The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. Founded in 1994 and led by Tim Berners-Lee, the consortium
is made up of member organizations that maintain full-time staff
working together in the development of standards for the World Wide Web.
As of 5 March 2023, W3C had 462 members. W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web.
The organization tries to foster compatibility and agreement
among industry members in the adoption of new standards defined by the
W3C. Incompatible versions of HTML
are offered by different vendors, causing inconsistency in how web
pages are displayed. The consortium tries to get all those vendors to
implement a set of core principles and components that are chosen by the
consortium.
It was originally intended that CERN host the European branch of W3C; however, CERN wished to focus on particle physics, not information technology. In April 1995, the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation became the European host of W3C, with Keio University Research Institute at SFC becoming the Asian host in September 1996.
Starting in 1997, W3C created regional offices around the world. As of
September 2009, it had eighteen World Offices covering Australia, the Benelux
countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg), Brazil, China,
Finland, Germany, Austria, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Israel,
Italy, South Korea, Morocco, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and, as of
2016, the United Kingdom and Ireland.
In October 2012, W3C convened a community of major web players and publishers to establish a MediaWiki wiki that seeks to document open web standards called the WebPlatform and WebPlatform Docs.
In 2022 the W3C WebFonts Working Group won an Emmy Award from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences for standardizing font technology for custom downloadable fonts and typography for web and TV devices.
W3C develops technical specifications for HTML5, CSS, SVG, WOFF, the Semantic Web stack, XML, and other technologies.
Sometimes, when a specification becomes too large, it is split into
independent modules that can mature at their own pace. Subsequent
editions of a module or specification are known as levels and are
denoted by the first integer in the title (e.g. CSS3 = Level 3).
Subsequent revisions on each level are denoted by an integer following a
decimal point (for example, CSS2.1 = Revision 1).
The W3C standard formation process is defined within the W3C
process document, outlining four maturity levels through which each new
standard or recommendation must progress.
Working draft (WD)
After
enough content has been gathered from 'editor drafts' and discussion,
it may be published as a working draft (WD) for review by the community.
A WD document is the first form of a standard that is publicly
available. Commentary by virtually anyone is accepted, though no
promises are made with regard to action on any particular element
commented upon.
At this stage, the standard document may have significant
differences from its final form. As such, anyone who implements WD
standards should be ready to significantly modify their implementations
as the standard matures.
Candidate recommendation (CR)
A
candidate recommendation is a version of a more mature standard than
the WD. At this point, the group responsible for the standard is
satisfied that the standard meets its goal. The purpose of the CR is to
elicit aid from the development community on how implementable the
standard is.
The standard document may change further, but significant
features are mostly decided at this point. The design of those features
can still change due to feedback from implementors.
Proposed recommendation (PR)
A
proposed recommendation is the version of a standard that has passed
the prior two levels. The users of the standard provide input. At this
stage, the document is submitted to the W3C Advisory Council for final
approval.
While this step is important, it rarely causes any significant changes to a standard as it passes to the next phase.
W3C recommendation (REC)
This
is the most mature stage of development. At this point, the standard
has undergone extensive review and testing, under both theoretical and
practical conditions. The standard is now endorsed by the W3C,
indicating its readiness for deployment to the public, and encouraging
more widespread support among implementors and authors.
Recommendations can sometimes be implemented incorrectly,
partially, or not at all, but many standards define two or more levels
of conformance that developers must follow if they wish to label their
product as W3C-compliant.
Later revisions
A recommendation may be updated or extended by separately-published, non-technical errata
or editor drafts until sufficient substantial edits accumulate for
producing a new edition or level of the recommendation. Additionally,
the W3C publishes various kinds of informative notes which are to be
used as references.
Certification
Unlike the Internet Society
and other international standards bodies, the W3C does not have a
certification program. The W3C has decided, for now, that it is not
suitable to start such a program, owing to the risk of creating more
drawbacks for the community than benefits.
The W3C has a staff team of 70–80 worldwide as of 2015. W3C is run by a management team which allocates resources and designs strategy, led by CEO Jeffrey Jaffe (as of March 2010), former CTO of Novell. It also includes an advisory board that supports strategy and legal matters and helps resolve conflicts. The majority of standardization work is done by external experts in the W3C's various working groups.
Membership
The Consortium is governed by its membership. The list of members is available to the public. Members include businesses, nonprofit organizations, universities, governmental entities, and individuals.
Membership requirements are transparent except for one
requirement: An application for membership must be reviewed and approved
by the W3C. Many guidelines and requirements are stated in detail, but
there is no final guideline about the process or standards by which
membership might be finally approved or denied.
The cost of membership is given on a sliding scale, depending on
the character of the organization applying and the country in which it
is located. Countries are categorized by the World Bank's most recent grouping by gross national income per capita.
Criticism
In 2012 and 2013, the W3C started considering adding DRM-specific Encrypted Media Extensions (EME) to HTML5,
which was criticised as being against the openness, interoperability,
and vendor neutrality that distinguished websites built using only W3C
standards from those requiring proprietary plug-ins like Flash. On 18 September 2017, the W3C published the EME specification as a recommendation, leading to the Electronic Frontier Foundation's resignation from W3C. As feared by the opponents of EME, as of 2020, none of the widely used Content Decryption Modules used with EME is available for licensing without a per-browser licensing fee.
A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a set of roles, policies, hardware, software and procedures needed to create, manage, distribute, use, store and revoke digital certificates and manage public-key encryption.
The purpose of a PKI is to facilitate the secure electronic
transfer of information for a range of network activities such as
e-commerce, internet banking and confidential email. It is required for
activities where simple passwords are an inadequate authentication
method and more rigorous proof is required to confirm the identity of
the parties involved in the communication and to validate the
information being transferred.
In cryptography, a PKI is an arrangement that bindspublic keys with respective identities of entities (like people and organizations). The binding is established through a process of registration and issuance of certificates at and by a certificate authority
(CA). Depending on the assurance level of the binding, this may be
carried out by an automated process or under human supervision. When
done over a network, this requires using a secure certificate enrollment
or certificate management protocol such as CMP.
The PKI role that may be delegated by a CA to assure valid and correct registration is called a registration authority (RA). An RA is responsible for accepting requests for digital certificates and authenticating the entity making the request. The Internet Engineering Task Force's
RFC 3647 defines an RA as "An entity that is responsible for one or
more of the following functions: the identification and authentication
of certificate applicants, the approval or rejection of certificate
applications, initiating certificate revocations or suspensions under
certain circumstances, processing subscriber requests to revoke or
suspend their certificates, and approving or rejecting requests by
subscribers to renew or re-key their certificates. RAs, however, do not
sign or issue certificates (i.e., an RA is delegated certain tasks on
behalf of a CA)." While Microsoft may have referred to a subordinate CA as an RA,
this is incorrect according to the X.509 PKI standards. RAs do not have
the signing authority of a CA and only manage the vetting and
provisioning of certificates. So in the Microsoft PKI case, the RA
functionality is provided either by the Microsoft Certificate Services
web site or through Active Directory
Certificate Services which enforces Microsoft Enterprise CA, and
certificate policy through certificate templates and manages certificate
enrollment (manual or auto-enrollment). In the case of Microsoft
Standalone CAs, the function of RA does not exist since all of the
procedures controlling the CA are based on the administration and access
procedure associated with the system hosting the CA and the CA itself
rather than Active Directory. Most non-Microsoft commercial PKI
solutions offer a stand-alone RA component.
An entity must be uniquely identifiable within each CA domain on the basis of information about that entity. A third-party validation authority (VA) can provide this entity information on behalf of the CA.
PKI
provides "trust services" - in plain terms trusting the actions or
outputs of entities, be they people or computers. Trust service
objectives respect one or more of the following capabilities:
Confidentiality, Integrity and Authenticity (CIA).
Confidentiality: Assurance that no entity can maliciously
or unwittingly view a payload in clear text. Data is encrypted to make
it secret, such that even if it was read, it appears as gibberish.
Perhaps the most common use of PKI for confidentiality purposes is in
the context of Transport Layer Security (TLS).
TLS is a capability underpinning the security of data in transit, i.e.
during transmission. A classic example of TLS for confidentiality is
when using an internet browser to log on to a service hosted on an
internet based web site by entering a password.
Integrity: Assurance that if an entity changed (tampered)
with transmitted data in the slightest way, it would be obvious it
happened as its integrity would have been compromised. Often it is not
of utmost importance to prevent the integrity being compromised (tamper
proof), however, it is of utmost importance that if integrity is
compromised there is clear evidence of it having done so (tamper
evident).
Authenticity: Assurance that every entity has certainty of
what it is connecting to, or can evidence its legitimacy when
connecting to a protected service. The former is termed server-side
authentication - typically used when authenticating to a web server
using a password. The latter is termed client-side authentication -
sometimes used when authenticating using a smart card (hosting a digital
certificate and private key).
A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a system for the creation, storage, and distribution of digital certificates
which are used to verify that a particular public key belongs to a
certain entity. The PKI creates digital certificates which map public
keys to entities, securely stores these certificates in a central
repository and revokes them if needed.
A PKI consists of:
A certificate authority (CA) that stores, issues and signs the digital certificates;
A registration authority (RA) which verifies the identity of entities requesting their digital certificates to be stored at the CA;
A central directory—i.e., a secure location in which keys are stored and indexed;
A certificate management system managing things like the access to stored certificates or the delivery of the certificates to be issued;
A certificate policy
stating the PKI's requirements concerning its procedures. Its purpose
is to allow outsiders to analyze the PKI's trustworthiness.
The primary role of the CA is to digitally sign and publish the public key
bound to a given user. This is done using the CA's own private key, so
that trust in the user key relies on one's trust in the validity of the
CA's key. When the CA is a third party separate from the user and the
system, then it is called the Registration Authority (RA), which may or
may not be separate from the CA.
The key-to-user binding is established, depending on the level of
assurance the binding has, by software or under human supervision.
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, which signals that it
is no longer valid. Without revocation, an attacker would be able to
exploit such a compromised or mis-issued certificate until expiry. Hence, revocation is an important part of a public key infrastructure. Revocation is performed by the issuing certificate authority, which produces a cryptographically authenticated statement of revocation.
For distributing revocation information to clients, timeliness of
the discovery of revocation (and hence the window for an attacker to
exploit a compromised certificate) trades off against resource usage in
querying revocation statuses and privacy concerns. If revocation information is unavailable (either due to accident or an attack), clients must decide whether to fail-hard and treat a certificate as if it is revoked (and so degrade availability) or to fail-soft and treat it as unrevoked (and allow attackers to sidestep revocation).
Due to the cost of revocation checks and the availability impact from potentially-unreliable remote services, Web browsers limit the revocation checks they will perform, and will fail-soft where they do. Certificate revocation lists are too bandwidth-costly for routine use, and the Online Certificate Status Protocol
presents connection latency and privacy issues. Other schemes have been
proposed but have not yet been successfully deployed to enable
fail-hard checking.
Issuer market share
In
this model of trust relationships, a CA is a trusted third party –
trusted both by the subject (owner) of the certificate and by the party
relying upon the certificate.
According to NetCraft report from 2015, the industry standard for monitoring active Transport Layer Security
(TLS) certificates, states that "Although the global [TLS] ecosystem is
competitive, it is dominated by a handful of major CAs — three
certificate authorities (Symantec, Sectigo, GoDaddy)
account for three-quarters of all issued [TLS] certificates on
public-facing web servers. The top spot has been held by Symantec (or VeriSign
before it was purchased by Symantec) ever since [our] survey began,
with it currently accounting for just under a third of all certificates.
To illustrate the effect of differing methodologies, amongst the
million busiest sites Symantec issued 44% of the valid, trusted
certificates in use — significantly more than its overall market share."
Following major issues in how certificate issuing were managed,
all major players gradually distrusted Symantec issued certificates,
starting in 2017 and completed in 2021.
Temporary certificates and single sign-on
This approach involves a server that acts as an offline certificate authority within a single sign-on
system. A single sign-on server will issue digital certificates into
the client system, but never stores them. Users can execute programs,
etc. with the temporary certificate. It is common to find this solution
variety with X.509-based certificates.
Starting Sep 2020, TLS Certificate Validity reduced to 13 Months.
An alternative approach to the problem of public authentication of
public key information is the web-of-trust scheme, which uses
self-signed certificates
and third-party attestations of those certificates. The singular term
"web of trust" does not imply the existence of a single web of trust, or
common point of trust, but rather one of any number of potentially
disjoint "webs of trust". Examples of implementations of this approach
are PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) and GnuPG (an implementation of OpenPGP, the standardized specification of PGP). Because PGP and implementations allow the use of e-mail digital signatures for self-publication of public key information, it is relatively easy to implement one's own web of trust.
One of the benefits of the web of trust, such as in PGP,
is that it can interoperate with a PKI CA fully trusted by all parties
in a domain (such as an internal CA in a company) that is willing to
guarantee certificates, as a trusted introducer. If the "web of trust"
is completely trusted then, because of the nature of a web of trust,
trusting one certificate is granting trust to all the certificates in
that web. A PKI is only as valuable as the standards and practices that
control the issuance of certificates and including PGP or a personally
instituted web of trust could significantly degrade the trustworthiness
of that enterprise's or domain's implementation of PKI.
The web of trust concept was first put forth by PGP creator Phil Zimmermann in 1992 in the manual for PGP version 2.0:
As time goes on, you will
accumulate keys from other people that you may want to designate as
trusted introducers. Everyone else will each choose their own trusted
introducers. And everyone will gradually accumulate and distribute with
their key a collection of certifying signatures from other people, with
the expectation that anyone receiving it will trust at least one or two
of the signatures. This will cause the emergence of a decentralized
fault-tolerant web of confidence for all public keys.
Simple public key infrastructure
Another alternative, which does not deal with public authentication of public key information, is the simple public key infrastructure (SPKI) that grew out of three independent efforts to overcome the complexities of X.509 and PGP's web of trust. SPKI does not associate users with persons, since the key
is what is trusted, rather than the person. SPKI does not use any
notion of trust, as the verifier is also the issuer. This is called an
"authorization loop" in SPKI terminology, where authorization is
integral to its design.
This type of PKI is specially useful for making integrations of PKI
that do not rely on third parties for certificate authorization,
certificate information, etc.; a good example of this is an air-gapped network in an office.
Decentralized PKI
Decentralized identifiers
(DIDs) eliminates dependence on centralized registries for identifiers
as well as centralized certificate authorities for key management, which
is the standard in hierarchical PKI. In cases where the DID registry is
a distributed ledger, each entity can serve as its own root authority. This architecture is referred to as decentralized PKI (DPKI).
History
Developments in PKI occurred in the early 1970s at the British intelligence agency GCHQ, where James Ellis, Clifford Cocks and others made important discoveries related to encryption algorithms and key distribution.
Because developments at GCHQ are highly classified, the results of this
work were kept secret and not publicly acknowledged until the
mid-1990s.
The public disclosure of both secure key exchange and asymmetric key algorithms in 1976 by Diffie, Hellman, Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman changed secure communications entirely. With the further development of high-speed digital electronic communications (the Internet
and its predecessors), a need became evident for ways in which users
could securely communicate with each other, and as a further consequence
of that, for ways in which users could be sure with whom they were
actually interacting.
Assorted cryptographic protocols were invented and analyzed within which the new cryptographic primitives could be effectively used. With the invention of the World Wide Web
and its rapid spread, the need for authentication and secure
communication became still more acute. Commercial reasons alone (e.g., e-commerce, online access to proprietary databases from web browsers) were sufficient. Taher Elgamal and others at Netscape developed the SSL protocol ('https' in Web URLs);
it included key establishment, server authentication (prior to v3,
one-way only), and so on. A PKI structure was thus created for Web
users/sites wishing secure communications.
Vendors and entrepreneurs saw the possibility of a large market,
started companies (or new projects at existing companies), and began to
agitate for legal recognition and protection from liability. An American Bar Association technology project published an extensive analysis of some of the foreseeable legal aspects of PKI operations (see ABA digital signature guidelines), and shortly thereafter, several U.S. states (Utah
being the first in 1995) and other jurisdictions throughout the world
began to enact laws and adopt regulations. Consumer groups raised
questions about privacy, access, and liability considerations, which were more taken into consideration in some jurisdictions than in others.
The enacted laws and regulations differed, there were technical
and operational problems in converting PKI schemes into successful
commercial operation, and progress has been much slower than pioneers
had imagined it would be.
By the first few years of the 21st century, the underlying
cryptographic engineering was clearly not easy to deploy correctly.
Operating procedures (manual or automatic) were not easy to correctly
design (nor even if so designed, to execute perfectly, which the
engineering required). The standards that existed were insufficient.
PKI vendors have found a market, but it is not quite the market
envisioned in the mid-1990s, and it has grown both more slowly and in
somewhat different ways than were anticipated.
PKIs have not solved some of the problems they were expected to, and
several major vendors have gone out of business or been acquired by
others. PKI has had the most success in government implementations; the
largest PKI implementation to date is the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) PKI infrastructure for the Common Access Cards program.
Uses
PKIs of one
type or another, and from any of several vendors, have many uses,
including providing public keys and bindings to user identities which
are used for:
Encryption and/or authentication of documents (e.g., the XML Signature or XML Encryption standards if documents are encoded as XML);
Authentication of users to applications (e.g., smart card logon, client authentication with SSL/TLS). There's experimental usage for digitally signed HTTP authentication in the Enigform and mod_openpgp projects;
Mobile signatures are electronic signatures that are created using a
mobile device and rely on signature or certification services in a
location independent telecommunication environment;
Internet of things
requires secure communication between mutually trusted devices. A
public key infrastructure enables devices to obtain and renew X.509
certificates which are used to establish trust between devices and
encrypt communications using TLS.
Open source implementations
OpenSSL is the simplest form of CA and tool for PKI. It is a toolkit, developed in C, that is included in all major Linux distributions, and can be used both to build your own (simple) CA and to PKI-enable applications. (Apache licensed)
EJBCA is a full-featured, enterprise-grade, CA implementation developed in Java. It can be used to set up a CA both for internal use and as a service. (LGPL licensed)
Some argue that purchasing certificates for securing websites by SSL/TLS and securing software by code signing is a costly venture for small businesses. However, the emergence of free alternatives, such as Let's Encrypt, has changed this. HTTP/2,
the latest version of HTTP protocol, allows unsecured connections in
theory; in practice, major browser companies have made it clear that
they would support this protocol only over a PKI secured TLS connection. Web browser implementation of HTTP/2 including Chrome, Firefox, Opera, and Edge supports HTTP/2 only over TLS by using the ALPN
extension of the TLS protocol. This would mean that, to get the speed
benefits of HTTP/2, website owners would be forced to purchase SSL/TLS
certificates controlled by corporations.
Currently the majority of web browsers are shipped with pre-installed intermediate certificates issued and signed by a certificate authority, by public keys certified by so-called root certificates. This means browsers need to carry a large number of different certificate providers, increasing the risk of a key compromise.
When a key is known to be compromised, it could be fixed by
revoking the certificate, but such a compromise is not easily detectable
and can be a huge security breach. Browsers have to issue a security
patch to revoke intermediary certificates issued by a compromised root
certificate authority.
Alice
signs a message—"Hello Bob!"—by appending a signature computed from the
message and her private key. Bob receives both the message and
signature. He uses Alice's public key to verify the authenticity of the
signed message.
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for verifying the
authenticity of digital messages or documents. A valid digital
signature on a message gives a recipient confidence that the message
came from a sender known to the recipient.
Digital signatures are a standard element of most cryptographic protocol suites, and are commonly used for software distribution, financial transactions, contract management software, and in other cases where it is important to detect forgery or tampering.
Digital signatures employ asymmetric cryptography.
In many instances, they provide a layer of validation and security to
messages sent through a non-secure channel: Properly implemented, a
digital signature gives the receiver reason to believe the message was
sent by the claimed sender. Digital signatures are equivalent to
traditional handwritten signatures in many respects, but properly
implemented digital signatures are more difficult to forge than the
handwritten type. Digital signature schemes, in the sense used here, are
cryptographically based, and must be implemented properly to be
effective. They can also provide non-repudiation, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret.
Further, some non-repudiation schemes offer a timestamp for the digital
signature, so that even if the private key is exposed, the signature is
valid. Digitally signed messages may be anything representable as a bitstring: examples include electronic mail, contracts, or a message sent via some other cryptographic protocol.
A digital signature scheme typically consists of three algorithms:
A key generation algorithm that selects a private keyuniformly at random from a set of possible private keys. The algorithm outputs the private key and a corresponding public key.
A signing algorithm that, given a message and a private key, produces a signature.
A signature verifying algorithm that, given the message, public key and signature, either accepts or rejects the message's claim to authenticity.
Two main properties are required:
First, the authenticity of a signature generated from a fixed
message and fixed private key can be verified by using the corresponding
public key.
Secondly, it should be computationally infeasible to generate a
valid signature for a party without knowing that party's private key.
A digital signature is an authentication mechanism that enables the
creator of the message to attach a code that acts as a signature.
The Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, is one of many examples of a signing algorithm.
In the following discussion, 1n refers to a unary number.
Formally, a digital signature scheme is a triple of probabilistic polynomial time algorithms, (G, S, V), satisfying:
G (key-generator) generates a public key (pk), and a corresponding private key (sk), on input 1n, where n is the security parameter.
S (signing) returns a tag, t, on the inputs: the private key (sk), and a string (x).
V (verifying) outputs accepted or rejected on the inputs: the public key (pk), a string (x), and a tag (t).
where AS(sk, · ) denotes that A has access to the oracle, S(sk, · ), Q denotes the set of the queries on S made by A, which knows the public key, pk, and the security parameter, n, and x ∉ Q denotes that the adversary may not directly query the string, x, on S.
History
In 1976, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman
first described the notion of a digital signature scheme, although they
only conjectured that such schemes existed based on functions that are
trapdoor one-way permutations. Soon afterwards, Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman invented the RSA algorithm, which could be used to produce primitive digital signatures (although only as a proof-of-concept – "plain" RSA signatures are not secure). The first widely marketed software package to offer digital signature was Lotus Notes 1.0, released in 1989, which used the RSA algorithm.
In 1988, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Ronald Rivest became the first to rigorously define the security requirements of digital signature schemes. They described a hierarchy of attack models for signature schemes, and also presented the GMR signature scheme,
the first that could be proved to prevent even an existential forgery
against a chosen message attack, which is the currently accepted
security definition for signature schemes.
The first such scheme which is not built on trapdoor functions but
rather on a family of function with a much weaker required property of
one-way permutation was presented by Moni Naor and Moti Yung.
Method
One digital signature scheme (of many) is based on RSA. To create signature keys, generate an RSA key pair containing a modulus, N, that is the product of two random secret distinct large primes, along with integers, e and d, such that ed≡ 1 (mod φ(N)), where φ is Euler's totient function. The signer's public key consists of N and e, and the signer's secret key contains d.
Used directly, this type of signature scheme is vulnerable to
key-only existential forgery attack. To create a forgery, the attacker
picks a random signature σ and uses the verification procedure to
determine the message, m, corresponding to that signature. In practice, however, this type of signature is not used directly, but rather, the message to be signed is first hashed to produce a short digest, that is then padded to larger width comparable to N, then signed with the reverse trapdoor function.
This forgery attack, then, only produces the padded hash function
output that corresponds to σ, but not a message that leads to that
value, which does not lead to an attack. In the random oracle model, hash-then-sign (an idealized version of that practice where hash and padding combined have close to N possible outputs), this form of signature is existentially unforgeable, even against a chosen-plaintext attack.
There are several reasons to sign such a hash (or message digest) instead of the whole document.
For efficiency
The signature will be much shorter and thus save time since hashing is generally much faster than signing in practice.
For compatibility
Messages are typically bit strings, but some signature schemes
operate on other domains (such as, in the case of RSA, numbers modulo a
composite number N). A hash function can be used to convert an arbitrary input into the proper format.
For integrity
Without the hash function, the text "to be signed" may have to be
split (separated) in blocks small enough for the signature scheme to act
on them directly. However, the receiver of the signed blocks is not
able to recognize if all the blocks are present and in the appropriate
order.
Applications
As
organizations move away from paper documents with ink signatures or
authenticity stamps, digital signatures can provide added assurances of
the evidence to provenance, identity, and status of an electronic document
as well as acknowledging informed consent and approval by a signatory.
The United States Government Printing Office (GPO) publishes electronic
versions of the budget, public and private laws, and congressional
bills with digital signatures. Universities including Penn State, University of Chicago, and Stanford are publishing electronic student transcripts with digital signatures.
Below are some common reasons for applying a digital signature to communications:
Authentication
A
message may have letterhead or a handwritten signature identifying its
sender, but letterheads and handwritten signatures can be copied and
pasted onto forged messages.
Even legitimate messages may be modified in transit.
If a bank's central office receives a letter claiming to be from a
branch office with instructions to change the balance of an account,
the central bankers need to be sure, before acting on the instructions,
that they were actually sent by a branch banker, and not forged—whether a
forger fabricated the whole letter, or just modified an existing letter
in transit by adding some digits.
With a digital signature scheme, the central office can arrange
beforehand to have a public key on file whose private key is known only
to the branch office.
The branch office can later sign a message and the central office can
use the public key to verify the signed message was not a forgery before
acting on it.
A forger who doesn't know the sender's private key can't sign a
different message, or even change a single digit in an existing message
without making the recipient's signature verification fail.
Encryption
can hide the content of the message from an eavesdropper, but
encryption on its own may not let recipient verify the message's
authenticity, or even detect selective modifications like changing a digit—if
the bank's offices simply encrypted the messages they exchange, they
could still be vulnerable to forgery.
In other applications, such as software updates, the messages are not
secret—when a software author publishes a patch for all existing
installations of the software to apply, the patch itself is not secret,
but computers running the software must verify the authenticity of the
patch before applying it, lest they become victims to malware.
Limitations
Replays.
A digital signature scheme on its own does not prevent a valid signed
message from being recorded and then maliciously reused in a replay attack.
For example, the branch office may legitimately request that bank
transfer be issued once in a signed message.
If the bank doesn't use a system of transaction ids in their messages to
detect which transfers have already happened, someone could
illegitimately reuse the same signed message many times to drain an
account.
Uniqueness and malleability of signatures.
A signature itself cannot be used to uniquely identify the message it
signs—in some signature schemes, every message has a large number of
possible valid signatures from the same signer, and it may be easy, even
without knowledge of the private key, to transform one valid signature
into another.
If signatures are misused as transaction ids in an attempt by a bank-like system such as a Bitcoin exchange to detect replays, this can be exploited to replay transactions.
Authenticating a public key.
Prior knowledge of a public key can be used to verify authenticity of a signed message, but not the other way around—prior knowledge of a signed message cannot be used to verify authenticity of a public key.
In some signature schemes, given a signed message, it is easy to
construct a public key under which the signed message will pass
verification, even without knowledge of the private key that was used to
make the signed message in the first place.
Non-repudiation
Non-repudiation,
or more specifically non-repudiation of origin, is an important aspect
of digital signatures. By this property, an entity that has signed some
information cannot at a later time deny having signed it. Similarly,
access to the public key only does not enable a fraudulent party to fake
a valid signature.
Note that these authentication, non-repudiation etc. properties rely on the secret key not having been revoked prior to its usage. Public revocation
of a key-pair is a required ability, else leaked secret keys would
continue to implicate the claimed owner of the key-pair. Checking
revocation status requires an "online" check; e.g., checking a certificate revocation list or via the Online Certificate Status Protocol.
Very roughly this is analogous to a vendor who receives credit-cards
first checking online with the credit-card issuer to find if a given
card has been reported lost or stolen. Of course, with stolen key pairs,
the theft is often discovered only after the secret key's use, e.g., to
sign a bogus certificate for espionage purpose.
Notions of security
In their foundational paper, Goldwasser, Micali, and Rivest lay out a hierarchy of attack models against digital signatures:
In a key-only attack, the attacker is only given the public verification key.
In a known message attack, the attacker is given valid signatures for a variety of messages known by the attacker but not chosen by the attacker.
In an adaptive chosen message attack, the attacker first learns signatures on arbitrary messages of the attacker's choice.
They also describe a hierarchy of attack results:
A total break results in the recovery of the signing key.
A universal forgery attack results in the ability to forge signatures for any message.
A selective forgery attack results in a signature on a message of the adversary's choice.
An existential forgery merely results in some valid message/signature pair not already known to the adversary.
The strongest notion of security, therefore, is security against existential forgery under an adaptive chosen message attack.
Additional security precautions
Putting the private key on a smart card
All
public key / private key cryptosystems depend entirely on keeping the
private key secret. A private key can be stored on a user's computer,
and protected by a local password, but this has two disadvantages:
the user can only sign documents on that particular computer
the security of the private key depends entirely on the security of the computer
A more secure alternative is to store the private key on a smart card. Many smart cards are designed to be tamper-resistant (although some designs have been broken, notably by Ross Anderson and his students).
In a typical digital signature implementation, the hash calculated from
the document is sent to the smart card, whose CPU signs the hash using
the stored private key of the user, and then returns the signed hash.
Typically, a user must activate their smart card by entering a personal identification number or PIN code (thus providing two-factor authentication).
It can be arranged that the private key never leaves the smart card,
although this is not always implemented. If the smart card is stolen,
the thief will still need the PIN code to generate a digital signature.
This reduces the security of the scheme to that of the PIN system,
although it still requires an attacker to possess the card. A mitigating
factor is that private keys, if generated and stored on smart cards,
are usually regarded as difficult to copy, and are assumed to exist in
exactly one copy. Thus, the loss of the smart card may be detected by
the owner and the corresponding certificate can be immediately revoked.
Private keys that are protected by software only may be easier to copy,
and such compromises are far more difficult to detect.
Using smart card readers with a separate keyboard
Entering a PIN code to activate the smart card commonly requires a numeric keypad.
Some card readers have their own numeric keypad. This is safer than
using a card reader integrated into a PC, and then entering the PIN
using that computer's keyboard. Readers with a numeric keypad are meant
to circumvent the eavesdropping threat where the computer might be
running a keystroke logger,
potentially compromising the PIN code. Specialized card readers are
also less vulnerable to tampering with their software or hardware and
are often EAL3 certified.
Other smart card designs
Smart
card design is an active field, and there are smart card schemes which
are intended to avoid these particular problems, despite having few
security proofs so far.
Using digital signatures only with trusted applications
One
of the main differences between a digital signature and a written
signature is that the user does not "see" what they sign. The user
application presents a hash code to be signed by the digital signing
algorithm using the private key. An attacker who gains control of the
user's PC can possibly replace the user application with a foreign
substitute, in effect replacing the user's own communications with those
of the attacker. This could allow a malicious application to trick a
user into signing any document by displaying the user's original
on-screen, but presenting the attacker's own documents to the signing
application.
To protect against this scenario, an authentication system can be
set up between the user's application (word processor, email client,
etc.) and the signing application. The general idea is to provide some
means for both the user application and signing application to verify
each other's integrity. For example, the signing application may require
all requests to come from digitally signed binaries.
Using a network attached hardware security module
One of the main differences between a cloud
based digital signature service and a locally provided one is risk.
Many risk averse companies, including governments, financial and medical
institutions, and payment processors require more secure standards,
like FIPS 140-2 level 3 and FIPS 201 certification, to ensure the signature is validated and secure.
Technically speaking, a digital signature applies to a string of
bits, whereas humans and applications "believe" that they sign the
semantic interpretation of those bits. In order to be semantically
interpreted, the bit string must be transformed into a form that is
meaningful for humans and applications, and this is done through a
combination of hardware and software based processes on a computer
system. The problem is that the semantic interpretation of bits can
change as a function of the processes used to transform the bits into
semantic content. It is relatively easy to change the interpretation of a
digital document by implementing changes on the computer system where
the document is being processed. From a semantic perspective this
creates uncertainty about what exactly has been signed. WYSIWYS (What
You See Is What You Sign)
means that the semantic interpretation of a signed message cannot be
changed. In particular this also means that a message cannot contain
hidden information that the signer is unaware of, and that can be
revealed after the signature has been applied. WYSIWYS is a requirement
for the validity of digital signatures, but this requirement is
difficult to guarantee because of the increasing complexity of modern
computer systems. The term WYSIWYS was coined by Peter Landrock and Torben Pedersen to describe some of the principles in delivering secure and legally binding digital signatures for Pan-European projects.
Digital signatures versus ink on paper signatures
An
ink signature could be replicated from one document to another by
copying the image manually or digitally, but to have credible signature
copies that can resist some scrutiny is a significant manual or
technical skill, and to produce ink signature copies that resist
professional scrutiny is very difficult.
Digital signatures cryptographically bind an electronic identity
to an electronic document and the digital signature cannot be copied to
another document. Paper contracts sometimes have the ink signature block
on the last page, and the previous pages may be replaced after a
signature is applied. Digital signatures can be applied to an entire
document, such that the digital signature on the last page will indicate
tampering if any data on any of the pages have been altered, but this
can also be achieved by signing with ink and numbering all pages of the
contract.
Aggregate signatureru
– a signature scheme that supports aggregation: Given n signatures on n
messages from n users, it is possible to aggregate all these signatures
into a single signature whose size is constant in the number of users.
This single signature will convince the verifier that the n users did
indeed sign the n original messages. A scheme by Mihir Bellare and Gregory Neven may be used with Bitcoin.
Most digital signature schemes share the following goals regardless of cryptographic theory or legal provision:
Quality algorithms: Some public-key algorithms are known to be insecure, as practical attacks against them have been discovered.
Quality implementations: An implementation of a good algorithm (or protocol) with mistake(s) will not work.
Users (and their software) must carry out the signature protocol properly.
The private key must remain private: If the private key becomes known to any other party, that party can produce perfect digital signatures of anything.
The public key owner must be verifiable: A public key associated with Bob actually came from Bob. This is commonly done using a public key infrastructure (PKI) and the public key↔user association is attested by the operator of the PKI (called a certificate authority). For 'open' PKIs in which anyone can request such an attestation (universally embodied in a cryptographically protected public key certificate),
the possibility of mistaken attestation is non-trivial. Commercial PKI
operators have suffered several publicly known problems. Such mistakes
could lead to falsely signed, and thus wrongly attributed, documents.
'Closed' PKI systems are more expensive, but less easily subverted in
this way.
Only if all of these conditions are met will a digital signature
actually be any evidence of who sent the message, and therefore of their
assent to its contents. Legal enactment cannot change this reality of
the existing engineering possibilities, though some such have not
reflected this actuality.
Legislatures, being importuned by businesses expecting to profit
from operating a PKI, or by the technological avant-garde advocating new
solutions to old problems, have enacted statutes and/or regulations in
many jurisdictions authorizing, endorsing, encouraging, or permitting
digital signatures and providing for (or limiting) their legal effect.
The first appears to have been in Utah in the United States, followed closely by the states Massachusetts and California.
Other countries have also passed statutes or issued regulations in this
area as well and the UN has had an active model law project for some
time. These enactments (or proposed enactments) vary from place to
place, have typically embodied expectations at variance (optimistically
or pessimistically) with the state of the underlying cryptographic
engineering, and have had the net effect of confusing potential users
and specifiers, nearly all of whom are not cryptographically
knowledgeable.
Adoption of technical standards for digital signatures have
lagged behind much of the legislation, delaying a more or less unified
engineering position on interoperability, algorithm choice, key lengths, and so on what the engineering is attempting to provide.
Some industries have established common interoperability standards
for the use of digital signatures between members of the industry and
with regulators. These include the Automotive Network Exchange for the automobile industry and the SAFE-BioPharma Association for the healthcare industry.
Using separate key pairs for signing and encryption
In several countries, a digital signature has a status somewhat like that of a traditional pen and paper signature, as in the
1999 EU digital signature directive and 2014 EU follow-on legislation.
Generally, these provisions mean that anything digitally signed legally
binds the signer of the document to the terms therein. For that reason,
it is often thought best to use separate key pairs for encrypting and
signing. Using the encryption key pair, a person can engage in an
encrypted conversation (e.g., regarding a real estate transaction), but
the encryption does not legally sign every message he or she sends. Only
when both parties come to an agreement do they sign a contract with
their signing keys, and only then are they legally bound by the terms of
a specific document. After signing, the document can be sent over the
encrypted link. If a signing key is lost or compromised, it can be
revoked to mitigate any future transactions. If an encryption key is
lost, a backup or key escrow
should be utilized to continue viewing encrypted content. Signing keys
should never be backed up or escrowed unless the backup destination is
securely encrypted.
Green development is a real estate development concept that considers social and environmental impacts of development. It is defined by three sub-categories: environmental responsiveness, resource efficiency, and community and cultural sensitivity. Environmental responsiveness respects the intrinsic value
of nature, and minimizes damage to an ecosystem. Resource efficiency
refers to the use of fewer resources to conserve energy and the
environment. Community and cultural sensitivity recognizes the unique
cultural values that each community hosts and considers them in real
estate development, unlike more discernable signs of sustainability,
like solar energy,
(solar panels are more visibly "green" than the use of local
materials). Green development manifests itself in various forms, however
it is generally based on solution multipliers: features of a project
that provide additional benefits, which ultimately reduce the projects'
environmental impacts.
History
Green development emerged as a result of the environmental movement in the 1970s. In the real estate industry, use of the term commenced in 1987 with a report from the World Commission on Environment and Development, entitled "Our Common Future".
The report includes 16 principles of environmental management, designed
to foster green development. It also discusses the traditional model of
macroeconomic growth, and its disregard for environmental consequences.
Following this initial movement, the real estate industry experienced a
back-and-forth relationship with "green" methodologies; environmental
issues often came second behind purely economic factors. Incessant environmental concern and legislation affecting the real estate sector began to emerge, i.e. Green development.
However, a common concern of green development is that it may increase
project costs and completion times. Hence there has been an ongoing
argument of whether green strategies can be sustainable as well as economically stimulating. National environmental attention has since worked its way down to real estate developers, and become an increasing priority.
Developers today must work within the parameters of legislation that
now considers the environmental implications of development.
Legislation
In
response to increasing public concern regarding environmental issues,
governments have enacted legislation that regulates various aspects of
the real estate industry, as well as other sectors of the economy. In
the United States such legislation includes the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Coastal Zone Management Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA; also known as "Superfund."). NEPA, enacted in 1970, changed
how federal agencies made decisions because it required them to propose
environmental analysis before starting a project. The Clean Air Act
(1970) requires the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to set national standards for clean air and pollution control
regulations. The Clean Water Act (1972) was designed to minimize
pollution in natural bodies of water, and also to ensure water quality
that protects drinking water
sources and supports recreational activities such as fishing or
swimming. The Coastal Zone Management Act (1972) manages the nation's
coastal resources such as Great Lakes and estuaries. CERCLA is commonly
referred to as "Superfund" because it comprises two trust funds that
provide help to improve areas that have been polluted by hazardous
waste. The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 allows
the government to lien a property that is being cleaned up.
Additionally, the California Environmental Quality Act
(CEQA) is California's most comprehensive piece of legislation
regarding the environment. This act applies to all decisions made by
cities and counties in California, and includes the mandate of an Environmental Impact Report
(EIR), to both public and private projects. Subsequently, any new real
estate development is subject to a detailed environmental analysis
before starting a project.
California's Senate Bill (SB) 375 (2008) is another piece of
legislation that promotes green development. It aims to achieve
California's climate goals via more efficient land use and development
patterns. More specifically, SB 375
seeks to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through close
coordination between land-use and transportation. One way this is
achieved is through demand-side measures. This strategy would decrease driving
demand, and therefore reduce vehicle miles traveled (VMT), and
ultimately reduce GHG emissions. For example, a demand-side policy
component may include placing public transit stops near development, in
order to maximize walkability.
Additionally, California state law requires minimum energy conservation
levels for all new and/or existing development projects. The seller of a
home is required to include information regarding energy conservation
retrofitting and thermal insulation in the sales contract.
In practice
Broad development patterns
Senate Bill 375 demonstrates an urban planning strategy called growth management.
It is defined by a close coordination between land-use controls and
capital investment and heavily motivated by environmental issues. It is
defined by "the regulation of the amount, timing, location, and
character of development."
As the name may suggest, growth management may not imply limiting any
growth. "Growth control" carries the connotation of managing or limiting
growth, and "no growth" would indicate stopping growth all together.
Moreover, Growth Management requires the cooperation of all three of
these connotations.
Urban Growth Boundaries (UBG's), are popular growth management
strategies. They are designed to encourage growth within a given
boundary and discourage it outside the boundary. The goal of the UGB is
to promote dense development, in order to decrease urban sprawl. This
growth management technique ultimately seeks to revitalize central
cities, and create vibrant, walk-able spaces for community development.
These clustered development patterns are solution multipliers.
Reducing demand for infrastructure can save money and resources. These
multipliers can increase walkability, which fosters social interaction
and community togetherness.
Intelligent building
In the US, commercial and residential buildings are the highest consumers of electricity and HVAC
systems comprise a large portion of this usage. In fact, the US
Department of Energy projects that 70% of the electricity used in the US
is from buildings. Intelligent building
methods such as occupancy detection systems, wireless sensor networks,
and HVAC control systems aim to more efficient energy usage. A team of
researchers at the University of San Diego, project that their smart
building automation systems will save 10–15% in building energy.
Case studies
The Holly Street Village Apartments
The city of Pasadena, California
has recently adopted a general plan based on seven guiding principles:
community needs and quality of life, preservation of Pasadena's historic
character, economic vitality, a healthy family community, lack of need
for automobiles, promoted as a cultural, scientific, corporate,
entertainment and educational center for the region, and community
participation.
This project included environmental concern and social
considerations in the process of construction. The Holly Street Village
Apartments in Pasadena address several of the principles outlined in
Pasadena's general plan. It incorporates mixed-use development with
ground-floor retail center including a deli, a convenience store and an
art gallery. Also, the Holly Street Village Apartments is located near a
light rail station. The goal of these strategies is to reduce the
demand for automobiles, and making it easier for people to use public
transportation.
Inn of the Anasazi
Zimmer Associates International, a real estate development firm, completed the Inn of the Anasazi in Santa Fe, New Mexico
in 1991. Robert Zimmer (co-founder) and his partners, Steve Conger and
Michael Fuller, set a goal to construct a building that would, "showcase
energy- and resource-saving technologies, strengthen local community,
offer first class elegance, and financially reward its participants."
The interior design of the hotel pays respect to the ancient Anasazi
Indians, including locally crafted furniture, hand-made rugs, and Native
American, Hispanic and cowboy wall art. The use of adobe on the
exterior of the hotel includes the historic pueblo style. Also, Zimmer
and his partners repurposed a steel-framed building that had previously
been used in the 1960s as a juvenile detention center, instead of
starting the project from the beginning. Other "green" characteristics
of this Santa Fe hotel are skylights, energy-efficient lighting, and
water-saving fixtures. Also, the Inn of the Anasazi stimulates the
regional economy by purchasing locally grown organic food from Hispanic
farmers. Lastly the Inn encourage that the staff participate in local
nonprofit organizations and events that sponsor diverse local cultures.
The Inn of the Anasazi integrates "social and environmental goals with
financial considerations…"
Taipei 101
Taipei 101, stylized as TAIPEI 101, is a 1,667 feet (508 m) tall skyscraper located in Taipei, Taiwan which has received LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification from the U.S. Green Building Council
as the highest score in history. In this project, "TAIPEI" is an
acronym for "technology," "art," "innovation," "people," "environment,"
and "identity.
Dr. Hubert Keiber, CEO of Siemens Building Automation in Taipei,
stresses energy efficiency on the grounds that energy is the single
largest expense for commercial buildings. Since 2011, the Taipei 101 has
become the world's most environmentally responsible skyscraper,
reducing water use, energy use, and carbon emissions all by 10%.
Boulder, Colorado
Growth management/limitation (discussed previously) manifests itself in Boulder, Colorado.
The city of Boulder very tightly restricts housing development by
limiting housing permits to 400 per year, which is 1 percent of the
city's total housing stock. Additionally, the city has purchased land
outside of the city limits, designated for permanent, green open space.
This 400-unit cap seriously hinders population growth in the city.
This shortage of housing has several repercussions. First, it
increases housing prices. Also, because Boulder restricts housing
development more than it does commercial development, the number of
available workers in Boulder grows faster than the housing stock. This
results in many workers who commute from beyond the city limits.
Controversy
A
common critique of green development is that it negatively affects the
way real estate developers do business, as it can increase cost and
create delay.
For example, becoming LEED-certified can contribute to additional
costs. This includes additional building design and construction fees,
interior design and construction fees, building operations and
maintenance fees, neighborhood development fees, home and campus fees,
and volume program fees.
Additionally, green development has been critiqued on a
residential level. High-performance homes have proven to save energy in
the long run, but they rapidly increase up-front capital costs, via
tankless water heaters, radiant barriers and reflective insulation
systems, and high efficiency air conditioning systems. Also, developers are often unable to develop on certain portions of land due to conservation easements.
These easements are purchased by governments or non-governmental
organizations, in order to "preserve land in its natural, scenic,
agricultural, historical, forested, or open-space condition."
