A SUSTAINABLE MANKIND ON PLANET EARTH is limited by REGENERABILITY of RESSOURCES.
In 2020 worldpopulation consists of 8 billion people and consumes
RESSOURCES of 2 planets EARTH : www.footprintnetwork.org (database)
A SUSTAINABLE WORLDPOPULATION
- 4 billion people living on a LOW level of life
- 3 billion people living on a MIX Level of life or
- 2 billion people living on a HIGH Level of life
To reach a SUSTAINABLE WORLDPOPULATION we need a WORLDWIDE One
Child Policy which is supported by a reward system of tax advantages for
OneChildFamilies. That's the most important Goal of WORLDWIDE Policy.
Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the
living standards of the Western world, as does the non-industrialized
world in general. As of 2022, China and India account for most of the population in Asia, with more than 1.4 billion each.
It is the combination of population increase in the developing world
and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a
stark challenge to sustainability.
World
population growth rate, 1950–2050, as estimated in 2011 by the U.S.
Census Bureau, International Data Base. Although the rate of growth
decreases, population continues to rise. In 2050 still growing by over
45 million per yearMap of countries and territories by fertility rate as of 2020
Sustainable population
Many
studies have tried to estimate the world's sustainable population for
humans, that is, the maximum population the world can host.
A 2004 meta-analysis of 69 such studies from 1694 until 2001 found the
average predicted maximum number of people the Earth would ever have was
7.7 billion people, with lower and upper meta-bounds at 0.65 and 9.8
billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of
stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our
meta-estimates of a world population limit".
A 2012 United Nations report summarized 65 different estimates of
maximum sustainable population size and the most common estimate was 8
billion.
Climate change, excess nutrient loading (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), increased ocean acidity, rapid biodiversity loss, and other global trends suggest humanity is causing global ecological degradation and threatening ecosystem services that human societies depend on.
Because these environmental impacts are all directly related to human
numbers, recent estimates of a sustainable human population tend to put
forward much lower numbers, between 2 and 4 billion. Paul R. Ehrlich stated in 2018 that the optimum population is between 1.5 and 2 billion.
Geographer Chris Tucker estimates that 3 billion is a sustainable
number, provided human societies rapidly deploy less harmful
technologies and best management practices. Other estimates of a sustainable global population also come in at considerably less than the current population of 8 billion.
A 2014 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
posits that, given the "inexorable demographic momentum of the global
human population," efforts to slow population growth in the short term
will have little impact on sustainability,
which can be more rapidly achieved with a focus on technological and
social innovations, along with reducing consumption rates, while
treating population planning as a long term goal. The study says that
with a fertility-reduction model of one-child per female by 2100, it
would take at least 140 years to reduce the population to 2 billion
people by 2153. The 2022 "Scientists' warning on population," published by Science of the Total Environment,
states that "environmental analysts regard a sustainable human
population as one enjoying a modest, equitable middle-class standard of
living on a planet retaining its biodiversity and with climate-related
adversities minimized," which is estimated at between 2 and 4 billion
people.
Skeptics criticize the basic assumptions associated with these
overpopulation estimates. For example, Jade Sasser believes that
calculating a maximum of number of humanity which may be allowed to live
while only some, mostly privileged European former colonial powers, are
mostly responsible for unsustainably using up the Earth, is wrong.
But if current human numbers are not ecologically sustainable,
the costs are likely to fall on the world’s poorest citizens, regardless
of whether they helped cause the problem.
In fact, countries that contribute the most to unsustainable production
and consumption practices often have higher income per capita and
slower population growth, unlike countries that have a low income per
capita and rapidly growing populations.
According to a 2022 study published in Sustainable Development, a sustainable population is required for both preserving biodiversity and food security.
The study says that falling fertility rates are linked to access to
contraception and family planning services, and has little to no
relation to economic growth.
World population
According to data from 2015, the world population
is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, up from the current 8
billion, to exceed 9 billion people by 2050, and to reach 11.2 billion
by the year 2100. Most of the increase will be in developing countries
whose population is projected to rise from 5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9
billion in 2050. This increase will be distributed among the population
aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60 or over (1.1 billion) because the number
of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to
decrease. In contrast, the population of the more developed regions
is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1.23 billion to 1.28
billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a
projected net migration from developing to developed countries, which is
expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050.
Long-term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at
around 2070 of nine to ten billion people, and then a slow decrease to
8.4 billion by 2100.
However, these projections assume substantial improvements in
contraceptive availability throughout the developing world and large
decreases in desired family size (particularly in sub-Saharan Africa),
which may or may not happen. In the end, all population projections must be taken with a large pinch of salt. Particular care is needed to remember that future population size will depend on policy decisions and individual choices.
Talk of economic and population growth overshooting the limits of Earth's carrying capacity for humans is popular in environmentalism. The potential limiting factor for the human population might include water availability, energy availability, renewable resources, non-renewable resources, heat removal, photosynthetic capacity, or land availability for food production.
Or, as current trends suggest, the limiting factors might involve
ecosystems’ ability to absorb human pollution, as with climate change,
ocean acidification, or the toxification of rivers and streams.
The applicability of carrying capacity as a measurement of the Earth's
limits in terms of the human population has been questioned, since it
has proved difficult to calculate or predict the upper limits of
population growth. Carrying capacity has been used as a tool in Neo-Malthusian arguments to limit population growth since the 1950s. The concept of carrying capacity has been applied to determining the population limits in Shanghai, a city faced with rapid urbanization.
The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the human population, which exists in a non-equilibrium, has been criticized for not successfully being able to model the processes between humans and the environment. In popular discourse the concept is often used vaguely in the sense of a "balance between nature and human populations".
In human ecology
a popular definition from 1949 states "the maximum number of people
that a given land area will maintain in perpetuity under a given system
of usage without land degradation setting in". Sociologists
have criticized this for numerous reasons. Aside from the fact that
humans are able to adopt new customs and technology, some common
critiques are 1.) an assumption an equilibrium population exists, 2.)
difficulties in measuring resources, 3.) inability to account for human
tastes and how much labour they will expend, 4.) assumption of full
usage of resources, 5.) assumption of landscape
homogeneity, 6.) assumption that regions are isolated from each other,
7.) contradicted by history, and 8.) the standard of living is ignored.
Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, a progenitor in economics and a paradigm founder of ecological economics,
has argued in 1971 that the carrying capacity of Earth — that is,
Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels —
is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of
mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use. Leading ecological economist and steady-state theoristHerman Daly, a student of Georgescu-Roegen, has propounded the same argument.
In a series of writings, Daly has explored the connection between
limiting population and achieving ecologically sustainable societies,
arguing that a sustainable economy must involve limits to human numbers,
since per capita human resource use can never be driven down to zero.
An ecovillage is a traditional or intentional community that aims to become more socially, culturally, economically and/or environmentally sustainable.
An ecovillage strives to have the least possible negative impact on the
natural environment through the intentional physical design and
behavioural choices of its inhabitants.
It is consciously designed through locally owned, participatory
processes to regenerate and restore its social and natural environments.
Most range from a population of 50 to 250 individuals, although some
are smaller, and traditional ecovillages are often much larger. Larger
ecovillages often exist as networks of smaller sub-communities. Some
ecovillages have grown through like-minded individuals, families, or
other small groups—who are not members, at least at the outset—settling
on the ecovillage's periphery and participating de facto in the community. There are currently more than 10,000 ecovillages around the world.
Ecovillagers are united by shared ecological, social-economic and cultural-spiritual values.
Concretely, ecovillagers seek alternatives to ecologically destructive
electrical, water, transportation, and waste-treatment systems, as well
as the larger social systems that mirror and support them. Many see the
breakdown of traditional forms of community, wasteful consumerist lifestyles, the destruction of natural habitat, urban sprawl, factory farming, and over-reliance on fossil fuels as trends that must be changed to avert ecological disaster and create richer and more fulfilling ways of life.
The concept of the ecovillage has undergone significant
development over time, as evidenced by the remarkable growth and
evolution of these communities over the past few decades. The various
facets of the ecovillage include case studies of community models,
discussions on sustainability alignment for diverse needs, examinations
of their environmental impact, explorations of governance structures,
and considerations of the challenges faced on their path towards a
successful ecovillage.
Definition
Multiple sources define ecovillages as a subtype of intentional communities focusing on sustainability. More pronounced definitions are listed here:
"human-scale
full-featured settlement in which human activities are harmlessly
integrated into the natural world in a way that is supportive of healthy
human development, and can be successfully continued into the
indefinite future."
Diana Michelle Fischetti
2008
"intentional community whose members strive to live in a socially
and environmentally sustainable manner, to practice voluntary
simplicity, and to cultivate meaning, life satisfaction, and
fulfillment."
Kosha Anja Joubert, Executive Director of the GEN
2016
"intentional or traditional communities, consciously designed
through participatory process to regenerate their social and natural
environments. The social, ecological, economic, and cultural
aspects are integrated into a holistic sustainable development
model that is adapted to local contexts. Ecovillages are rural
or urban settlements with vibrant social structures, vastly diverse,
yet united in their actions towards low impact, high quality
lifestyles."
GEN
2018
"intentional, traditional or urban community that is
consciously designed through locally owned, participatory processes in
all 5 dimensions of sustainability (social, culture, ecology, economy
and whole systems design) to regenerate their social and natural
environments"
GEN
2024
"An ecovillage is an intentional, traditional or urban community
that is consciously designed through locally owned, participatory
processes in all four dimensions of sustainability (social, culture, ecology and economy) to regenerate their social and natural environments."
In Joubert's view, ecovillages are seen as an ongoing process, rather
than a particular outcome. They often start off with a focus on one of
the four dimensions of sustainability, e.g. ecology, but evolve into
holistic models for restoration. In this view, aiming for sustainability
is not enough; it is vital to restore and regenerate the fabric of life
and across all four dimensions of sustainability: social,
environmental, economic and cultural.
Ecovillages have developed in recent years as technology has
improved, so they have more sophisticated structures as noted by
Baydoun, M. 2013.
Generally, the ecovillage concept is not tied to specific
sectarian (religious, political, corporate) organizations or belief
systems not directly related to environmentalism, such as monasteries,
cults, or communes.
History
The
modern-day desire for community was notably characterized by the
communal "back to the land" movement of the 1960s and 1970s through
communities such as the earliest example that still survives, the Miccosukee Land Co-op
co-founded in May 1973 by James Clement van Pelt in Tallahassee,
Florida. In the same decades, the imperative for alternatives to
radically inefficient energy-use patterns, in particular
automobile-enabled suburban sprawl,
was brought into focus by recurrent energy crises. The term
"eco-village" was introduced by Georgia Tech Professor George Ramsey in a
1978 address, "Passive Energy Applications for the Built Environment",
to the First World Energy Conference of the Association of Energy
Engineers,
to describe small-scale, car-free, close-in developments, including
suburban infill, arguing that "the great energy waste in the United
States is not in its technology; it is in its lifestyle and concept of
living."
Ramsey's article includes a sketch for a "self-sufficient pedestrian
solar village" by one of his students that looks very similar to
eco-villages today.
The movement became more focused and organized in the cohousing and related alternative-community movements of the mid-1980s. Then, in 1991, Robert Gilman and Diane Gilman
co-authored a germinal study called "Ecovillages and Sustainable
Communities" for Gaia Trust, in which the ecological and communitarian
themes were brought together.
The first Eco-Village in North America began its first stages in
1990. Earthaven Eco-Village in Black Mountain, NC was the first
community called an Eco-Village and was designed using permaculture
(holistic) principles. The first residents moved onto the vacant land in
1993. As of 2019 Earthaven Eco-Village has over 70 families living off
the grid on 368 acres of land.
The ecovillage movement began to coalesce at the annual autumn conference of Findhorn,
in Scotland, in 1995. The conference was called: "Ecovillages and
Sustainable Communities", and conference organizers turned away hundreds
of applicants. According to Ross Jackson,
"somehow they had struck a chord that resonated far and wide. The word
'ecovillage'... thus became part of the language of the Cultural Creatives."
After that conference, many intentional communities, including
Findhorn, began calling themselves "ecovillages", giving birth to a new
movement. The Global Ecovillage Network,
formed by a group of about 25 people from various countries who had
attended the Findhorn conference, crystallized the event by linking
hundreds of small projects from around the world, that had similar goals
but had formerly operated without knowledge of each other. Gaia Trust
of Denmark agreed to fund the network for its first five years.
Since the 1995 conference, a number of the early members of the
Global Ecovillage Network have tried other approaches to ecovillage
building in an attempt to build settlements that would be attractive to
mainstream culture in order to make sustainable development more
generally accepted. One of these with some degree of success is Living Villages
and The Wintles where eco-houses are arranged so that social
connectivity is maximized and residents have shared food growing areas,
woodlands, and animal husbandry for greater sustainability.
The most recent worldwide update emerges from the 2022 Annual
Report of GEN International, detailing the mapping of 1,043 ecovillage
communities on GEN's interactive ecovillage map.
GEN collaborated closely with a diverse array of researchers and
ecovillage communities spanning the globe to develop the Ecovillage
Impact Assessment. Their innovative tool serves as a means for
communities, groups, and individuals to accurately report, chart,
evaluate, and present their efforts toward fostering participatory
cultural, social, ecological, and economic regeneration. Over the course
of three years, from February 2021 to April 2024, data from 140 surveys
conducted within 75 ecovillages formed the basis of the comprehensive
results. Through this assessment ecovillages are empowered to understand
their impact and influence their community has had.
Case studies
Ecovillage
Location
Summary
Dancing Rabbit Ecovillage
Missouri, United States
The Dancing Rabbit Ecovillage was founded in 1997 and is located in a
rural landscape of northeastern Missouri. This community prides itself
on its organic permaculture gardens, natural buildings, alternative
energy solutions, and self-governance. As an intentional community, they
aim to live ecologically sustainable and socially share the principles
and practices of sustainable living with others. They offer many
programs such as women's retreats, work exchange and natural building
workshops demonstrating how they prioritize outreach, education, and
advocacy. As stated on their website they are committed stewards of the
land, focusing on wildlife habitat preservation, biodiversity
restoration, and sustainable forestry.
Cloughjordan
Ireland
The Cloughjordan Ecovillage was founded in 1999 and is located in a
sustainable neighborhood in a rural Ireland. This community encompasses a
67-acre site and has prided itself on their fiber optic broadband,
eco-hostels, and a thriving community with over 50 homes and businesses.
Cloughjordan serves as a sustainable neighborhood and is a focus for
research into sustainability, resilience, and rural regeneration.
Through renewable energy, community farming, and educational outreach,
Cloughjordan has demonstrated the potential for transitioning to a
low-carbon society. It also serves as a not-for-profit cooperative and
educational charity, proving their commitment to sustainability and
community development.
Sustainability alignment
Ecovillages
are defined by their commitment sustainability through a multitude of
design, lifestyle, and community objectives. They prioritize
environmental stewardship through various methods, including the
utilization of renewable energy sources, the minimization of waste
through recycling and composting, and the practice of organic
agriculture and permaculture. In many cases, these communities strive
for self-sufficiency in food production, with the aim of reducing the
ecological footprint associated with food transportation.
Ecovillage communities place a strong emphasis on the conservation of
resources through the application of green building techniques,
including passive solar design, natural insulation, and rainwater
harvesting. Additionally, they promote alternative modes of
transportation, such as cycling and walking, as a means of reducing
reliance on fossil fuels.
The objective of ecovillages is to cultivate robust social connections
and a sense of belonging among residents through the promotion of
collaboration, consensus-based decision-making, and shared
responsibilities. This approach fosters a supportive environment that
enhances both individual and collective resilience.
Ecovillages represent an international phenomenon that encompasses
cultural diversity, frequently integrating traditional wisdom alongside
innovative practices. Many ecovillages espouse multiculturalism,
indigenous knowledge, and participation as means of enhancing
intergenerational learning. In essence, these communities endeavor to
achieve sustainable living through a multitude of diverse efforts,
offering valuable insight into the creation of a sustainable
relationship between humanity and the natural world.
In essence, these communities aim for sustainable living through a
multitude of various efforts and offer valuable insight for creating a
sustainable relationship between humanity and the natural world.
Environmental impact
The
formation of ecovillages is frequently driven by a concern for
environmental stewardship and a commitment to sustainable practices.
Ecovillages frequently employ reusable power sources, such as solar and
wind energy, and utilize natural materials, including mud, wood, and
straw, in their construction. Such technologies as bioclimatic
agriculture are employed in this regard.
A study on an ecovillage in Ithaca, New York found that the
average ecological footprint of a resident in the ecovillage was 70%
less than the ecological footprint of most Americans. Ecovillage residents seek a sustainable lifestyle (for example, of voluntary simplicity) for inhabitants with a minimum of trade outside the local area, or ecoregion.
Many seek independence from existing infrastructures, although others,
particularly in more urban settings, pursue more integration with
existing infrastructure. Rural ecovillages are usually based on organic farming, permaculture and other approaches which promote ecosystem function and biodiversity.
Ecovillages, whether urban or rural, tend to integrate community and
ecological values within a principle-based approach to sustainability,
such as permaculture design.
In 2019, a study assessed the impact of community sustainability
through a life cycle assessment conducted on three ecovillages. The
results of this study revealed a substantial reduction in carbon
emissions among residents of these ecovillages when compared to the
average United States citizen. This study reported that residents had a
63% to 71% decrease in carbon emissions due to living in an ecovillage
with sustainable practices and mitigation efforts to environmental
impact.
Governance
Ecovillages,
while united by their commitment to sustainability and communal living,
often differ in their approaches to governance. Every ecovillage
strives to reflect the diverse needs and values of their communities.
Ultimately, the choice of governance model within ecovillages aims to
demonstrates a balance between fostering community cohesion, promoting
sustainability, and accommodating the varied needs and values of their
members.
Establishing governance is a common method used by ecovillages to align individual actions with community objectives.
Most ecovillages maintain a distinct set of policies to govern aspects
of what keeps their society functioning. Policies within ecovillages are
meant to evolve with new situations prompting revisions to existing
guidelines. Ecovillages commonly incorporate elements of consensus
decision-making into their governance processes. This approach aims to mitigate hierarchies, power imbalances, and inflexibility within their governments.
The governmental framework designed in the Ecovillage Tamera, Portugal
promotes inclusivity that actively works to combat hierarchical
structures. The Tamera community attributes their success to their
Women's Council who confront patriarchal norms and empower women within
the governance system.
Members of ecovillage communities will select their peers to serve as
government members based off established trust within the community,
this serves as an active strategy to mitigate the emergence of
hierarchies. Through involvement of community members in reviewing and revising
existing rules, ecovillages ensure flexibility and adaptability to
evolving needs. Active participation in policy formulation fosters a
sense of ownership among members regarding community expectations and
boundaries.
Ecovillage community members express their contentment knowing they had
the opportunity to voice their concerns and contribute to the
decision-making process.
Each ecovillage exhibits a unique approach to how they will
develop their governance. Ecovillages acknowledge that there is a
delicate balance in maintaining a functioning community that appreciates
and considers the perspectives of its members. Through active
involvement in the governance processes, ecovillages demonstrate a
commitment to inclusivity, adaptability, and collective empowerment,
demonstrating the principles of collaborative decision-making and
community-driven change.
Challenges
While
ecovillages aim to embody admirable dimensions of sustainability and
community, they are not without their challenges. One significant
challenge is the initial investment required to establish or transition
to an ecovillage lifestyle.
The costs of acquiring land, implementing sustainable infrastructure,
and maintaining communal facilities can be prohibitive for some
individuals or groups making available funds a limiting factor.
Conflicts can arise regarding community rules, resource allocation, or
individual responsibilities, it can be difficult to maintain cohesion
which can be expected in any community type. An explorative study
results concluded that the perceived quality of life of residents in
eco-developments rated higher perceived quality of life than residents
of developments in conventional settings while still noting various
challenges they experienced.
Another noteworthy challenge can be limited access to resources, like
land that is adequate for agriculture, available water or renewable
energy potential which can limit the viability of ecovillage
initiatives.
A Sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people and other organisms, without resource depletion
and in such a way that no external waste is produced. Thus the habitat
can continue into the future tie without external infusions of
resources. Such a sustainable habitat may evolve naturally or be produced under the influence of man. A sustainablehabitat
that is created and designed by human intelligence will mimic nature,
if it is to be successful. Everything within it is connected to a
complex array of organisms, physical resources, and functions. Organisms
from many different biomes can be brought together to fulfill various ecological niches.
Definition
A sustainable habitat is achieving stability between the economic and social development of human habitats together with the defense of the environment, shelter, basic services, social infrastructure, and transportation.
A sustainable habitat
is required to make sure that one species' waste ends up being the
energy or food source for another species. It involves the preservation
of the ecological balance in terms of a symbiotic perspective on urban
development while developing urban extensions of existing towns.
In creating the sustainable habitats, environmental scientists, designers, engineers and architects must not consider any elements as a waste
product to be disposed of somewhere off site, but as a nutrient stream
for another process to feed on. Researching ways to interconnect waste
streams to production creates a more sustainable society by minimizing pollution.
Sustainability of marine ecosystems
is a concern. Rigorous fishing has decreased top trophic levels and
affected the ecological dynamics and resilience of fisheries by reducing
the numbers and lengths of food webs. Historically intense commercial and rising recreational fishing pressures have resulted in "unsustainable rates of exploitation for 70% of the snapper-grouper complex, which consists of over 50 species, mainly of groupers and snappers" in Florida and the Florida Keys. The systematic and widespread conversion of estuarine habitats
into agricultural, industrial, and urban uses has demonstrated a
historical devotion to valuing the use of land for purposes from a
position of simple but defective logic. Unused land provides no
products, which is useless land.
The ecosystem services approach fills gaps in a sustainability analysis by demanding the account for the linkages between ecosystem goods and services, and ecosystem processes and human wellbeing.
The World Commission on Environment and Development states that "sustaining oceans are marked by a fundamental unity." Interconnected cycles of energy, climate, marine living resources, and human activities move through coastal waters, regional seas, and the closed oceans. Global pressures on the ocean include rising levels of greenhouse gas emissions, which impact species and food webs throughout ocean ecosystems, deoxygenation, overfishing, and run-off pollution from land and coastal sources.
Transformation to a thriving ocean system requires changes in governance across sectors and scales. "The end result would be a form of polycentric governance that can manage shared resources and ocean space." A polycentric governance goal from The World Commission on Environment and Development
is "to support multiple governing bodies by establishing a shared
vision and creating principled guiding frameworks and processes to
facilitate coherent systems-oriented regulation."
Types of sustainable habitats
Coral reefs
Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef
A coral reef
is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals.
Coral reefs serve as a habitat for a diverse range of fish and
invertebrates, while also providing economic resources to fishing
communities.
The coral reefs' foundation is made up of stony corals with
calcareous skeletons that protect shores from storm surges. They also
help produce sand for recreational beaches and aquariums.
Coral reefs are a largely self-sustaining ecosystem and up to 90%
of the corals' nutrients may come from their symbiotic relationships. The coral polyps and microscopic algae zooxanthellae in coral reefs have a symbiotic relationship wherein the algae provide nourishment to the coral polyps from within their tissue.
Parks
Beech Forest (AU), Great Otway National Park, Beauchamp FallsSaint Stephen's Green, Dublin, Ireland
A park
is a protected area of wildlife. It is a natural sustainable habitat.
Parks promote a culture of wellness that engages members of their
surrounding communities and promotes healthy and active lifestyles.
People who volunteer at parks may support these sustainable habitats and
help to maintain them.
Parks may serve as recreational areas for communities, encouraging people to spend time in nature. Urban parks are in urban areas, creating a natural space that benefits those living in cities.
Plants and animals may flourish in parks, where they are able to
have a sustainable habitat away from the interference of humans. This
is especially true of national parks, where land is set aside and preserved. These habitats are sustainable in nature.
Cities
A sustainable city is a city that is designed and built in an ecologically friendly way. Sustainable cities may also be known as eco-cities or green cities. These cities are constructed with guidelines about spatial planning and operational rules pertaining to urbanism in mind. Spatial planning takes into account ecological, social, cultural, and economic issues and policies. This leads to the creation of mindfully built cities that are aware and conscious of their impact on the environment.
Sustainable cities in earthquake-prone areas are built with input from civil engineers, architects, and urban planners
who collaborate on safe architecture that can withstand disasters.
This reduces waste and ensures that buildings will last for many years
to come. In areas that are protected because of nature and cultural
heritage, this heritage may be reflected in the choice of construction
materials and the design of the buildings. This helps to preserve
culture. Additionally, construction materials and building orientation
may be chosen with the intent to mitigate the effects of climate change. Cities may also be planned to include green spaces and trees that reduce heat stress.
Creating sustainable habitats
In creating sustainable habitats, environmental scientists, designers, engineers and architects must not consider any elements as a waste product to be disposed of somewhere off-site, but as a nutrient stream for another process to feed on.
Net-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB)
These buildings are made to use the minimum amount of energy possible. When these buildings contain renewable sources
they are able to produce the specific amount of energy required to
function. In some cases they can produce more than the energy they need
and they will harness this energy.
Net Zero Water Building
Energy positive buildings
Currently, "buildings account for almost 40 percent of global carbon emissions."
Energy-positive buildings produce more energy than the energy they
demand, this is a demand for most countries that are focused on total
carbon emissions. Hydro and the Zero Emission Resource Organisation
(ZERO) is a specific company that has created energy-positive buildings
in Norway. They have an interesting approach that includes embodied
energy, which means that the total energy with every step of collecting
materials and constructing the building. For example, timber or wood
takes less energy to collect, cut, and construct into something than
concrete. Whereas recycled material contains the lowest embodied energy.
This company has engineered its buildings to self-ventilate, have
maximum daylight, and more. This is one alternative to building sustainable habitats.
Sustainable building materials
Concrete
Sustainable building materials can change the way we move forward as a society. A very common form of building material is concrete. However, this is not a sustainable resource for building materials because it can crack and degrade over time. An alternative to concrete is bacterial concrete (self-healing concrete), which is a substance that mixes Bacillus pseudofirmus,Bacillus cohnii, and concrete.
This mixture can be a sustainable switch because it is a self-healing
substance. Since concrete can crack from weathering, plates shifting,
and the temperature it is important to consider using something that
will last a long time and won't need several repairs. This bacteria
concrete improves strength, reduces water absorption, and more.
Depending on the bacteria used you can have different effects on the
overall durability of the concrete. For example, in a place where chloride is used, you can add Sporosarcina pasteuria to increase the overall resistance to the chloride ion that can penetrate the concrete. Another example is water absorption, in this situation Bacillus sphaericus reduced water absorption.
The different types of bacteria can assist in the sustainability of
the overall structure and length of the substance. The cost of adding
bacteria can be 2.3 to 3.9 times higher in cost than normal concrete.
self-healing concrete that fixes cracks in concrete
Wood
Wood
can be a great resource for building structures because of the
longevity of the material. However, since wood is a natural resource
specific protocols need to be followed for using this material in order
to be a sustainable building. Wood is the most commonly used building material in the United States. Wood has a low carbon impact and a low embodied energy. This is the amount of energy that is required to harvest and create said building.
wood
The process of environmental planning
environmental planning
Environmental planning
can be numerous things including building structures, effeminacy, and
useability. A lot of factors go into play for planning something that is
sustainable, and environmentally friendly, while still implementing
culture and aspects to improve society.
One topic why environmental planning is so important is tourism. When
people visit a new place they spend a lot of money, this money goes to
the economy of the town with several tourists.
List of steps for planning
Create a planning team
Make a vision for future
Figure out community wants and needs for the environment
Find solutions
Create a plan
Proceed with plan
Evaluate steps and fix any issues.
This list can create a wonderful set of baseline monitoring. This is
important for sustainable habitats because it is a framework to ensure
that the environment will not be negatively impacted by human actions of
creating specific things like parks, houses, community buildings, and
more.
Sustainable transportation
Transportation
can be considered an important way that an economy can help society
succeed. Transportation actually produces 23% of the carbon emissions in
the world. Also, it accounts for 64% of the world's oil use.
This is a huge percentage of natural resources going into
transportation. There are solutions that can be implemented to create a
sustainable habitat for the communities and economies of the world. An
example of sustainable public transportation in Jakarta, Indonesia, which has won the Sustainable Transport Award.
One way they one this award and implemented sustainability is by
connecting local buses, vehicles, and micro busses within their cities
and urban regions.
The city of Jakarta has created a transportation system called BRT
system that had specific lanes just for public transportation.
This has decreased traffic overall because more people are using the
BRT system instead of driving. Something else that the BRT
transportation system has is that it can take people farther than the
individual car can. This lowered carbon emissions and oil consumption.
Jakarta metrotrans bus
Green energy
Green energy is an alternative to using fossil fuels. Some examples are solar energy, wind energy, and nuclear energy.
These alternatives use natural energy instead of fossil fuels to
promote green electricity. The use of green energy can boost any
economy, for example in India it could create a green energy market
worth 80 billion by 2030.
India has created 59 solar parks in the country. One of the largest
parks in India has a capacity of 30 GW for a solar wind hybrid park. All
of the parks in India have changed the way the economy works overall.
They have decreased the amount of money it cost using fossil fuels
because they are using natural energy. They have also implemented a
self-cleaning tool that cleans the solar panels in the solar parks they
created. Solar panels can get dirty from weathering. This tool cleans
the top of the solar panel so that the maximum amount of energy is
produced.
Solar Panels HUDA station in India
Remedial efforts
Mauricie National Park.
Restoration and protection of parks
The restoration and protection of parks
begins with the acknowledgement of the need for actions. After a
government or state is aware of the need for restoration, protection,
and the creation of these sustainable habitats, action takes place.
The need for funding creates the foundational roadblock in protecting and restoring parks. Funding can be received by state legislations and fundraising projects hosted by supporting organizations.
This funding can then be systematically distributed to encompass
movements that make a significant stride towards protecting and
restoring parks. These movements include but are not limited to setting
up fences around parks, establishing park security, and supplying and
resupplying proper nutritional elements to the parks to sustain and promote growth of habitats.
Ocean Governance
Ocean Shoreline Drone Shot.
Ocean Governance
is defined as the “integrated conduct of the policy, actions, and
affairs regarding the world’s oceans to protect ocean environment,
sustainable use of coastal and marine resources as well as to conserve
its biodiversity.”
Ocean governance as a process is recommended to be integrated
horizontally and vertically. Integrating a process horizontally entails
requiring the participation of “governmental institutions, the private
sector, NGOs, academics, [and] scientists”,
while integrating a process vertically entails essential communication,
collaboration, and coordination between the chosen governmental
institutions and other participatory agencies.
Partnership is an essential aspect of ocean governance as it covers all bases of collective remedial
efforts. Essentially, it connects local and state governments who both
want to induce the remedial efforts. Communication between
inter-governmental agencies and regional institutions aids in
strengthening collective efforts that are set into motion.
Green
building is a foundationally different mode of building and operating a
series of buildings that contrast to those built in the past in their
aspects of sustainability. The buildings funded for by the Green Building Initiative and the United States Green Building Council
enable access to “environmentally and socially responsible, healthy,
and prosperous environment[s] that improve[s] the quality of life.”
A system by the name of LEED, is “the world’s most widely used green building system with more than 100,000 buildings participating” to date.
Buildings that are funded by the Green Building Initiative and LEED have been proven to be financially, environmentally, and efficiently healthier for individuals. Lower carbon emissions, healthier living spaces, and improved efficiency are all the reap of the crop of the USGBC’s remedial efforts that are “constructed and operated through LEED.”
US EPA Kansas City Science & Technology Center. This facility features the following green attributes:
Green building (also known as green construction, sustainable building, or eco-friendly building) refers to both a structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages.
The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical
building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.
Green building also refers to saving resources to the maximum extent,
including energy saving, land saving, water saving, material saving,
etc., during the whole life cycle of the building, protecting the
environment and reducing pollution, providing people with healthy,
comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with
nature. Buildings that live in harmony; green building technology
focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy, environmental
protection, integration and optimization.’
Building information modeling (BIM)
is a process involving the generation and management of digital
representations of physical and functional characteristics of places. Building information models
(BIMs) are files (often but not always in proprietary formats and
containing proprietary data) which can be extracted, exchanged, or
networked to support decision-making regarding a building or other built
asset. Current BIM software is used by individuals, businesses, and
government agencies who plan, design, construct, operate and maintain
diverse physical infrastructures, such as water, refuse, electricity,
gas, communication utilities, roads, railways, bridges, ports, and
tunnels.
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to
complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common
objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the
built environment on human health and the natural environment by:
Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity (see healthy building)
Natural building is a similar concept, usually on a smaller scale and focusing on the use of locally available natural materials. Other related topics include sustainable design and green architecture.
Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs. Although some green building programs don't address the issue of retrofitting existing homes, others do, especially through public schemes for energy efficient refurbishment. Green construction principles can easily be applied to retrofit work as well as new construction.
A 2009 report by the U.S. General Services Administration
found 12 sustainably-designed buildings that cost less to operate and
have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants were overall
more satisfied with the building than those in typical commercial
buildings. These are eco-friendly buildings.
Reducing environmental impact
Buildings
represent a large part of energy, electricity, water and materials
consumption. As of 2020, they account for 37% of global energy use and
energy-related CO2 emissions, which the United Nations estimate contributed to 33% of overall worldwide emissions. Including the manufacturing of building materials, the global CO2 emissions were 39%.
If new technologies in construction are not adopted during this time
of rapid growth, emissions could double by 2050, according to the United Nations Environment Program.
Glass buildings, especially all-glass skyscrapers, contribute
significantly to climate change due to their energy inefficiency. While
these structures are visually appealing and allow abundant natural
light, they also trap heat, necessitating increased use of air
conditioning systems, which contribute to higher carbon emissions.
Experts advocate for design modifications and potential restrictions on
all-glass edifices to mitigate their detrimental environmental impact.
Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources Inventory, approximately 107 million acres (430,000 km2) of land in the United States are developed. The International Energy Agency
released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are
responsible for more than 40% of the world's total primary energy
consumption and for 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions.
According to Global status report from the year 2016, buildings consume
more than 30% of all produced energy. The report states that "Under a
below 2°C trajectory, effective action to improve building energy efficiency
could limit building final energy demand to just above current levels,
meaning that the average energy intensity of the global building stock
would decrease by more than 80% by 2050".
Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact
of building as the building sector has the greatest potential to
deliver significant cuts in emissions at little or no cost. General
guidelines can be summarized as follows: Every building should be as
small as possible. Avoid contributing to sprawl,
even if the most energy-efficient, environmentally sound methods are
used in design and construction. Bioclimatic design principles are able
to reduce energy expenditure and by extension, carbon emissions.
Bioclimatic design is a method of building design that takes local
climate into account to create comfortable conditions within the
structure. This could be as simple as constructing a different shape for the building envelope
or facing the building towards the south to maximize solar exposure for
energy or lighting purposes. Given the limitations of city planned
construction, bioclimatic principles may be employed on a lesser scale,
however it is still an effective passive method to reduce environmental impact.
Goals of green building
Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by Michelle Kaufmann.Shanghai Tower, the tallest and largest LEED Platinum certified building in the world since 2015.
The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy (especially fossil oil) crisis and environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s. The Rachel Carson book, "Silent Spring",
published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts
to describe sustainable development as related to green building. The green building movement in the U.S. originated from the need and desire for more energy efficient and environmentally friendly
construction practices. There are a number of motives for building
green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the retrofitting of existing structures. Also known as sustainable design,
this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green
practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the
practices used.
Green building brings together a vast array of practices,
techniques, and skills to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of
buildings on the environment and human health. It often emphasizes
taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic equipment, and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain gardens,
and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques are used,
such as using low-impact building materials or using packed gravel or
permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to
enhance replenishment of groundwater.
While the practices or technologies employed in green building
are constantly evolving and may differ from region to region,
fundamental principles persist from which the method is derived: siting
and structure design efficiency, energy efficiency, water efficiency,
materials efficiency, indoor environmental quality enhancement,
operations and maintenance optimization and waste and toxics reduction.
The essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of
these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual
green building technologies may work together to produce a greater
cumulative effect.
On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design
is the philosophy of designing a building that is in harmony with the
natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are several
key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building
materials from local sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and
generate on-site renewable energy.
Life cycle assessment
A life cycle assessment (LCA) can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental, social and economic concerns
by assessing a full range of impacts associated with all
cradle-to-grave stages of a process: from extraction of raw materials
through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Impacts taken into account
include (among others) embodied energy, global warming potential, resource use, air pollution, water pollution, and waste.
In terms of green building, the last few years have seen a shift away from a prescriptive
approach, which assumes that certain prescribed practices are better
for the environment, toward the scientific evaluation of actual
performance through LCA.
Although LCA is widely recognized as the best way to evaluate the
environmental impacts of buildings (ISO 14040 provides a recognized LCA
methodology),
it is not yet a consistent requirement of green building rating systems
and codes, despite the fact that embodied energy and other life cycle
impacts are critical to the design of environmentally responsible
buildings.
In North America, LCA is rewarded to some extent in the Green
Globes rating system, and is part of the new American National Standard
based on Green Globes, ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green Building Protocol for Commercial Buildings.
LCA is also included as a pilot credit in the LEED system, though a
decision has not been made as to whether it will be incorporated fully
into the next major revision. The state of California also included LCA
as a voluntary measure in its 2010 draft Green Building Standards Code.
Although LCA is often perceived as overly complex and
time-consuming for regular use by design professionals, research
organizations such as BRE in the UK and the Athena Sustainable Materials
Institute in North America are working to make it more accessible.
In the UK, the BRE Green Guide to Specifications offers ratings for 1,500 building materials based on LCA.
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and
design stages. The concept stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a
project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and
performance.
In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to
minimize the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle
stages of the building project.
Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver, Colorado
However,
building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process,
and varies from one building to the other, never repeating itself
identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex products,
composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting
various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation
of every design variable may affect the environment during all the
building's relevant life-cycle stages.
Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy consumption –
both the embodied energy required to extract, process, transport and
install building materials and operating energy to provide services such
as heating and power for equipment.
As high-performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied
energy has assumed much greater importance – and may make up as much as
30% of the overall life cycle energy consumption. Studies such as the
U.S. LCI Database Project
show buildings built primarily with wood will have a lower embodied
energy than those built primarily with brick, concrete, or steel.
To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce
air leakage through the building envelope (the barrier between
conditioned and unconditioned space). They also specify high-performance
windows and extra insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees
to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar
gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. Solar water heating further reduces energy costs.
Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power, or biomass
can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building.
Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a
building.
Energy efficiency for green buildings can be evaluated from
either numerical or non-numerical methods. These include use of
simulation modelling, analytical or statistical tools.
In a report published in April 2024, the International Energy Agency (IEA) highlighted that buildings are responsible for about 30% of global final energy consumption and over 50% of electricity demand. It noted the tripling of heat pump sales from 2015 to 2022, electric cars
accounting for 20% of 2023 vehicle sales, and a potential doubling of
China's peak electricity demand by mid-century. India's air conditioner
ownership could see a tenfold rise by 2050, causing a sixfold increase
in peak electricity demand, which could be halved with efficient
practices. By 2050, demand response measures might lower household
electricity bills by 7% to 12% in advanced economies and nearly 20% in
developing ones, with smart device installations nearly doubling by
2030. The US could see a 116 GW reduction in peak demand, 80 million
tonnes less CO2 per year by 2030, and save between USD 100 billion and
USD 200 billion over twenty years with grid-interactive buildings. In Alabama, a smart neighborhood demonstrated 35% to 45% energy savings compared to traditional homes.
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key
objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water
consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer
exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible,
facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected,
used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of
water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing
for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using
water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing
water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow
shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use water treatment
and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while
reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.
Large commercial buildings with water and energy efficiency can qualify for an LEED Certification. Philadelphia's Comcast Center
is the tallest building in Philadelphia. It is also one of the tallest
buildings in the USA that is LEED Certified. Their environmental
engineering consists of a hybrid central chilled water system which
cools floor-by-floor with steam instead of water. Burn's Mechanical
set-up the entire renovation of the 58 story, 1.4 million square foot
sky scraper.
Building materials typically considered 'green' include lumber( that
has been certified to a third-party standard), rapidly renewable plant
materials (like bamboo and straw), dimension stone, recycled stone, hempcrete, recycled metal (see: copper sustainability and recyclability), and other non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable products. Materials with lower embodied energy
can be used in substitution to common building materials with high
degrees of energy consumption and carbon/harmful emissions. For concrete a high performance self-healing version is available,
however options with lower yields of pollutive waste entertain ideas of
upcycling and congregate supplementing; replacing traditional concrete
mixes with slag, production waste, and aggregates.
Insulation also sees multiple angles for substitution. Commonly used
fiberglass has competition from other eco-friendly, low energy embodying
insulators with similar or higher R-values (per inch of thickness) at a competitive price. Sheep wool, cellulose, and ThermaCork perform more efficiently, however, use may be limited by transportation or installation costs.
Furthermore, embodied energy comparisons can help deduce the
selection of building material and its efficiency. Wood production emits
less CO2 than
concrete and steel if produced in a sustainable way just as steel can
be produced more sustainably through improvements in technology (e.g.
EAF) and energy recycling/carbon capture(an underutilized potential for
systematically storing carbon in the built environment).
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion
products, foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects. Energy efficient building materials and appliances are promoted in the United States through energy rebate programs.
A 2022 report from the Boston Consulting Group found that,
investments in developing greener forms of cement, iron, and steel lead
to bigger greenhouse gas reductions compared with investments in
electricity and aviation. In addition, the process of making cement without producing CO2 is unavoidable. However, using pozzolans clinkers can reduce CO2 emission while in the process of making cement.
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards,
one of the five environmental categories, was created to provide
comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ
category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor
air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.
Indoor Air Quality seeks to reduce volatile organic compounds,
or VOCs, and other air impurities such as microbial contaminants.
Buildings rely on a properly designed ventilation system
(passively/naturally or mechanically powered) to provide adequate
ventilation of cleaner air from outdoors or recirculated, filtered air
as well as isolated operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other
occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing
construction materials and interior finish products with zero or low VOC
emissions will improve IAQ. Most building materials and
cleaning/maintenance products emit gases, some of them toxic, such as
many VOCs including formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental
impact on occupants' health, comfort, and productivity. Avoiding these
products will increase a building's IEQ. LEED, HQE and Green Star contain specifications on use of low-emitting interior. Draft LEED 2012 is about to expand the scope of the involved products. BREEAM
limits formaldehyde emissions, no other VOCs. MAS Certified Green is a
registered trademark to delineate low VOC-emitting products in the
marketplace.
The MAS Certified Green Program ensures that any potentially hazardous
chemicals released from manufactured products have been thoroughly
tested and meet rigorous standards established by independent
toxicologists to address recognized long-term health concerns. These IAQ
standards have been adopted by and incorporated into the following
programs:
The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) in their LEED rating system
The California Department of Public Health (CDPH) in their section 01350 standards
The Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) in their Best Practices Manual
The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturers Association (BIFMA) in their level® sustainability standard.
Also important to indoor air quality is the control of moisture
accumulation (dampness) leading to mold growth and the presence of
bacteria and viruses as well as dust mites and other organisms and
microbiological concerns. Water intrusion through a building's envelope
or water condensing on cold surfaces on the building's interior can
enhance and sustain microbial growth. A well-insulated and tightly
sealed envelope will reduce moisture problems but adequate ventilation
is also necessary to eliminate moisture from sources indoors including
human metabolic processes, cooking, bathing, cleaning, and other
activities.
Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly designed building envelope
will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a
high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of
daylight and electrical light sources will improve on the lighting
quality and energy performance of a structure.
Solid wood products, particularly flooring, are often specified
in environments where occupants are known to have allergies to dust or
other particulates. Wood itself is considered to be hypo-allergenic and
its smooth surfaces prevent the buildup of particles common in soft
finishes like carpet. The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America recommends hardwood, vinyl, linoleum tile or slate flooring instead of carpet. The use of wood products can also improve air quality by absorbing or releasing moisture in the air to moderate humidity.
Interactions among all the indoor components and the occupants
together form the processes that determine the indoor air quality.
Extensive investigation of such processes is the subject of indoor air
scientific research and is well documented in the journal Indoor Air.
Operations and maintenance optimization
No
matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and
construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and
maintained properly. Ensuring operations and maintenance(O&M)
personnel are part of the project's planning and development process
will help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the
project.
Every aspect of green building is integrated into the O&M phase of a
building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls on
the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied
during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's
life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green practices such as
recycling and air quality enhancement take place. O&M staff should
aim to establish best practices in energy efficiency, resource
conservation, ecologically sensitive products and other sustainable
practices. Education of building operators and occupants is key to
effective implementation of sustainable strategies in O&M services.
Waste reduction
Green
architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials
used during construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the
state's waste comes from commercial buildings. During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material going to landfills.
Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated
by the occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as compost bins to reduce matter going to landfills.
To reduce the amount of wood that goes to landfill, Neutral
Alliance (a coalition of government, NGOs and the forest industry)
created the website dontwastewood.com.
The site includes a variety of resources for regulators,
municipalities, developers, contractors, owner/operators and
individuals/homeowners looking for information on wood recycling.
When buildings reach the end of their useful life, they are
typically demolished and hauled to landfills. Deconstruction is a method
of harvesting what is commonly considered "waste" and reclaiming it
into useful building material.
Extending the useful life of a structure also reduces waste – building
materials such as wood that are light and easy to work with make
renovations easier.
To reduce the impact on wells or water treatment plants, several options exist. "Greywater",
wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be
used for subsurface irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable
purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater collectors are
used for similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a
lot of energy. An alternative to this process is converting waste and
wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows other
benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a
semi-centralized biogas
plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced.
This concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lübeck Germany in the
late 1990s. Practices like these provide soil with organic nutrients and
create carbon sinks that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also more costly in energy than this process.
Reduce impact onto electricity network
Electricity networks are built based on peak demand (another name is peak load). Peak demand is measured in the units of watts (W). It shows how fast electrical energy is consumed. Residential electricity is often charged on electrical energy (kilowatt hour, kWh). Green buildings or sustainable buildings are often capable of saving electrical energy but not necessarily reducing peak demand.
When sustainable building features are designed, constructed and
operated efficiently, peak demand can be reduced so that there is less
desire for electricity network expansion and there is less impact onto carbon emission and climate change. These sustainable features can be good orientation, sufficient indoor thermal mass, good insulation, photovoltaic panels, thermal or electrical energy storage systems, smart building (home) energy management systems.
Cost and payoff
The most criticized issue about constructing environmentally friendly buildings is the price. Photovoltaics,
new appliances, and modern technologies tend to cost more money. Most
green buildings cost a premium of <2%, but yield 10 times as much
over the entire life of the building.
In regards to the financial benefits of green building, "Over 20 years,
the financial payback typically exceeds the additional cost of greening
by a factor of 4-6 times. And broader benefits, such as reductions in
greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants have large positive impacts
on surrounding communities and on the planet." The stigma is between the knowledge of up-front cost
vs. life-cycle cost. The savings in money come from more efficient use
of utilities which result in decreased energy bills. It is projected
that different sectors could save $130 billion on energy bills. Also, higher worker or student productivity can be factored into savings and cost deductions.
Numerous studies have shown the measurable benefit of green
building initiatives on worker productivity. In general it has been
found that, "there is a direct correlation between increased
productivity and employees who love being in their work space."
Specifically, worker productivity can be significantly impacted by
certain aspects of green building design such as improved lighting,
reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and the use of
non-toxic building materials. In "The Business Case for Green Building",
the U.S. Green Building Council gives another specific example of how
commercial energy retrofits increase worker health and thus
productivity, "People in the U.S. spend about 90% of their time indoors.
EPA studies indicate indoor levels of pollutants may be up to ten times
higher than outdoor levels. LEED-certified buildings are designed to
have healthier, cleaner indoor environmental quality, which means health
benefits for occupants."
Studies have shown over a 20-year life period, some green buildings have yielded $53 to $71 per square foot back on investment.
Confirming the rentability of green building investments, further
studies of the commercial real estate market have found that LEED and
Energy Star certified buildings achieve significantly higher rents, sale
prices and occupancy rates as well as lower capitalization rates
potentially reflecting lower investment risk.
Regulation and operation
As
a result of the increased interest in green building concepts and
practices, a number of organizations have developed standards, codes and
rating systems for use by government regulators, building professionals
and consumers. In some cases, codes are written so local governments
can adopt them as bylaws to reduce the local environmental impact of
buildings.
Green building rating systems such as BREEAM (United Kingdom), LEED (United States and Canada), DGNB (Germany), CASBEE (Japan), and VERDEGBCe (Spain), GRIHA
(India) help consumers determine a structure's level of environmental
performance. They award credits for optional building features that
support green design in categories such as location and maintenance of
building site, conservation of water,
energy, and building materials, and occupant comfort and health. The
number of credits generally determines the level of achievement.
Green building codes and standards, such as the International Code Council's draft International Green Construction Code,
are sets of rules created by standards development organizations that
establish minimum requirements for elements of green building such as
materials or heating and cooling.
Some of the major building environmental assessment tools currently in use include:
At the beginning of the 21st century, efforts were made to implement
the principles of green building, not only for individual buildings, but
also for neighborhoods and villages. The intent is to create zero
energy neighborhoods and villages, which means they're going to create
all the energy on their own. They will also reuse waste, implements
sustainable transportation, and produce their own food.Green villages have been identified as a way to decentralize
sustainable climate practices, which may prove key in areas with high
rural or scattered village populations, such as India, where 74% of the
population lives in over 600,000 different villages.
International frameworks and assessment tools
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
is the fourth in a series of such reports. The IPCC was established by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and
socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential
effects and options for adaptation and mitigation.
UNEP and Climate change
United Nations Environment Program UNEP
works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon societies, support
climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change
science, and raise public awareness about this global challenge.
GHG Indicator
The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating
Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations
Agenda 21
Agenda 21
is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable
development. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken
globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the UN,
governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
FIDIC's PSM
The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC)
Project Sustainability Management Guidelines were created to assist
project engineers and other stakeholders in setting sustainable
development goals for their projects that are recognized and accepted as
being in the interests of society. The process is also intended to
align project goals with local conditions and priorities and assist
those involved in managing projects to measure and verify their
progress.
The Project Sustainability Management Guidelines are structured
with Themes and Sub-Themes under the three main sustainability headings
of Social, Environmental and Economic. For each individual Sub-Theme a
core project indicator is defined along with guidance as to the
relevance of that issue in the context of an individual
project.
The Sustainability Reporting Framework provides guidance for
organizations to use as the basis for disclosure about their
sustainability performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally
applicable, comparable framework in which to understand disclosed
information.
The Reporting Framework contains the core product of the
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, as well as Protocols and Sector
Supplements.
The Guidelines are used as the basis for all reporting. They are the
foundation upon which all other reporting guidance is based, and outline
core content for reporting that is broadly relevant to all
organizations regardless of size, sector, or location. The Guidelines
contain principles and guidance as well as standard disclosures –
including indicators – to outline a disclosure framework that
organizations can voluntarily, flexibly, and incrementally, adopt.
Protocols underpin each indicator in the Guidelines and include
definitions for key terms in the indicator, compilation methodologies,
intended scope of the indicator, and other technical references.
Sector Supplements respond to the limits of a one-size-fits-all
approach. Sector Supplements complement the use of the core Guidelines
by capturing the unique set of sustainability issues faced by different
sectors such as mining, automotive, banking, public agencies and others.
IPD Environment Code
The IPD Environment Code was launched in February 2008. The Code
is intended as a good practice global standard for measuring the
environmental performance of corporate buildings. Its aim is to
accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate
buildings and enable property executives to generate high quality,
comparable performance information about their
buildings anywhere in the world. The Code covers a wide range of
building types (from offices to airports) and aims to inform and support
the following;
Creating an environmental strategy
Inputting to real estate strategy
Communicating a commitment to environmental improvement
Creating performance targets
Environmental improvement plans
Performance assessment and measurement
Life cycle assessments
Acquisition and disposal of buildings
Supplier management
Information systems and data population
Compliance with regulations
Team and personal objectives
IPD estimate that it will take approximately three years to gather
significant data to develop a robust set of baseline data that could be
used across a typical corporate estate.
ISO 21931
ISO/TS 21931:2006, Sustainability in building
construction—Framework for methods of assessment for environmental
performance of construction works—Part 1: Buildings, is intended to
provide a general framework for improving the quality and comparability
of methods for assessing the environmental performance of buildings. It
identifies and describes issues to be taken into account when using
methods for the assessment of environmental performance for new or
existing building properties in the design, construction, operation,
refurbishment and deconstruction stages. It is not an assessment system
in itself but is intended be used in conjunction with, and following the
principles set out in, the ISO 14000 series of standards.
Development history
In the 1930s, geothermal hot water district heating of houses started in Iceland.
In the 1960s, American architect Paul Soleri proposed a new concept of ecological architecture.
In 1969, American architect Ian McHarg wrote the book "Design Integrates Nature", which marked the official birth of ecological architecture.
In the 1970s, the energy crisis caused various building energy-saving technologies such as solar energy, geothermal energy, and wind energy to emerge, and energy-saving buildings became the forerunner of building development.
In 1975, the Swiss PLENAR-group published the concept of an energy efficient house in "PLENAR: Planning-Energy-Architecture".
In 1980, the World Conservation Organization
put forward the slogan "sustainable development" for the first time. At
the same time, the energy-saving building system was gradually
improved, and it was widely used in developed countries such as Germany,
Britain, France and Canada.
In 1982 Per and Maria Krusche, et al. published an ecological
approach to architecture in "Ökologisches Bauen" (ecological buildings)
for the German Federal Environment Agency.
In 1987, the United Nations Environment Program published the "Our Common Future" report, which established the idea of sustainable development.
In 1990, the world's first green building standard was released in the UK.
In 1992, because the "United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development" promoted the idea of sustainable development, green
buildings gradually became the direction of development.
In 1993, the United States created the Green Building Association.
In 1996, Hong Kong introduced green building standards.
In 1999, Taiwan introduced green building standards.
In 2000, Canada introduced green building standards.
In 2005, Singapore initiated the "BCA Green Building Mark".
In 2015, according to the Berkeley National Laboratory, China implemented the "Green Building Evaluation Standards".
In 2021, the first, both low-cost and sustainable 3D printed house made out of a clay-mixture was completed.
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