"Gathering the Light" from the Taoist book The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by C. G. Jung and Richard Wilhelm
Buddhism's rich history spans over 2,500 years, originating from the Indian subcontinent in the 2nd century AD. Teachings of the Buddha were introduced over time, as a response to brahmanical teachings.
Buddhism relies on the continual analysis of the self, rather than
being defined by a ritualistic system, or singular set of beliefs. The intersections of Buddhism with other Eastern religions, such as Taoism, Shinto, Hinduism, and Bon illustrate the interconnected ideologies that interplay along the path of enlightenment.
Buddhism and eastern religions tend to share the world-view that all
sentient beings are subject to a cycle of rebirth that has no clear end.
The ideologies and traditions of Taoism have adapted over time in response to Buddhist practices. Taoist philosophy stems from a mixture of early mythology and folk religious practices. The Tao ideology dates back to the seventh century BC, existing long before the Taoists formed into an organized religious collective. Both Taoism and Buddhism have historically aspired to hold domineering influence over East Asia. While Buddhism provides an elaborate cosmology and a detailed theory about the afterlife, Taoism meets other needs.
The principle focus of Taoism is the path of Tao, an all
encompassing, formless power, that brings all things together in an
eternal cycle. The Tao provides followers a path to reach understanding
of one's individual place within the world.
The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism is complexly intertwined.
The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to restructure into a more
organized religion, in response to the existential questions that
Buddhism raised. Competition between Buddhism and Taoism is said to have
inspired beneficial advancements in the field of Chinese medicine.
Early Buddhism was originally not clearly defined by Taoism; some
scriptures were mistranslated in Chinese using incorrect Taoist
vocabulary, which caused discrepancies between various accounts. There is an ideological crossover found between Buddhist and Taoist systems of influence. Chan Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with the philosophy of Taoism.
Daoist (Taoist) simplicity
stimulated Chan's abandonment of Buddhist theory and was accompanied by
another traditional Daoist feature—the emphasis on total absorption in
practice of a highly cultivated skill.
The
coexistence of Chinese Buddhism and Taoism has also resulted in various
Buddhist deities being adopted into the Taoist pantheon, and vice
versa. For example, in Taoism, the Chinese Buddhist deva and Bodhisattva
Marici is often syncretized with the Taoist goddess Doumu, who is regarded as the personification of the Big Dipper as well as the feminine aspect of the cosmic God of Heaven.
In another example, the Taoist god of war and fraternity, Guan Yu, has
been adopted by Buddhism and he is widely venerated as Sangharama Bodhisattva (伽蓝菩萨; 伽藍菩薩; Qiélán Púsà), a Bodhisattva or deva who serves as a dharmapala of Buddhist monasteries. According to Buddhist legends, in 592, the spirit of Guan Yu manifested himself one night before the Chan master Zhiyi
and requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving
Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple
gems and also requested the Five Precepts, making a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. The syncretism between Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and Taoism was particularly extensive. For instance, the nine-fold configuration of the Mandala of the Two Realms in Zhenyan and Shingon Buddhism was influenced and adopted from the Taoist Lo Shu Square and the I Ching.
Confucianism
Confucianism in particular raised fierce opposition to Buddhism in early history, principally because it perceived Buddhism to be a nihilisticworldview, with a negative impact on society at large. "The Neo-Confucianists
had therefore to attack Buddhist cosmological views by affirming, in the
firstplace, the reality and concreteness of the universe and of man."
Shinto
Before
Prince Shotoku made Buddhism the national religion of Japan, many
opposed the integration of Buddhism into Japan. Once this forced
integration occurred, Japan synchronized Buddhism with its native
religion Shinto, resulting in a unique sect of Buddhism existing only on
the East Asian Island.
In the Japanese religion of Shinto,
the long coexistence of Buddhism and Shinto resulted in the merging of
Shinto and Buddhism. Gods in Shinto were given a position similar to
that of Hindu gods in Buddhism. Moreover, because the Buddha Vairochana's symbol was the sun, many equated Amaterasu, the sun goddess, as his previous bodhisattva reincarnation. According to Helen Hardacre, by the Heian period, a theory named wakō dōjin (和光同塵)
had emerged. The Buddha and Kami had taken on a new form as saviors of
man, who "dim their light and mingle with the dust of the world". This
not only relates the two religions, but demonstrates a marked difference
in status between the two deities at this period in time. The later Tokugawa Shogunate
era saw a revival of Shinto, and some Shinto scholars began to argue
that Buddhas were previous incarnations of Shinto gods, reversing the
traditional positions of the two religions. Shinto and Buddhism were
officially separated during the Meiji Restoration and the brief, but socially transformative rise of State Shinto
followed. In post-war modern Japan, most families count themselves as
being of both religions, despite the idea of "official separation".
As time went on, the Japanese
became more and more accustomed to including both the kami and Buddhist
ideas in their spiritual lives. Philosophers put forward the idea that
the kami were "transformations of the Buddha manifested in Japan to save
all sentient beings".
In addition, Buddhism played an important part in the religious legitimation of Japanese emperors via Shinto.
It
is noteworthy that the Sui were the first Chinese dynasty with which
the newly emergent centralising Japanese state came into contact, so the
practice of using Buddhism as an officially sanctioned religion would
have been demonstrated to the Japanese as a political reality.
The
interplay between Taoism, Buddhism, and Shinto in China and Japan
stimulated the adoption of the Chinese practice of state-sanctioned
religion and religious legitimation through association with divinity by
the Japanese government. The official implementation of the term tennō (天皇)
to refer to the Japanese emperor is also widely agreed to take place
during the latter part of the 7th century, as a result of these
interactions.
When Buddhism was introduced in Korea, its temples were built on or
near the shaman mountain-spirit shrines. Still today, one can see
buildings at these Buddhist temple sites dedicated to the shaman
mountain-spirits Sansin (Korean: 산신). Most Buddhist temples in Korea
have a Sansin-gak (Korean: 산신각), the choice of preference over other
shrines, typically a small shrine room set behind and to the side of the
other buildings. It is also common for the sansingak to be at a higher
elevation than the other shrine rooms, just as the mountain itself
towers above the temple complex. The sansin-gak maybe a traditional
wooden structure with a tile roof, or in more modern and less wealth
temples, a more simple and utilitarian room. Inside will be a waist
height shrine with either a statue and mural painting, or just a mural
painting. Offerings of candles, incense, water and fruit are commonly
supplemented with alcoholic drinks, particularly Korea’s rustic rice
wine makgeolli. This further serves to illustrate the non-Buddhist
nature of this deity, even when he resides inside a temple. And yet, on
the floor of this small shine room one will frequently see a monk’s
cushion and moktak: evidence of the regular Buddhist ceremonies held
there. Sansin may not be enshrined in a separate shrine, but in a
Samseonggak or in the Buddha hall, to one side of the main shrine.
Sansin shrines can also be found independent of Buddhist temples.
Having both originated from the same place, Hinduism and Buddhism have shared India and influenced each other over centuries.
Both Hinduism and Buddhism originate from India but they hold
separate beliefs. As Knott states, Hindus describe the origin of their
religion as sanatana dharma claiming that it goes past human origin and can now be found in scriptures of the Vedas.
The Vedas, mentioned then introduce the concept of a caste system in
order to reach enlightenment or moksha. The Brahmin class, which is the
highest class, is the only class in Hinduism that can reach
enlightenment, so through good karma and multiple lives through
reincarnation, someone from a lower class can become a Brahmin and thus
reach moksha/enlightenment. The caste system today still remains in
place to help establish the Brahmin status and maintain a societal
hierarchy which categorizes people.
Despite both being from India, the religions' beliefs about reaching
enlightenment and the caste system differ. Buddhism originated with the
Buddha in India, who then spread his teachings.
In regards to the caste system only Hinduism heavily relies on it.
Buddhism, on the other hand, strays away from the caste system in their
belief that anyone, not just Brahmins, can reach enlightenment no matter
their ranking in the caste system. This differs from Hinduism, and
today influences the relevance of the caste system in some societies as
both Buddhism and Hinduism coexist in India. As a result, Buddhism has spread past India and is mainly in Eastern Asia, while Hinduism still remains majorly in India.
Feminists have debated pornography ever since the women's movement commenced. The debate was particularly vehement during the feminist sex wars of the 1980s, which is when feminist porn originated. It acquired momentum in the 2000s because of the Feminist Porn Awards,
originated by Good For Her in Toronto in 2006. These awards spread
awareness amongst a broader audience, extra media exposure, and
assistance in uniting a community of filmmakers, performers, and fans.
Many third-wave feminists are open to seeking freedom and rights of sexual equality through entering the adult entertainment workforce. However, many second-wave feminists believe that the oppression and/or sexual objectification of women is inherent in all pornography involving them. The conflict between the two waves causes many struggles between these different feminist views of pornography.
Tristan Taormino, who is a sex educator, feminist pornographer, and co-editor of The Feminist Porn Book, has said: 'Feminists pornographers are committed to gender equality and social justice.'
Feminist pornography is porn that is produced in a fair manner, where
performers are paid a reasonable salary and treated with care and
esteem, their consent, safety, and well-being are vital, and what they
bring to the production is appreciated.
Feminist porn seeks to challenge ideas about desire, beauty,
gratification, and power through unconventional representations,
aesthetics, and film making styles. The overall aim of feminist porn is to educate and empower the performers who produce it and the people who view it.
From
the mid-1970s up until 1983, it was mostly a theoretical discussion
amongst feminists (including some self-identified feminist men) whether
making feminist porn was even possible. Some feminists, later known as sex-positive feminists,
argued that it was, but it still had to be made, sometimes giving a
rough sketch of what that should or would look like (for example, Ann Garry's plot in 1983).
Others in the middle said it may be possible, but they had not seen any
examples of it yet (1981). A third group, the anti-porn feminists,
maintained throughout the 1980s that it was in principle impossible,
because 'feminist pornography is a contradiction in terms' or 'an oxymoron', and that whatever was feminist but appeared to be pornographic should instead be labelled 'erotica'.
Feminists like Gloria Steinem wrote that pornography promoted unequal
power dynamics, while erotica represented sex as a positive expression
of sexuality. Others such as Andrea Dworkin claimed that even 'erotica' was too much like pornography to be considered feminist.
The majority of the feminist debates on pornography were initiated by events such as the 1976 presentation of the film Snuff,
in which a woman was shown being mutilated for the audience's sexual
satisfaction. Two of the first American feminists to suggest the
development of feminist pornography were Deb Friedman and Lois Yankowski
(members of the Feminist Alliance Against Rape) in a 1976 article in Quest: A Feminist Quarterly.
Claiming that the oppression of and violence against women portrayed in
pornography had gone too far (citing the recent controversy around Snuff), but considering that censorship may not be the proper tactic to deal with it, they wrote:
Finally, there is the possibility
of developing our own "feminist pornography," that is, non-sexist
erotica. We have set out some guidelines for determining what forms of
explicit sex should be portrayed as alternatives to the current violence
and sado-masochism. Although it may sound far-fetched, developing
feminist pornography would help demonstrate what some of these
alternatives could be.
— Deb Friedman & Lois Yankowski, "Snuffing Sexual Violence" (1976), Quest: A Feminist Quarterly
The Friedman-Yankowski essay became very popular and was widely reprinted. On the other hand, erroneously believing that its scenes of eroticized torture were real, Andrea Dworkin organized nightly vigils at locations where the film was being shown. She became the main theorist of the U.S. anti-pornography campaign. Well-known feminists, including Susan Brownmiller and Gloria Steinem, joined her to establish the campaign group Women Against Pornography. The anti-porn campaign escalated with Take Back the Night marches around locations such as Times Square, which contained 'adult' book stores, massage parlors (a euphemism for a brothel) and strip clubs.
Dworkin and other feminists arranged conferences and lecture tours,
showing slide-shows featuring hard- and soft-core porn to women's
awareness groups.
In the United States, production of explicitly feminist pornography
began in 1984, initiated by two independently formed groups.
Dissatisfied with working in mainstream male-centred porn, Candida Royalle founded her own adult film studio Femme Productions
and hired performers from the porn actresses support group 'Club 90',
which originated in 1983 when they started informally talking about what
they wished to change about the industry. Separately, in reaction to
the 1983 Dworkin-MacKinnon Ordinance, lesbian feminists founded the sex-positive lesbian sex magazine On Our Backs. This was in reaction to feminist magazine off our backs, which had been campaigning for banning porn in preceding years, and On Our Backs started producing erotic videos the next year under the leadership of Susie Bright. Others including Annie Sprinkle
followed in the years thereafter, and by 1990 a small group of feminist
pornographers, some of them united in the Manhattan-based Club 90,
could be distinguished. Between 1984 and 1990, sex-positive feminists
claimed these directors and producers had made feminist pornography a
reality, increasingly referring to their works as examples of it.
Anti-pornography feminists remained adamant in their opposition,
claiming that these productions were either still following the patterns
of 'mainstream' or 'male-dominated' porn, or were in fact erotica, a
legitimate genre that was separate from pornography.
Meanwhile, in Europe, feminists such as Monika Treut (Germany), Cleo Uebelmann (Switzerland), Krista Beinstein (Germany and Austria) and Della Grace
(England) started using sexually explicit pornography and film in order
to explore themes such as female pleasure, BDSM, gender roles, and
queer desire.
Early industry development (1990–2005)
In the 1990s and early 2000s, many feminists perceived Dworkin and her anti-porn
perspectives as excessively polarized and anti-sex. Feminists continued
to debate the extent to which pornography is harmful to women. Some
feminists have emphasized the way cybersex
encourages its participants to play with identity, as users are able to
take on diverse characteristics (e.g. gender, age, sexuality, race, and
physical exterior). They point out a number of other benefits from new
technologies, such as enhanced access to sex education and 'safe' sex,
and opportunities for women and minorities to make contact and to
manufacture and allocate their own representations.
The successes of Royalle and Hartley had made an impact on the mainstream adult industry by the 1990s, leading major U.S. studios such as Vivid, VCA, and Wicked
to also make couples porn, as well as developing 'a formula of softer,
gentler, more romantic porn with storylines and high production values.'
In 1997, the Danish company Zentropa became the first mainstream film production company in the world to make explicit porn under its Puzzy Power subsidiary, aimed at a female audience. The next year, Zentropa published the Puzzy Power Manifesto, which set guidelines for creating porn for women, similar to the standards established by Royalle.
In the early 2000s, a new generation of filmmakers who
specifically called themselves or their work "feminist" emerged in the
United States and Europe. American examples included Buck Angel, Dana Dane, Shine Louise Houston, Courtney Trouble, Madison Young, and Tristan Taormino, while Europe saw the rise of sexually explicitly independent films identified as feminist pornography by filmmakers such as Erika Lust (Spain), Anna Span and Petra Joy (United Kingdom), Émilie Jouvet, Virginie Despentes, and Taiwan-born Shu Lea Cheang (France), and Mia Engberg (Sweden). The Dirty Diaries (2009) were a compilation of feminist porn shorts directed by Engberg and 'famously funded by the Swedish government', while Swedish-born Lust's 2004 debut The Good Girl released on the Internet for free under a Creative Commons licence, launching her career as 'one of the most celebrated feminist pornographers in the world'.
Feminist Porn Awards and beyond (2006–present)
The 2006 creation of the Feminist Porn Awards (FPAs) by the Toronto-based sex toy shop Good for Her is said to have significantly spread the influence and recognition of the modern feminist porn movement. The launch of The Feminist Porn Book (2013) 'helped to put feminist pornography on the academic map'.
In the same period, some disagreements emerged about what makes certain
pornography feminist, and how it may be distinguished from male-centric
mainstream porn, exemplified by the controversy over whether to exclude
facials (always excluded by earlier feminist filmmakers such as Royalle (1984–2013), Ms. Naughty (since 2000), and Petra Joy (since 2004), excluded in the early career of Taormino (since 1999) but included in her later career, and included by Lust ever since her 2004 debut).
Public discourse
Purpose and production
Tristan
Taormino (2013) has stated that pornography created by women for women
can give women control over what is being presented about female
sexuality and how it is represented and distributed. She argued that
feminist pornography allows women to have a voice in a male-dominated
industry. Taormino states:
“Feminist porn searches to expand
the ideas about desire, beauty, gratification, and power through
unconventional representations, aesthetics, and filmmaking styles. The
overall aim of feminist porn is to empower the performers who produce it
and the people who view it.”
— Tristan Taormino, Feminist Porn Awards
Royalle (2013) rejected the notion that pornography is automatically
'feminist' whenever it is made by women: 'Rather than creating a new
vision, it seems that many of today's young female directors, often
working under the tutelage of the big porn distributors, seek only to
prove that they can be even nastier than their male predecessors. (...)
if they're not concerned with what women want, should it then be
considered feminist? (...) What bothers me is the media identifying
their work as feminist when it has nothing to do with speaking for women
and advancing the principles of feminism.'
Performers and society
Mireille Miller-Young
researched the porn industry between 2003 and 2013. In addition,
Miller-Young also interviewed a vast amount of performers and
encountered several positive aspects of pornography in women's lives.
According to Miller-Young, "For some performers, pornography is a path
to college and out of poverty. For others, it is a chance to make a
statement about female pleasure."
Miller-Young states that the women she interviewed were excited to
enter the pornography industry and viewed it as a profitable opportunity
as well as an accommodating job that would grant them independence.
Women who had worked in retail or in nursing discovered that pornography
gave them more control over their labor and greater respect in the
workplace. Some women believed being part of the pornography industry
had granted them the ability to escape poverty, provide for their
families and attend college. Others stressed the inventive features of
pornography and stated it grants them the ability to boost their
economic mobility while also creating a strong statement about female
sexual pleasure. Miller-Young claims that according to the performers
she interviewed, the most difficult challenge they dealt with was social
stigma, as well as gender and racial inequality.
With regard to the performers, Royalle (2012) explained that
there are some women who prefer to be in porn because they enjoy sex and
deem it to be a great way of making a living. On the other hand, there
are some who approach porn as a mode of acting out or coping with
psychological issues, such as searching for their father's love or
receiving punishment for being an immoral woman. For some women, it may
be a bit of each.
I'm not sure the male performers
get out completely unscathed either. While they may not be judged as
harshly as the women, ultimately they're viewed as freaks who make their
living with their anatomy. John Holmes'
fate is the ultimate cautionary tale. Perhaps if we weren't still so
consumed with guilt and shame about sex, neither watching nor performing
in these films would carry the weight it does. But then, perhaps we
wouldn't be so interested in them, either. If the fruit were not
forbidden, would anyone care to take a bite?
— Candida Royalle
Labour rights
Miller-Young
(2012) wrote that at both large and small pornography studios, men
typically marginalize the viewpoints and concerns of women. The studios
place more emphasis on what men wanted because they felt that their
products would sell more. Furthermore, these companies often created a
competitive environment which pit women against each other. Black
performers often received only half to three-quarters of what white
performers are paid. Just as in other industries, women and men of color
face discrimination and disparities in structural and interpersonal
forms. Porn industry workers are striving to get more control over their
labor and the products they create. The Internet was by far the most
efficient and rapid way to democratize the porn industry. There are a
range of women from diverse backgrounds who enter the pornography
business, such as soccer moms,
single mothers, and college students, who filmed themselves and
presented their own pornographic fantasies. The majority of women in
pornography felt strongly that society should not treat porn as
problematic and socially immoral. However, women in the industry
highlight that conditions could be improved, particularly with regard to
workers' rights.
"I liked porn but I really didn't like how most of it was marketed.
(...) The scenes almost always ended with a facial "pop shot" and I
didn't want to see that—I thought it was degrading and also kind of
stupid. The woman would often kneel with a slightly pained expression on
her face, trying to look adoringly up at a man while he squirted semen
in her eye. The camera never showed the man's face during orgasm,
which—to me–was a travesty. Men's faces are beautiful at that moment.
(...) I wanted to change that. I wanted to make porn better."
– Ms. Naughty (2013)
At the 2007 Berlin Porn Film Festival, discussion over the works of such filmmakers as Erika Lust (including The Good Girl) led to disagreements, as some other self-identified feminist pornographers questioned whether certain portrayals such as facials
could ever be considered "feminist" (as the directors maintained), or
were incompatible with the notion of gender equality of women and men,
and thus with feminism.
Petra Joy argued: 'Feminism is committed to equality of the sexes, so
surely "feminist porn" should show women as equals to men rather than as
subservient beings... If you want to show cum on a woman's face that's
fine but don't call it feminist.'
Lust (2007) retorted, mocking 'the Church of the Pure Feminist Porn
Producers... declaring that certain sexual practices that me and other
women across the world happen to like, are a sin.'
Separately, as some of her critics alleged,
Taormino (2013) has admitted that she cannot control how certain
portrayals such as facials may be received by some viewers,
'specifically that men's orgasms represent the apex of a scene (and of
sex itself) and women's bodies are things to be used, controlled, and
marked like territory'.
When making her first film, Taormino 'embraced the notion that certain
depictions were turn-offs to all women, like facial cum shots. But my
thinking on this has changed over time. I believe viewers appreciate
consent, context, chemistry, and performer agency more than the presence
or absence of a specific act.'
Consumption
In 2012, Royalle argued that viewing pornography is not intrinsically
damaging to men or women. However, she claimed that there are people
who perhaps should not view porn; for example, those with poor body
image or those have experienced sexual abuse.
Royalle stated that some individuals may develop impractical ideas
about sex or what people enjoy, and how they may be expected to perform.
She added that watching porn with another individual requires
permission. Counselors at times will advise it to assist people in
becoming comfortable with a certain fantasy they or their partner may
have. Pornography may re-energize a couple's sex life. It can offer
stimulating ideas, or assist individuals and couples to get in touch
with their personal fantasies. Porn can supply individuals with great
satisfaction or at worst, disgust. Royalle emphasized that this all
relies on what couples or individuals decide to view. She added that
porn is not the issue when it comes to unhealthy sexual behaviors, but
rather the compulsive personality of an individual.
Some people argue that consumption of pornography can have negative mental effects.
The biggest concerns include increased desire for violent sexual acts,
including rape, and dehumanization of women, including the actors in
pornographic films. This is debated, as it has been shown consumers of pornography feel aware that porn is fake and/or played up.
It's important to remember that women consume porn as well; it is a
male-dominated field, not a male-exclusive one. The very idea that
erotic films are not intriguing or pleasurable to women upholds the
misogynistic idea that women do not, and should not, find erotic
material pleasurable.
Some women feel that feminist pornography is more realistic than mainstream pornography.
In the field of adult film, believability is highly prioritized. Films
that feature extreme reactions to minimal interactions, or bored-looking
actors, tend to bore or stress the viewer.
Pornography that is made by and for men, with no regard toward feminist
ideals or female pleasure, tends to focus primarily on male pleasure
and female submission.
Feminist pornography is an important resource for women, as it allows
them to enjoy erotic films that not only feature, but showcase, female
pleasure and a variety of erotic interests that women may have. It tends to avoid the objectification of women.
Also, it rejects the idea that, during sexual intercourse, male parties
are inherently dominant and female parties are inherently submissive.
Feminist pornography makes it a point to explore many different forms
of sensuality and sexuality, with a prioritization of authentic and
ethical pleasure.
In this sense, feminist pornography can be used as a positive
resource to educate women on various forms of pleasure, and to reclaim
their own sexuality in a world that often teaches women their sexuality
and bodies are dirty or wrong.
Studies have shown that increased access to pornography is positively
related to sexual education, specifically in terms of understanding ones
own sexual identity and interests.
The field of pornography is rampant with unethical treatment of actors,
violent acts without proper aftercare, and other abuses of power.
One facet of feminist pornography is that it seeks to maintain ethics
between business and employer, as well as with the viewer. Feminist porn
has been reviewed with higher levels of communication shown alongside
sexual acts than mainstream porn.
Characteristics
Although challenging, it is not impossible to be a feminist in the
artificial environment of mainstream pornography. Nor is it impossible
to disrupt the inauthenticity of this staged environment through acting
upon one's feminist ethos. – Madison Young, 2014
Feminist pornography is less likely to be filmed due to a lack of
audience demand since a majority of pornography viewers are male.
The scope of the adult entertainment industry depends on the
preferences of the majority of their viewers, which creates the need for
female actresses to be young and overtly sexualized.
The increase in this mainstream mass-produced media puts both actresses
and producers of feminist pornography at a disadvantage.
Some misconceptions of feminist porn that add to their disadvantage are
that it is only for queer women, 'vanilla', and 'man-hating'.
When working on feminist porn projects, Ingrid Ryberg, feminist porn
producer, wanted to make sure to address these stereotypes, while also
staying in the realm of feminist pornography.
Some producers, like Tristan Taormino, address this by staying away
from stereotypical, mainstream tropes, like 'cum shots', while still
respecting the expression of rougher sex. The rise of on-screen appropriations, such as items like a strap-on dildo used by and for the pleasure of females during sexual intercourse, has allowed for more agency for women within the industry. Annie Sprinkle
is one example of a woman who chooses to partake in many forms of
feminist pornography in order to counter-appropriate patriarchal
mainstream pornography. Films in which Sprinkle stars contain scenes of her having orgasms instead of her male on-screen partners.
According to Tristan Taormino, "Feminist porn both responds to
dominant images with alternative ones and creates its own iconography."
What sets feminist porn from mainstream porn is its intentions.
Mainstream pornography is made for mass consumption, profit and
arousal; feminist pornography is also made for arousal and profit, but
also to create content that purposely shows agency, genuine pleasure,
and challenges mainstream standards, like beauty and gender roles. One way to conceptualize these differences is through defining sexual objectification and sexual agency. Feminist pornography focuses on promoting sexual agency.
Some pornographic actresses such as Nina Hartley, Ovidie, and Madison Young are also self-described sex-positive feminists, and state that they do not see themselves as victims of sexism.
They defend their decision to perform in pornography as freely chosen,
and argue that much of what they do on camera is an expression of their
sexuality. It has also been pointed out that in pornography, women
generally earn more than their male counterparts. Hartley is active in the sex workers' rights movement.
Festivals and awards
Since 2006, the Feminist Porn Awards have been held annually in Toronto, sponsored by a local feminist sex toy business, Good for Her. The awards are given in a number of categories and have three guiding criteria:
A woman had a hand in the production, writing, direction, etc. of the work.
It depicts genuine female pleasure.
It expands the boundaries of sexual representation on film and challenges stereotypes that are often found in mainstream porn.
However, the Feminist Porn Awards have not been held since 2015.
In Europe since 2009, the best films are nominated with the PorYes-Award every other year.
Feminist artist Jasmin Hagendorfer and her team are organizing the Porn Film Festival Vienna, an event dedicated to feminist and queer approaches to pornography.
Documentaries and films
Andrea Torrice (1990), Peril or Pleasure? Feminist-Produced Pornography.
Becky Goldberg (2002), Hot and Bothered: Feminist Pornography.
Polyamory (from Ancient Greekπολύς (polús) 'many', and Latinamor 'love') is the practice of, or desire for, romantic relationships with more than one partner at the same time, with the informed consent of all partners involved. Some people who identify as polyamorous believe in consensual non-monogamy with a conscious management of jealousy and reject the view that sexual and relational exclusivity (monogamy) are prerequisite for deep, committed, long-term, loving relationships.
Others prefer to restrict their sexual activity to only members of the
group, a closed polyamorous relationship that is usually referred to as polyfidelity.
Polyamory has come to be an umbrella term for various forms of non-monogamous, multi-partner relationships, or non-exclusive sexual or romantic relationships. Its usage reflects the choices and philosophies of the individuals involved, but with recurring themes or values, such as love, intimacy, honesty, integrity, equality, communication, and commitment. It can often be distinguished from some other forms of ethical non-monogamy in that the relationships involved are loving intimate relationships, as opposed to purely sexual relationships.
The word polyamorous first appeared in an article by Morning Glory Zell-Ravenheart, "A Bouquet of Lovers", published in May 1990 in Green Egg Magazine, as "poly-amorous". In May 1992, Jennifer L. Wesp created the Usenetnewsgroupalt.polyamory, and the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) cites the proposal to create that group as the first verified appearance of the word.
In 1999, Zell-Ravenheart was asked by the editor of the OED to provide a
definition of the term, and she provided it for the UK version as "the
practice, state or ability of having more than one sexual loving
relationship at the same time, with the full knowledge and consent of all partners involved." The words polyamory, polyamorous, and polyamorist were added to the OED in 2006.
The word polyamory combines the Greek word for "many" (poly) and the Latin word for "love" (amor). Polyamory is not generally included in the LGBTumbrella because it's not a sexuality or a gender identity.
Polyamorous people parading under their banner with two furries in front of them at Pride in London 2016
Consensual non-monogamy, which polyamory falls under,
can take many different forms, depending on the needs and preferences
of the individual(s) involved in any specific relationship(s). As of
2019, over one fifth of the United States population has, at some point
in their lives, engaged in some sort of consensual non-monogamy.
Separate from polyamory as a philosophical basis for
relationships are the practical ways in which people who live
polyamorously arrange their lives and handle certain issues, as compared
to those of a more conventional monogamous arrangement. People of different sexual orientations are a part of the community and form networks of relationships, with consent and agreement of their partners. Many things differentiate polyamory from other types of non-monogamous relationships. It is common for swinging and open couples to maintain emotional monogamy while engaging in extra-dyadic sexual relations.
The friend or partner boundary in monogamous relationships and
other forms of non-monogamy is typically fairly clear. Unlike other
forms of non-monogamy, though, "polyamory is notable for privileging
emotional intimacy with others." Benefits of a polyamorous relationship might include:
the ability of individuals to discuss issues with multiple partners,
potentially mediating and thus stabilizing a relationship, and reducing
polarization of viewpoints, and emotional support and structure from
other committed adults within the familial unit. Other benefits include a
wider range of adult experience, skills, resources, and perspective and
support for companionate marriages, which can be satisfying even if no
longer sexually vital, since romantic needs are met elsewhere. This acts
to preserve existing relationships.
The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction estimated that there were half-a-million "openly polyamorous families" in the United States in July 2009.
Additionally, 15–28% of heterosexual couples and about half of gay and
bisexual people have a "non-traditional" arrangement of some kind as
reported in The Guardian in August 2013. Polyamorous communities have been said to be outwardly feminist as women were central to the creation of such communities and gender equality is a central tenet. For those who are polyamorous, social distancing, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic,
created ripples in existing relationships, leading some to split apart
and others to struggle to maintain their connections with one another.
Fidelity and loyalty
Three people in a polyamorous relationship.
A large percentage of polyamorists define fidelity not as sexual exclusivity, but as faithfulness to the promises and agreements made about a relationship.
As a relational practice, polyamory sustains a vast variety of open
relationship or multi-partner constellations, which can differ in
definition and grades of intensity, closeness and commitment. Specifically,
polyamory can take the forms of a triad
of three people in an intimate relationship, a poly family of more than
three people, one person as the pivot point of a relationship (a
"vee"), a couple in a two-person relationship which portrays other
relationships on their own, and various other intimate networks of
individuals. There are also those who are swingers and engage in polyamory, or engage in poly-dating. A poly family is sometimes called kitchen table polyamory, a style of polyamory in which all members of a particular polycule
are comfortable and connected enough with each other that it is not
uncommon for them to literally gather around the kitchen table, as they
may spend holidays, birthdays, or other important times together as a
large group. This style places an emphasis on family-style connections,
and not all members are necessarily sexually or romantically involved
with every other person in the group. Other styles of polyamory include parallel polyamory, where members of individual relationships prefer not to meet or know details of their partners' other relationships, solo polyamory defines non-monogamous individuals who do not want a primary partner
and may resist the "relationship escalator" (an idea that relationships
must follow a progression, or "escalator" from dating, to being
exclusive, to becoming engaged, getting married, and having children). For some, polyamory functions as an umbrella term for the multiple approaches of 'responsible non-monogamy'.
A secret sexual relationship that violates those accords would be seen
as a breach of fidelity. Polyamorists generally base definitions of commitment on considerations other than sexual exclusivity, e.g., "trust and honesty" or "growing old together". In an article in Men's Health,
Zachary Zane states that commitment in a polyamorous relationship means
that "you will be there for that person", supporting them, taking care
of them, and loving them.
Communication and negotiation
Because
there is no "standard model" for polyamorous relationships, and
reliance upon common expectations may not be realistic, polyamorists
advocate explicitly negotiating with all involved to establish the terms
of their relationships, and often emphasize that this should be an
ongoing process of honest communication and respect. Polyamorists
typically take a pragmatic approach to their relationships; many accept
that sometimes they and their partners will make mistakes and fail to
live up to these ideals, and that communication is important for
repairing any breaches. They also argue that polyamory is a response to challenges of relationships of a monogamous nature.
Trust, honesty, dignity, and respect
Polyamory has been defined as loving more than one person at once, with respect, trust, and honesty for all partners involved.
Ideally, a partner's partners are accepted as part of that person's
life rather than merely tolerated, and usually a relationship that
requires deception or a "don't ask don't tell" policy is seen as a less
than ideal model.
Out additionally described polyamory as "not a sexuality" but as actually "having multiple intimate relationships".
Non-possessiveness
Some
polyamorists view excessive restrictions on other deep relationships as
less than desirable, as such restrictions can be used to replace trust
with a framework of ownership and control. It is usually preferred or
encouraged that a polyamorist strive to view their partners' other
significant others, often referred to as metamours or OSOs, in terms of the gain to their partners' lives rather than a threat to their own (see compersion).
Therefore, jealousy and possessiveness are generally viewed not so much
as something to avoid or structure the relationships around, but as
responses that should be explored, understood, and resolved within each
individual, with compersion as a goal.
This is related to one of the types of polyamory, which is
non-hierarchical, where "no one relationship is prioritized above the
rest"
and the fact that polyamorists insist on working through problems in
their relationships "through open communication, patience, and honesty."
Compersion is a term coined by members of the polyamorous community to describe an empathetic
state of happiness and joy experienced when another individual
experiences happiness and joy. In the context of polyamorous
relationships, it describes positive feelings experienced by an
individual when their intimate partner is enjoying another relationship. It has been variously described as "the opposite or flip side of jealousy", analogous to the "joy parents feel when their children get married," and a "positive emotional reaction to a lover's other relationship." The term is traced to the Kerista Commune in San Francisco.
Difficulties
Morin
(1999) and Fleckenstein (2014) noted that certain conditions are
favorable to good experiences with polyamory, but that these differ from
the general population.
Heavy public promotion of polyamory can have the unintended effect of
attracting people to it for whom it is not well-suited. Unequal
power-dynamics, such as financial dependence, can also inappropriately
influence a person to agree to a polyamorous relationship against their
true desires. Even in more equal power-dynamic relationships, the
reluctant partner may feel coerced into a proposed non-monogamous
arrangement due to the implication that if they refuse, the proposer
will pursue other partners anyway, will break off the relationship, or
that the one refusing will be accused of intolerance.
Polyamorous relationships present practical pitfalls. One common
complaint from participants is time management, as more partners means
one must divide one's time and attention between them, leaving less for
each.
Related is that the complexity of the arrangement can lead to so much
effort being spent on the relationship that personal, individual needs
can be overlooked. The strong emphasis on communication can unintentionally marginalize partners who are less articulate.
Finally, negotiating the sometimes complex rules and boundaries of
these relationships can be emotionally taxing, as can reconciling
situations where one partner goes outside those boundaries.
Legal issues
Parenting
In 1998, a Tennessee
court granted guardianship of a child to her grandmother and
step-grandfather, after the child's mother April Divilbiss and partners outed themselves as polyamorous on MTV.
After contesting the decision for two years, Divilbiss eventually
agreed to relinquish her daughter, acknowledging that she was unable to
adequately care for her child and that this, rather than her polyamory,
had been the grandparents' real motivation in seeking custody.
In 2017, three men became the first family in the state of California to have names of three fathers on their child's birth certificate.
In June 2018, a court in Newfoundland and Labrador
recognized three unmarried adults as legal parents of a child who was
born within the polyamorous family they had formed; this was believed to
be a first for Canadian law. The three adults included the child's
mother and two men; the child's biological father was unknown.
In November 2020, the issue of polyamory came to the Supreme Court of Vermont in the form of a dispute between two men and a woman in a polyamorous relationship.
In April 2021, a British Columbia Supreme Court justice declared a woman was the third legal parent in a polyamorous "triad".
Domestic partnerships
In 2016, writer Rebecca Ruth Gould called for non-monogamy, including polyamory, to receive "the legal recognition it deserves", saying that polyamory remains a "negative identity".
In June 2020, the city council of Somerville, Massachusetts,
voted to recognize polyamorous domestic partnerships in the city,
becoming the first American city to do so. This measure was passed so
that those in a polyamorous relationship would have access to their
partners' health insurance amid the COVID-19 pandemic.
In March 2021, the Cambridge, Massachusetts
City Council approved an ordinance amending the city's laws,
stipulating that "a domestic partnership needn't only include two
partners."The measure was supported by the Polyamory Legal Advocacy Coalition,
also known as PLAC, composed of the Chosen Family Law Center, Harvard
Law School LGBTQ+ Advocacy Clinic, and some members on the American Psychological Association's Committee on Consensual Non-Monogamy. This ordinance was originally proposed in July 2020. In April 2021, the adjacent town of Arlington, Massachusetts,
approved domestic partnerships of more than two people through a motion
at Town Meeting. Any motion approved at Arlington's Town Meeting is
subject to review and approval from the state Attorney General's office; by early January 2022 that office (the office of Maura Healey) approved it.
Anti-discrimination law
People
in polyamorous relationships sometimes experience punishment at work
when they are open about having multiple partners, such as displaying
pictures on their desk.
In 2010, Ann Tweedy, a legal scholar, argued that polyamory could be considered a sexual orientation under existing United States law.
This argument was opposed by Christian Keese, who wrote in 2016 that
advocating a "sexual orientation model of polyamory is likely to reduce
the complexity and transformative potential of poly intimacies," while
also limiting the reach and scope of possible litigation, obstructing
the ability of poly activists to form alliances with other groups, and
increasing the possibility that poly activists will have to settle for
legal solutions which are "exclusive and reproductive of a culture of
privilege".
In March 2023, the city of Somerville, Massachusetts passed an ordinance prohibiting discrimination against polyamorous people in employment and policing.
In April 2024, Oakland City Council
passed legislation banning discrimination based on family and
relationship structure in businesses, civil services, and housing.
In May 2024, Berkeley, California
passed a law banning discrimination on the basis of relationship and
family structure in businesses, city services, and housing.
Most western countries do not recognize polygamous marriages, and consider bigamy a crime.
Several countries also prohibit people from living a polygamous
lifestyle. This is the case in some states of the United States where the criminalization of a polygamous lifestyle originated as anti-Mormon laws, although they are rarely enforced.
Having multiple non-marital partners, even if married to one, is legal
in most U.S. jurisdictions; at most it constitutes grounds for divorce
if the spouse is non-consenting, or feels that the interest in a
further partner has destabilized the marriage. In some jurisdictions,
like North Carolina, a spouse can sue a third party for causing "loss of affection" in or "criminal conversation" (adultery) with their spouse,
while more than twenty states in the US have laws against adultery,
although they are infrequently enforced; the Supreme Court's ruling in Lawrence v. Texas did not explicitly hold such laws to be unconstitutional but its reasoning may imply that conclusion.
Polyamory, however, is on a continuum of family-bonds that includes group marriage and it does not refer to bigamy as long as no claim to being married in formal legal terms is made.The Social History of the American Family: An Encyclopedia
(2014, edited by Marilyn J. Coleman and Lawrence H. Ganong) stated that
under existing U.S. federal law, a polyamorous relationship is legal in
all 50 states while polygamy is not.
On November 23, 2011, the Supreme Court of British Columbia ruled that
the anti-polygamy law of Canada does not affect unformalized polyamorous
households; this is why Polyamory Day is celebrated every year on
November 23.
Even so, those in polyamorous relationships often face legal challenges
when it comes to custody, morality clauses, adultery and bigamy laws,
housing, and where they live.
In 2012, legal scholar Deborah Anapol called for the revision of
existing U.S. laws against bigamy to permit married persons to enter
into additional marriages, provided that they have first given legal
notice to their existing marital partner or partners, with a "dyadic
networks" model. In 2015, another legal scholar, Ronald C. Den Otter, wrote in the Emory Law Journal
(in the article "Three May Not Be a Crowd: The Case for a
Constitutional Right to Plural Marriage") that in the United States the
constitutional rights of due process and equal protection fully support marriage rights for polyamorous families.
During a PinkNews question-and-answer session in May 2015, Redfern Jon Barrett questioned Natalie Bennett, leader of the Green Party of England and Wales,
about her party's stance toward polyamorous marriage rights. Bennett
responded by saying that her party is "open" to discussion on the idea
of civil partnership or marriages between three people. Bennett's announcement aroused media controversy on the topic and led to major international news outlets covering her answer. A follow-up article written by Barrett was published by PinkNews on May 4, 2015, further exploring the topic.
In most countries, it is legal for three or more people to form and
share a sexual relationship (subject sometimes to laws against homosexuality or adultery if two of the three are married). With only minor exceptions no developed countries permit marriage
among more than two people, nor do the majority of countries give legal
protection (e.g., of rights relating to children) to non-married
partners. Individuals involved in polyamorous relationships are
generally considered by the law to be no different from people who live
together, or "date", under other circumstances. In 2017, John Alejandro Rodriguez, Victor Hugo Prada, and Manuel Jose Bermudez became Colombia's first polyamorous family to have a legally recognized relationship,
though not a marriage, as by Colombian law, marriage is between two
people, so they instead called it a "special patrimonial union". Some have called for domestic partnership laws to be expanded to include polyamorous couples and have said that marriage-like entitlements should apply to such couples.
Prevalence
Preparations for Polyamory Pride at CSD Parade in Graz, Austria, in June 2017
Research into the prevalence of polyamory has been limited. A
comprehensive government study of sexual attitudes, behaviors and
relationships in Finland
in 1992 (age 18–75, around 50% female and male) found that around 200
out of 2250 (8.9%) respondents "agreed or strongly agreed" with the
statement "I could maintain several sexual relationships at the same
time" and 8.2% indicated a relationship type "that best suits" at the
present stage of life would involve multiple partners. By contrast, when
asked about other relationships at the same time as a steady
relationship, around 17% stated they had had other partners while in a
steady relationship (50% no, 17% yes, 33% refused to answer).
The article What Psychology Professionals Should Know About Polyamory (by Geri Weitzman) based on a paper presented at the 8th Annual Diversity Conference in March 1999 in Albany, New York,
states that while openly polyamorous relationships are relatively rare
there are "indications that private polyamorous arrangements within
relationships are actually quite common."
They also note, citing 1983 study of 3,574 married couples in their
sample that "15–28% had an understanding that allows nonmonogamy under
some circumstances," with percentages are higher among "cohabitating
couples (28%), lesbian couples (29%) and gay male couples (65%)."
According to Jessica Fern, a psychologist and the author of Polysecure: Attachment, Trauma and Consensual Nonmonogamy, as of September 2020, about 4% of Americans, nearly 16 million people, are "practising a non-monogamous style of relationship".
A study by Amy C. Moors, Amanda N. Gesselman and Justin R. Garcia
published on 23 March 2021 and using a sample of 3,438 individuals has
shown that 10.7% of the sample were engaged in a polyamorous
relationship at some point in their life, and 16.8% reported a desire to
try or be in one. The study also revelated a correlation between
educational background and polyamory, showing lesser-educated male
individuals were more likely to engage or having been engaged in
polyamorous relationships. These findings indicate that the number of
Americans who have engaged in polyamorous relationships is significantly
higher than previously thought.
The Oneida Community in the 1800s in New York (a Christian religious commune) believed strongly in a system of free love known as a complex marriage, where any member was free to have sex with any other who consented.
In 1993, the archives of the community were made available to scholars
for the first time. Contained within the archives was the journal of
Tirzah Miller, Noyes' niece, who wrote extensively about her romantic and sexual relations with other members of Oneida.
Some Christians are polyamorous, but mainstream Christianity does not accept polyamory. In 2017, the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, an evangelical Christian organization, released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the "Nashville Statement". The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and includes 14 points of belief.
Among other things, it states, "We deny that God has designed marriage
to be a homosexual, polygamous, or polyamorous relationship."
Some Jews are polyamorous, but mainstream Judaism does not accept
polyamory. However, in 2000, Rabbi Jacob Levin came out as polyamorous
to his synagogue's board in California without losing his job as rabbi. As well, in his book A Guide to Jewish Practice: Volume 1 – Everyday Living
(2011), Rabbi David Teutsch wrote, "It is not obvious that monogamy is
automatically a morally higher form of relationship than polygamy," and
that if practiced with honesty, flexibility, egalitarian rules, and
trust, practitioners may "live enriched lives as a result". In 2013, Sharon Kleinbaum, the senior rabbi at Congregation Beit Simchat Torah in New York, said that polyamory is a choice that does not preclude a Jewishly observant and socially conscious life.
Some polyamorous Jews point to biblical patriarchs having multiple
wives and concubines as evidence that polyamorous relationships can be
sacred in Judaism. An email list is dedicated to polyamorous Jews; it is called AhavaRaba, which roughly translates to "big love" in Hebrew, and which echoes God's "great" or "abounding" love mentioned in the Ahava rabbah prayer.
LaVeyan Satanism
is critical of Abrahamic sexual mores, considering them narrow,
restrictive and hypocritical. Satanists are pluralists, accepting
polyamorists, bisexuals, lesbians, gays, BDSM, transgender people, and asexuals. Sex is viewed as an indulgence, but one that should only be freely entered into with consent. The Eleven Satanic Rules of the Earth
only give two instructions regarding sex: "Do not make sexual advances
unless you are given the mating signal" and "Do not harm little
children", though the latter is much broader and encompasses physical
and other abuse. This has always been a consistent part of CoS policy
since its inception in 1966. Magister Peter H. Gillmore wrote in an
essay supporting same-sex marriage
that some people try to suggest that their attitude on sexuality is
"anything goes" even though they have a principle of "responsibility to
the responsible".
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness,
founded in 2001, has engaged in ongoing education and advocacy for
greater understanding and acceptance of polyamory within the Unitarian Universalist Association. At the 2014 General Assembly,
two UUPA members moved to include the category of "family and
relationship structures" in the UUA's nondiscrimination rule, along with
other amendments; the package of proposed amendments was ratified by
the GA delegates.
Acceptance by non-religious organizations
In 2018, the Association of Humanistic
Rabbis issued "A Statement on Sexual Ethics for the 21st Century",
which states in part, "We commit to the freedom and empowerment of all
adults to full consensual sexual expression, be it monogamous or
polyamorous."
In a clinical setting
In 2002, a paper titled Working with polyamorous clients in the clinical setting
(by Joy Davidson) addressed various areas of inquiry. This included the
importance of talking about alternatives to monogamy, how therapists
can work with those who are exploring polyamory, basic understandings of
polyamory, and key issues that therapists need to watch for in the
course of working with polyamorous clients. Its conclusions were that
"Sweeping changes are occurring in the sexual and relational landscape"
(including "dissatisfaction with limitations of serial monogamy, i.e.
exchanging one partner for another in the hope of a better outcome");
that clinicians need to start by "recognizing the array of possibilities
that 'polyamory' encompasses" and "examine our culturally-based
assumption that 'only monogamy is acceptable'" and how this bias impacts
on the practice of therapy; the need for self-education about
polyamory, basic understandings about the "rewards of the poly
lifestyle" and the common social and relationship challenges faced by
those involved, and the "shadow side" of polyamory, the potential
existing for coercion, strong emotions in opposition, and jealousy. The
paper also states that the configurations a therapist would be "most
likely to see in practice" are individuals involved in primary-plus
arrangements, monogamous couples wishing to explore non-monogamy for the
first time, and "poly singles".
In 2002, the rights of polyamorous people were added to the mission of the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom, an American sex-positive advocacy and educational organization; a manual for psychotherapists who deal with polyamorous clients was published by them in September 2009, called What Psychotherapists Should Know About Polyamory (written by Geri Weitzman and others).
The National Coalition for Sexual Freedom
manages the Kink And Poly Aware Professionals Directory, which consists
of an Internet directory of psychotherapeutic, medical, and other
professionals who have volunteered to be contacted by people who are
involved in polyamory (and/or BDSM, etc.).
The Polyamory-Friendly Professionals Directory is a directory on
the Internet "of professionals who are sensitive to the unique needs of
polyamorous clientele"; it includes psychologists, therapists, medical
professionals, and other professionals.
Cosplay of the superhero Starfire at FanimeCon 2015
Starfire, also known as Princess Koriand'r, is a fictional superhero appearing in books published by DC Comics, who debuted in a preview story inserted within DC Comics Presents #26 (October 1980) and was created by Marv Wolfman and George Pérez; she was shown to be a polyamorous character. Starfire was raised on the world of Tamaran where it was acceptable to have an open marriage. Some critics argue that after arriving on Earth, she remained sex-positive and free-thinking, remaining open to polygamous relationships, open sex, and pansexual "free-love" with anyone, often leading to conflict with Earth's more reserved culture and customs. For Starfire, polyamory was a personal and cultural preference.
In 1989, the anime series Ranma ½
included a polyamorous character, Tatewaki, who is in love with both
Akane and the "Pigtail Girl" (Ranma's female form) and proposes to date
both, but they do not return his feelings.
In 2002, the Futurama episode "A Taste of Freedom"
showed Old Man Waterfall, who is Zoidberg's defense attorney until
killed by a giant crab warship, having seven wives and one husband.
While Waterfall's case for Zoidberg is unsuccessful, the Supreme Court
holds polygamy as legal, though this leads to jeers from spectators. The
made-for-TV Futurama film, The Beast with a Billion Backs
(published 2008), featured two polyamorous characters: Colleen
O'Hallahan and Yivo. Colleen had five boyfriends, Fry, Chu, Ndulu,
Schlomo and Bolt Rolands, while Yivo is a planet-sized alien with no determinable gender, dating, then marrying all people of the universe at once. Fry and Colleen eventually break up. Afterwards, Yivo remains in a relationship with Colleen.
The 21st century brought various new forms of representation of polyamory. In 2007, Daniel Help Justice's book Dreyd featured Tarsa, a priestess, warrior, and bisexual woman, as part of a polyamorous love triad. In 2009, Graham Nicholls founded www.polyamory.org.uk, the United Kingdom's first website about polyamory and the Mom of Pina in Maria Pallotta-Chiarolli's novel, Love You Two
was shown to be polyamorous and bisexual, leading Pina on a journey to
explore the "complex spectrum of sex and love" in humanity itself. In 2010, the series Lost Girl began. It included Bo Dennis, a bisexual succubus which must sustain herself by feeding from the life force
of male and female Fae and humans, via oral intake or the energy
created through sex. In the first two seasons she was involved
romantically with Dyson (a heterosexual shapeshifter) and Lauren (a lesbian human). Later on, Bo tried to have a monogamous
relationship with Lauren, with Bo and Lauren remaining in love with
each other through ups and downs, and later accepting each other as a
couple by the end of the series.
Increased representation in the 2010s
Polyamorous characters appeared in various media in the 2010s. In the 2010 television show Caprica, several main characters are portrayed as being in a polyfidelitous-style marriage consisting of multiple men and women, with each member being equal socially and legally. From 2012 to 2013, the American reality television series on the American pay televisionnetworkShowtime, Polyamory: Married & Dating, was broadcast. It followed polyamorous families as they navigated the challenges presented by polyamory. Around the same time, the webcomic Kimchi Cuddles began, which portrayed polyamorous people like other characters, "only with more partners to steal their blankets." The following years featured a polyamorous captain in Jacqueline Koyanagi's novel, Ascension, and three characters (Reese, David, and Amber) in a relationship in Malinda Lo's novel, Inheritance. In 2011, American Horror Story: Hotel began, with Countess Elizabeth Johnson, played by Lady Gaga, beginning a relationship with famed film actor Rudolph Valentino and his wife, Natacha Rambova, as seen in episode seven. The following year, the YouTube show The Gay and Wondrous Life of Caleb Gallo would show a couple working through their decision to convert from monogamy to polyamory, like Brian Jordan Alvarez, who considers himself polyamorous.
From 2015 to 2017, in the webcomic Always Human by Ari
North, the parents of Sunati (Nisa and Prav) were shown to be in a
polyamorous relationship with a man named Vish, who Nisa calls "our
boyfriend". In another webcomic, Unknown Lands, which began in 2015, Vard is shown to be polyamorous, along with most of the cast having a queer sexual identity. The webcomic itself has environmental, feminist, and LGBTQ+ themes. A few years later, the 2017 film Professor Marston and the Wonder Women focuses on the real-life polyamorous relationship between the professor, psychologist William Moulton Marston (the creator of Wonder Woman), his wife and research partner Elizabeth Holloway Marston, and their student, Olive Byrne, as they share a "workplace, a bed, a home and eventually a family." Furthermore, fiction writer Cassandra Clare stated that Mark Blackthorn in The Dark Artifices book series would "definitely be open to a polyamorous relationship", but would not cheat or lie, while noting that another such relationship between other characters would not be possible.
Eventually, he ends up in a polyamorous triangle, with a girlfriend and
a boyfriend who are dating each other. Additionally, writer K. Ancrum
confirmed that polyamorous characters were in two of her books (The Wicker King and The Weight of the Stars), but did not name any specific characters. At the same time, Em, best friend of the protagonist in two books by Leigh Matthews (Don't Bang the Barista and Go Deep)
is a bisexual woman dating a man in the first book, but by the second
book she has "happily settled into a poly triad", wondering how she will
get married.
On May 29, 2017, in the last season of Steven Universe, Fluorite, a member of the Off Colors,
a fusion of six different gems into one being, with fusion as the
physical manifestation of a relationship, was introduced. This character
reappeared in various episodes in the show's fifth season ("Lars Head",
"Lars of the Stars", "Your Mother and Mine"), the season 5 finale, "Change Your Mind", along with one in Steven Universe Future ("Little Graduation") and in Steven Universe: The Movie, with the latter two as non-speaking appearances. The series creator, Rebecca Sugar, confirmed that Fluorite is a representation of a polyamorous relationship at the show's Comic Con panel in San Diego. Sugar said at the panel, and at another conference, that she was inspired after talking with children at an LGBTQ+ center in Long Beach, California, who wanted a polyamorous character in the show. Steven Universe was not alone in this regard. The fourth season of BoJack Horseman, a mature animated series, featured a character named Hollyhock, the sister of the protagonist, who has eight adoptive fathers in a polyamorous gay relationship. The same year, Unicornland premiered, with eight-episode web series focusing on Annie's exploration into polyamory after her divorce.
2018–present
Polyamory was the subject of the 2018 Louis Theroux documentary Love Without Limits, where Theroux travels to Portland, Oregon, to meet a number of people engaged in polyamorous relationships. Also in 2018, 195 Lewis, a web series about a black lesbian couple dealing with their relationship being newly polyamorous, received the Breakthrough Series – Short Form award from the Gotham Awards.[170] The series premiered in 2017 and ran for five episodes. The same year, the comic Open Earth
premiered. The comic is set in the future and monogamous relationships
are seen as outdated to all the young people on board the space station,
all of whom are polyamorous. Author Sarah Mirk
said that she wanted to write a story where "open relationships can be
really positive and wonderful" and said that it is realistic to believe
that people would "explore multiple relationships".
Trigonometry is an eight-part BBC
TV drama series which started on March 15, 2020, and is about an
existing couple being joined by a third person and forming a polyamorous
relationship. The BBC said that Trigonometry is "A love story about three people who are made for each other." In July 2021, Australian soap opera Neighbours explored polyamory with three of its main characters. Actress Jacinta Stapleton
was proud to be involved in the story arc, stating: "I think we should
always try to reflect real intimate relationships in our society.
Polyamory certainly is a part of that. The more we represent the
beautifully diverse nature and uniqueness of humans, the more people
will feel accepted and seen."
Metamour Day is celebrated every year on February 28. It celebrates
the relationships people have with their metamours (partners' other
significant others, often referred to as metamours or OSOs.)
Polyamory Pride Day is celebrated every year on a day in Pride Month.
Polyamory groups sometimes participate in pride parades.
International Solo Polyamory Day is celebrated every year on September 24.
Polyamory Day is celebrated every year on November 23; that day
was chosen because on November 23, 2011, the Supreme Court of British
Columbia ruled that the anti-polygamy law of Canada does not affect
unformalized polyamorous households.
Polyamory rights organizations
Bridgette Garozzo, spokesperson for the Polyamory Action Lobby, in May 2013
The Canadian Polyamory Advocacy Association (CPAA) was founded in
2009. It "advocates on behalf of Canadians who practice polyamory. It
[also] promotes legal, social, government, and institutional acceptance
and support of polyamory, and advances the interests of the Canadian
polyamorous community generally."
The Organization for Polyamory and Ethical Non-monogamy (OPEN)
was founded in the United States in 2022 as "a nonprofit organization
dedicated to normalizing and empowering non-monogamous individuals and
communities."
The Polyamory Action Lobby (PAL) was founded in 2013 in Australia
to fight cultural misconceptions about polyamorous people and to fight
for their legal rights.
The Polyamory Legal Advocacy Coalition (PLAC), based in the
United States, "seeks to advance the civil and human rights of
polyamorous individuals, communities, and families through legislative
advocacy, public policy, and public education."
Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awareness
(UUPA) was founded in 2001. It "has as its mission to serve the
Unitarian Universalist Association and the community of polyamorous
people within and outside the UUA by providing support, promoting
education, and encouraging spiritual wholeness regarding polyamory."
Opposition
Yasmin Nair, a co-founder of Against Equality, an anti-capitalist collective of radical queer and trans writers, thinkers, and artists, criticized polyamory. She argued that polyamory does not make someone radical, and said that the discourse around polyamory is tiring and not liberating, only fetishizing a "peculiar form of monogamy...and long-term relationships". Julie Bindel also penned a criticism in The Guardian,
saying that "co-opting and rebranding of polygamy" is disturbing,
while saying that modern proponents of polyamory "tend to ignore
gender-dynamics" and called polyamory the choice of "overwhelmingly
white, affluent, university-educated, and privileged folk". The conservativeNational Review claimed that "widespread acceptance of polyamory could make society worse off" with supposed false notions of honesty. Conor Friedersdorf of The Atlantic said that while he would welcome a polyamorous family as neighbors, it would not make sense to call their arrangement a civil marriage with the entitlements and rights that came with it.
Scientific study of psychological well-being and relationship
satisfaction for participants in polyamory has been limited due to
mostly being a "hidden population". While some results could be
interpreted as positive, these findings often suffer from bias and
methodological issues. A significant number of studies rely on small samples, often recruited from referrals, snowball-sampling, and websites devoted to polyamory.
Individuals recruited in this manner tend to be relatively homogeneous
in terms of values, beliefs, and demographics, which limits the
generalizability of the findings. These samples also tend to be self-selecting
toward individuals with positive experiences, whereas those who found
polyamory to be distressing or hurtful might be more reluctant to
participate in the research. Most of the studies rely entirely on self-report measures.
Generally, self-reports of the degree of well-being and relationship
satisfaction over time are flawed, and are often based on belief rather
than actual experience. Self-report measures are also at risk of self-enhancement
bias, as subjects may feel pressure to give positive responses about
their well-being and relationship satisfaction in the face of stereotype threat.
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