroma of the iris.
In the ABO blood group system, a person with Type A blood displays A-antigens and may have a genotype IAIA or IAi. A person with Type B blood displays B-antigens and may have the genotype IBIB or IBi. A person with Type AB blood displays both A- and B-antigens and has the genotype IAIB and a person with Type O blood, displaying neither antigen, has the genotype ii.
A population or species
of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among
various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the
number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele
is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it
either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive.
For example, at the gene locus for the ABOblood typecarbohydrateantigens in humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and i, which determine compatibility of blood transfusions. Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (IAIA, IAi, IBIB, IBi, IAIB, and ii) which produce one of four possible phenotypes: "Type A" (produced by IAIA homozygous and IAi heterozygous genotypes), "Type B" (produced by IBIB homozygous and IBi heterozygous genotypes), "Type AB" produced by IAIB
heterozygous genotype, and "Type O" produced by ii homozygous genotype.
(It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a
class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce
proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at
the ABO locus.
Hence an individual with "Type A" blood may be an AO heterozygote, an
AA homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different "A" alleles.)
Genotype frequencies
The frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes. For a simple model, with two alleles;
[DJS -- Equivalent equations?]
where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the alternative allele, which necessarily sum to unity. Then, p2 is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2pq is the fraction of heterozygotes, and q2
is the fraction homozygous for the alternative allele. If the first
allele is dominant to the second then the fraction of the population
that will show the dominant phenotype is p2 + 2pq, and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is q2.
With three alleles:
and
In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of
possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the
expression:
Allelic dominance in genetic disorders
A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay–Sachs disease.
Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene
locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy
(that is, they are hemizygous), they are more frequent in males than in females. Examples include red-green color blindness and fragile X syndrome.
Other disorders, such as Huntington's disease, occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele.
Epialleles
While heritable traits are typically studied in terms of genetic alleles, epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation can be inherited at specific genomic regions in certain species, a process termed transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The term epiallele is used to distinguish these heritable marks from traditional alleles, which are defined by nucleotide sequence. A specific class of epiallele, the metastable epialleles,
has been discovered in mice and in humans which is characterized by
stochastic (probabilistic) establishment of epigenetic state that can be
mitotically inherited.