Sagas originated in the Middle Ages, but continued to be composed
in the ensuing centuries. Whereas the dominant language of
history-writing in medieval Europe was Latin, sagas were composed in the vernacular: Old Norse and its later descendants, primarily Icelandic.
While sagas are written in prose, they share some similarities with epic poetry, and often include stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text.
Etymology and meaning of saga
The main meanings of the Old Norse word saga (plural sǫgur)
are 'what is said, utterance, oral account, notification' and the sense
used in this article: '(structured) narrative, story (about somebody)'. It is cognate with the English words say and saw (in the sense 'a saying', as in old saw), and the German Sage; but the modern English term saga was borrowed directly into English from Old Norse by scholars in the eighteenth century to refer to Old Norse prose narratives.
The word continues to be used in this sense in the modern Scandinavian languages: Icelandic saga (plural sögur), Faroese søga (plural søgur), Norwegian soge (plural soger), Danish saga (plural sagaer), and Swedish saga (plural sagor). It usually also has wider meanings such as 'history', 'tale', and 'story'. It can also be used of a genre of novels telling stories spanning multiple generations, or to refer to saga-inspired fantasy fiction. Swedish folksaga means folk tale or fairy tale, while konstsaga is the Swedish term for a fairy tale by a known author, such as Hans Christian Andersen. In Swedish historiography, the term sagokung, "saga king", is intended to be ambiguous, as it describes the semi-legendary kings of Sweden, who are known only from unreliable sources.
Kings' sagas (konungasögur) are of the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. A pre-eminent example is Heimskringla, probably compiled and composed by Snorri Sturluson. These sagas frequently quote verse, invariably occasional and praise poetry in the form of skaldic verse.
Sagas of Icelanders and short tales of Icelanders
The Icelanders' sagas (Íslendingasögur),
sometimes also called "family sagas" in English, are purportedly (and
sometimes actually) stories of real events, which usually take place
from around the settlement of Iceland in the 870s to the generation or
two following the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 1000. They
are noted for frequently exhibiting a realistic style. It seems that stories from these times were passed on in oral form until they eventually were recorded in writing as Íslendingasögur, whose form was influenced both by these oral stories and by literary models in both Old Norse and other languages.
The majority — perhaps two thirds of the medieval corpus — seem to have
been composed in the thirteenth century, with the remainder in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These sagas usually span multiple generations and often feature everyday people (e.g. Bandamanna saga) and larger-than-life characters (e.g. Egils saga).
Key works of this genre have been viewed in modern scholarship as the
highest-quality saga-writing. While primarily set in Iceland, the sagas
follow their characters' adventures abroad, for example in other Nordic countries, the British Isles, northern France and North America. Some well-known examples include Njáls saga, Laxdæla saga and Grettis saga.
The material of the short tales of Icelanders (þættir or Íslendingaþættir) is similar to Íslendinga sögur, in shorter form, often preserved as episodes about Icelanders in the kings' sagas.
Like kings' sagas, when sagas of Icelanders quote verse, as they often do, it is almost invariably skaldic verse.
Contemporary sagas (samtíðarsögur or samtímasögur)
are set in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iceland, and were written
soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the
compilation Sturlunga saga, from around 1270–80, though some, such as Arons saga Hjörleifssonar are preserved separately. The verse quoted in contemporary sagas is skaldic verse.
According to historian Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, "Scholars generally
agree that the contemporary sagas are rather reliable sources, based on
the short time between the events and the recording of the sagas,
normally twenty to seventy years... The main argument for this view on
the reliability of these sources is that the audience would have noticed
if the saga authors were slandering and not faithfully portraying the
past."
Legendary sagas (fornaldarsögur)
blend remote history, set on the Continent before the settlement of
Iceland, with myth or legend. Their aim is usually to offer a lively
narrative and entertainment. They often portray Scandinavia's pagan past
as a proud and heroic history. Some legendary sagas quote verse —
particularly Vǫlsunga saga and Heiðreks saga — and when they do it is invariably Eddaic verse.
Some legendary sagas overlap generically with the next category, chivalric sagas.
Chivalric sagas (riddarasögur) are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de geste
as well as Icelandic compositions in the same style. Norse translations
of Continental romances seem to have begun in the first half of the
thirteenth century;
Icelandic writers seem to have begun producing their own romances in
the late thirteenth century, with production peaking in the fourteenth
century and continuing into the nineteenth.
While often translated from verse, sagas in this genre almost
never quote verse, and when they do it is often unusual in form: for
example, Jarlmanns saga ok Hermanns contains the first recorded quotation of a refrain from an Icelandic dance-song, and a metrically irregular riddle in Þjalar-Jóns saga.
Saints' and bishops' sagas
Saints' sagas (heilagra manna sögur) and bishops' sagas (biskupa sögur)
are vernacular Icelandic translations and compositions, to a greater or
lesser extent influenced by saga-style, in the widespread genres of hagiography and episcopal biographies. The genre seems to have begun in the mid-twelfth century.
Icelandic sagas are based on oral traditions and much research has
focused on what is real and what is fiction within each tale. The
accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed.
Most of the medieval manuscripts which are the earliest surviving witnesses to the sagas were taken to Denmark and Sweden
in the seventeenth century, but later returned to Iceland. Classical
sagas were composed in the thirteenth century. Scholars once believed
that these sagas were transmitted orally from generation to generation
until scribes wrote them down in the thirteenth century. However, most
scholars now believe the sagas were conscious artistic creations, based
on both oral and written tradition. A study focusing on the description
of the items of clothing mentioned in the sagas concludes that the
authors attempted to create a historic "feel" to the story, by dressing
the characters in what was at the time thought to be "old fashioned
clothing". However, this clothing is not contemporary with the events of
the saga as it is a closer match to the clothing worn in the 12th
century.
It was only recently (start of 20th century) that the tales of the
voyages to North America (modern day Canada) were authenticated.
Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is called söguöld
(Age of the Sagas) in Icelandic history. The sagas of kings, bishops,
contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Most were written down
between 1190 and 1320, sometimes existing as oral traditions long
before, others are pure fiction, and for some we do know the sources:
the author of King Sverrir's saga had met the king and used him as a source.
While sagas are generally anonymous, a distinctive literary
movement in the 14th century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics,
with identifiable authors and a distinctive Latinate style. Associated
with Iceland's northern diocese of Hólar, this movement is known as the North Icelandic Benedictine School (Norðlenski Benediktskólinn).
The vast majority of texts referred to today as "sagas" were composed in Iceland. One exception is Þiðreks saga, translated/composed in Norway; another is Hjalmars och Hramers saga, a post-medieval forgery composed in Sweden. While the term saga
is usually associated with medieval texts, sagas — particularly in the
legendary and chivalric saga genres — continued to be composed in
Iceland on the pattern of medieval texts into the nineteenth century.
Explanations for saga writing
Icelanders
produced a high volume of literature relative to the size of the
population. Historians have proposed various theories for the high
volume of saga writing.
Early, nationalist historians argued that the ethnic
characteristics of the Icelanders were conducive to a literary culture,
but these types of explanations have fallen out of favor with academics
in modern times.
It has also been proposed that the Icelandic settlers were so prolific
at writing in order to capture their settler history. Historian Gunnar
Karlsson does not find that explanation reasonable though, given that
other settler communities have not been as prolific as the early
Icelanders were.
Pragmatic explanations were once also favoured: it has been
argued that a combination of readily available parchment (due to
extensive cattle farming and the necessity of culling before winter) and long winters encouraged Icelanders to take up writing.
More recently, Icelandic saga-production has been seen as motivated more by social and political factors.
The unique nature of the political system of the Icelandic
Commonwealth created incentives for aristocrats to produce literature, offering a way for chieftains to create and maintain social differentiation between them and the rest of the population. Gunnar Karlsson and Jesse Byock
argued that the Icelanders wrote the Sagas as a way to establish
commonly agreed norms and rules in the decentralized Icelandic
Commonwealth by documenting past feuds, while Iceland's peripheral
location put it out of reach of the continental kings of Europe and that
those kings could therefore not ban subversive forms of literature.
Because new principalities lacked internal cohesion, a leader typically
produced Sagas "to create or enhance amongst his subjects or followers a
feeling of solidarity and common identity by emphasizing their common
history and legends". Leaders from old and established principalities did not produce any Sagas, as they were already cohesive political units.
Later (late thirteenth- and fourteenth-century) saga-writing was
motivated by the desire of the Icelandic aristocracy to maintain or
reconnect links with the Nordic countries by tracing the ancestry of
Icelandic aristocrats to well-known kings and heroes to which the
contemporary Nordic kings could also trace their origins.
Editions and translations
The corpus of Old Norse sagas is gradually being edited in the Íslenzk fornrit series, which covers all the Íslendingasögur and a growing range of other ones. Where available, the Íslenzk fornrit edition is usually the standard one. The standard edition of most of the chivalric sagas composed in Iceland is by Agnete Loth.
The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorri's Edda (Icelandic: Snorra Edda) or, historically, simply as Edda, is an Old Norse textbook written in Iceland
during the early 13th century. The work is often considered to have
been to some extent written, or at least compiled, by the Icelandic
scholar, lawspeaker, and historian Snorri Sturluson c. 1220. It is considered the fullest and most detailed source for modern knowledge of Norse mythology, the body of myths of the North Germanic peoples, and draws from a wide variety of sources, including versions of poems that survive into today in a collection known as the Poetic Edda.
The Prose Edda consists of four sections: The Prologue, a euhemerized account of the Norse gods; Gylfaginning,
which provides a question and answer format that details aspects of
Norse mythology (consisting of approximately 20,000 words), Skáldskaparmál, which continues this format before providing lists of kennings and heiti (approximately 50,000 words); and Háttatal, which discusses the composition of traditional skaldic poetry (approximately 20,000 words).
Dating from c. 1300 to 1600, seven manuscripts of the Prose Edda differ from one another in notable ways, which provides researchers with independent textual value for analysis. The Prose Edda
appears to have functioned similarly to a contemporary textbook, with
the goal of assisting Icelandic poets and readers in understanding the
subtleties of alliterative verse, and to grasp the meaning behind the many kennings used in skaldic poetry.
Originally known to scholars simply as Edda, the Prose Edda gained its contemporary name in order to differentiate it from the Poetic Edda. Early scholars of the Prose Edda suspected that there once existed a collection of entire poems, a theory confirmed with the rediscovery of manuscripts of the Poetic Edda.
Naming
The
etymology of "Edda" remains uncertain; there are many hypotheses about
its meaning and development, yet little agreement. Some argue that the
word derives from the name of Oddi,
a town in the south of Iceland where Snorri was raised. Edda could
therefore mean "book of Oddi." However, this assumption is generally
rejected. Anthony Faulkes in his English translation of the Prose Edda
comments that this is "unlikely, both in terms of linguistics and history" since Snorri was no longer living at Oddi when he composed his work.
Another connection was made with the word óðr, which means 'poetry or inspiration' in Old Norse.
According to Faulkes, though such a connection is plausible
semantically, it is unlikely that "Edda" could have been coined in the
13th century on the basis of "óðr", because such a development "would
have had to have taken place gradually", and Edda in the sense of 'poetics' is not likely to have existed in the preliterary period.
Edda also means 'great-grandparent', a word that appears in Skáldskaparmál, which occurs as the name of a figure in the eddic poem Rigsthula and in other medieval texts.
A final hypothesis is derived from the Latinedo, meaning "I write". It relies on the fact that the word "kredda" (meaning "belief") is certified and comes from the Latin "credo", meaning 'I believe'. Edda in this case could be translated as "Poetic Art". This is the meaning that the word was then given in the medieval period.
The now uncommonly used name Sæmundar Edda was given by the BishopBrynjólfur Sveinsson to the collection of poems contained in the Codex Regius,
many of which are quoted by Snorri. Brynjólfur, along with many others
of his time incorrectly believed that they were collected by Sæmundr fróði (therefore before the drafting of the Edda of Snorri), and so the Poetic Edda is also known as the Elder Edda.
Manuscripts
Seven manuscripts of the Prose Edda
have survived into the present day: Six copies from the medieval period
and another dating to the 1600s. No one manuscript is complete, and
each has variations. In addition to three fragments, the four main
manuscripts are Codex Regius, Codex Wormianus, Codex Trajectinus, and the Codex Upsaliensis:
It is the most comprehensive of the four manuscripts, and is
received by scholars to be closest to an original manuscript. This is
why it is the basis for editions and translations of the Prose Edda. Its name is derived from its conservation in the Royal Library of Denmark
for several centuries. From 1973 to 1997, hundreds of ancient Icelandic
manuscripts were returned from Denmark to Iceland, including, in 1985,
the Codex Regius, which is now preserved by the Árni Magnússon Institute
for Icelandic Studies.
A copy of a manuscript that was made in the second half of the 13th century.
The likely stemma of Snorra Edda, considering only the main source of each manuscript.
The other three manuscripts are AM 748; AM 757 a 4to; and AM 738 II
4to, AM le ß fol. Although some scholars have doubted whether a sound stemma
of the manuscripts can be created, due to the possibility of scribes
drawing on multiple exemplars or from memory, recent work has found that
the main sources of each manuscript can be fairly readily ascertained. The Prose Edda' remained fairly unknown outside of Iceland until the publication of the Edda Islandorum in 1665.
Authorship
The text is generally considered to have been written or at least compiled by Snorri Sturluson.
This identification is largely based on the following paragraph from a
portion of Codex Upsaliensis, an early 14th-century manuscript
containing the Edda:
Bók þessi heitir Edda. Hana hefir saman setta Snorri Sturluson eptir
þeim hætti sem hér er skipat. Er fyrst frá Ásum ok Ymi, þar næst
Skáldskaparmál ok heiti margra hluta, síðast Háttatal er Snorri hefir
ort um Hákon konung ok Skúla hertuga.
This book is called Edda. Snorri Sturluson has compiled it in the
manner in which it is arranged here. There is first told about the Æsir
and Ymir, then Skáldskaparmál (‘poetic diction’) and (poetical) names of
many things, finally Háttatal ('enumeration of metres or verse-forms')
which Snorri has composed about King Hákon and Earl Skúli.
Scholars have noted that this attribution, along with that of other
primary manuscripts, is not clear whether or not Snorri is more than the
compiler of the work and the author of Háttatal or if he is the author of the entire Edda. Faulkes summarizes the matter of scholarly discourse around the authorship of the Prose Edda as follows:
Snorri's authorship of the Prose Edda was upheld by the renaissance scholar Arngrímur Jónsson
(1568–1648), and since his time it has generally been accepted without
question. But the surviving manuscripts, which were all written more
than half a century after Snorri's death, differ from each other
considerably and it is not likely that any of them preserves the work
quite as he wrote it. A number of passages in Skáldskaparmál especially
have been thought to be interpolations, and this section of the work has
clearly been subject to various kinds of revision in most manuscripts.
It has also been argued that the prologue and the first paragraph and
part of the last paragraph of Gylfaginning are not by Snorri, at least
in their surviving forms.
Whatever the case, the mention of Snorri in the manuscripts has been
influential in a common acceptance of Snorri as the author or at least
one of the authors of the Edda.
The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing, one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de factoDanish rule following its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550, and Iceland was formally ceded to Denmark in 1814 by the Treaty of Kiel.
Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan
aid following World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one
of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. It became a
part of the European Economic Area in 1994; this further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing.
Norsemen landing in Iceland – a 19th-century depiction by Oscar Wergeland
The Sagas of Icelanders say that a Norwegian named Naddodd (or Naddador) was the first Norseman
to reach Iceland; in the ninth century, he named it Snæland or "snow
land" because it was snowing. Following Naddodd, the Swede Garðar Svavarsson arrived, and so the island was then called Garðarshólmur, which means "Garðar's Isle".
Then came a Viking named Flóki Vilgerðarson;
his daughter drowned en route, then his livestock starved to death. The
sagas say that the rather despondent Flóki climbed a mountain and saw a
fjord (Arnarfjörður) full of icebergs, which led him to give the island its new and present name. The notion that Iceland's Viking settlers chose that name to discourage the settlement of their verdant isle is a myth.
Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed during the winter and built a house in Húsavík. Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men, Náttfari,
decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now
known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became the first permanent
residents of Iceland to be documented.
The Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish. By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing, a legislative and judicial assembly was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth. The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward.
The Icelandic Commonwealth
lasted until the 13th century when the political system devised by the
original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of
Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) to the Kalmar Union
in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united.
After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian
dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway.
Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation, and an
unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence
depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%.
Ósvör, a replica of an old fishing outpost outside Bolungarvík
Around the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar,
was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country
subsequently became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since
remained the dominant religion.
A map of Iceland published in the early 17th century by Gerardus Mercator
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions
on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and
disease, contributed to a decreasing population. In the summer of 1627, Barbary Pirates committed the events known locally as the Turkish Abductions,
in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa
and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to
have casualties. The 1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), over half of all livestock in the country died. Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuing famine.
In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel,
but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century,
the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass
emigration to the New World, particularly to the region of Gimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland. About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000.
A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn
and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark
granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded
in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.
1918–1944: independence and the Kingdom of Iceland
The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union,
an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for
25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign and independent state
in a personal union
with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in
Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain
defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the
Althing. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms
and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland.
Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries
belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose
sovereign is King Charles III.
During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark
on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and
declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own
defence and foreign affairs. A month later, British armed forces conducted Operation Fork, the invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandic neutrality.
In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the
then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain
could use its troops elsewhere.
British warship HMS Scylla (right) collides with Icelandic coast guard vessel ICGV Óðinn in the Atlantic Ocean during the Third Cod War.
On 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union
expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a
four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with
Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was
97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican
constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.
In 1946, the US Defence Force Allied left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force and remained throughout the Cold War. The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.
Iceland prospered during the Second World War. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by the industrialisation of the fishing industry and the US Marshall Plan
programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of
any European country (at US$209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a
distant second at US$109).
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world.
The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars—several
disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its
fishing limits to 200 nmi (370 km) offshore. Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps towards nuclear disarmament. A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognise the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away
from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its
international role and developed a foreign policy orientated towards
humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid
and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq.
Iceland joined the European Economic Area
in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and
liberalised. International economic relations increased further after
2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts
of external debt, contributing to a 32 percent increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007.
In 2003–2007, following the privatisation of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by a major financial crisis. The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009.
Since 2012
Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and grew by 1.6% in 2012. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 election.
In the following years, Iceland saw a surge in tourism as the country
became a popular holiday destination. In 2016, Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson resigned after being implicated in the Panama Papers scandal. Early elections in 2016 resulted in a right-wing coalition government of the Independence Party, the Reform Party and Bright Future. This government fell when Bright Future quit the coalition due to a scandal involving then-Prime Minister Bjarni Benediktsson's father's letter of support for a convicted child sex offender. Snap elections in October 2017 brought to power a new coalition consisting of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement, headed by Katrín Jakobsdóttir.
After the 2021 parliamentary election,
the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party
coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the
Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir. In April 2024, Bjarni Benediktsson of the Independence party succeeded Katrín Jakobsdóttir as prime minister.
Iceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68°N, and longitudes 25 and 13°W.
Iceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland
(290 kilometres; 155 nautical miles), an island of North America.
Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical,
political, cultural, linguistic and practical reasons.Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (420 km; 225 nmi); Jan Mayen Island (570 km; 310 nmi); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about 740 km (400 nmi); and the Scottish mainland and Orkney,
both about 750 km (405 nmi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is
mainland Norway, about 970 km (525 nmi) away, while mainland North
America is 2,070 km (1,120 nmi) away, at the northern tip of Labrador.
Three typical Icelandic landscapes
Iceland is the world's 18th-largest island, and Europe's second-largest island after Great Britain and before Ireland. The main island covers 101,826 km2 (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is tundra. Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: 83–88 km2 (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn: 82 km2 (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn. Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft).
Geologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge.
Many fjords
punctuate Iceland's 4,970-km-long (3,088-mi) coastline, which is also
where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains, and lava fields. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park. The country is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012.
A geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland is the surface expression of the Iceland Plateau, a large igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from the Iceland hotspot and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the latter of which runs right through it. This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes including Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið, and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population.
In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over
most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months
afterwards, and affected climates in other areas.
Iceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.
With the widespread availability of geothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems.
Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island.
On 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes. Additional eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes. The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe.
High-field overview of the area around Reykir
Another large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011. This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull.
Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes, and this eruption
was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity, with ash
and lava hurled 20 km (12 mi) into the atmosphere, creating a large
cloud.
A great deal of volcanic activity occurred in the Reykjanes
Peninsula in 2020 and into 2021, after nearly 800 years of inactivity.
After the eruption of the Fagradalsfjall volcano on 19 March 2021, National Geographic's
experts predicted that this "may mark the start of decades of volcanic
activity." The eruption was small, leading to a prediction that this
volcano was unlikely to threaten "any population centers".
The highest elevation for Iceland is listed as 2,110 m (6,920 ft) at Hvannadalshnúkur (64°00′N 16°39′W).
On December 18, 2023, an eruption began at the Sundhnúkur crater row in the Eldvörp–Svartsengi volcanic system on Iceland's Reykjanes peninsula about 4 km northeast of the fishing community of Grindavik,
which had been evacuated in November after strong seismic activity had
damaged roads, homes and other structures and raised fears of an
imminent eruption. The November earthquakes also prompted the closure of
the Blue Lagoon geothermal spa—one of Iceland's biggest tourist attractions. The eruption was a 3.5 km linear fissure vent event in an area where there had been recent concentrated crustal uplift, with lava fountains reaching as high as 100 meters. Unlike the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, this event wasn't expected to cause significant disruption due to the volcano's limited ash cloud generation. The eruption was short-lived, with activity rapidly decreasing in strength and stopping on December 21.
A new eruption began on January 14, 2024, shortly after authorities evacuated Grindavik due to a swarm of small earthquakes.
Hours later, a second fissure opened near the edge of town, with lava
creeping toward homes. Defensive walls that had been built north of
Grindavik were breached.Lava flow from the initial fissure cut the main road to Grindavik while
lava from the second fissure destroyed three homes. The eruption
stopped after two days.
On March 16, a fourth eruption began between Mt. Hagafell and Mt.
Stóra-Skógfell. Initially, it was a 3 km fissure eruption, but it
gradually evolved to lava discharging from several vents and eventually
to a single vent that had developed into a spatter cone. Activity
continued into April with varying levels of intensity and lava flow.
Rather than extend into new areas, the lava flowed over previous flows
from this same eruption, forming a shield around the cone.
The climate of Iceland's coast is subarctic. The warm North Atlantic Current
ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of
similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar
climates include the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego,
although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity
to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter.
Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north
coast in 1969.
The climate varies between different parts of the island.
Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than
the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country.
Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest. Snowfall in winter
is more common in the north than in the south.
The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22
June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C
(−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the
northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are
26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January
1918.
Plants
Phytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.
Plantlife consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by
livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch (Betula pubescens), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens (Populus tremula), rowans (Sorbus aucuparia), common junipers (Juniperus communis), and other smaller trees, mainly willows.
When the island was first settled, it was extensively forested,
with around 30% of the land covered in trees. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age, and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion.
Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three-quarters of Iceland's
100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) is affected by soil erosion;
18,000 km2 (6,900 sq mi) is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless.
Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The
Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale
reforestation in the country. Due to the reforestation efforts, the
forest cover of Iceland increased six-fold since the 1990s. This helps
to offset carbon emissions, prevent sand storms and increase the
productivity of farms.
The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the
result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted
forests include introduced species. The tallest tree in Iceland is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at 25.2 m (83 ft) in 2013.
Algae such as Chondrus crispus, Phyllphora truncata and Phyllophora crispa and others have been recorded from Iceland.
The Arctic fox is the only indigenous land mammal in Iceland and was the only land mammal before the arrival of humans.
The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox,
which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the
frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with
the winds, but they are not able to breed there. No native or
free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island.
Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry
is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of
the country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an
important part of Iceland's animal life. Atlantic puffins, skuas, and black-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.
Commercial whaling is practised intermittentlyalong with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.
Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland. This is low
compared with other countries (over one million species have been
described worldwide). Iceland is essentially free of mosquitoes.
In 2016, Iceland was ranked second in the strength of its democratic institutions and 13th in government transparency. The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections,
compared to an OECD average of 72%. Iceland scored second in Europe for
their trust in legal institutions (police, parliament and judiciary) at
a mean of 73% trust as of 2018.
Many political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily
due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural
resources (particularly fisheries).
Women's rights
Women in Iceland first gained the right to vote in 1915 (with restrictions) and increased voting rights in 1920. Iceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women. Known as the Women's List (Kvennalistinn),
it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social
needs of women. It left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every
major party has a 40% quota for women. In the 2021 elections, 48% of
members of parliament are female compared to the global average of 16%
in 2009 . Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was the world's first democratically elected female head of state. In 2009, Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became the world's first openly LGBThead of government.
Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing),
was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was
widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and temporarily suspended from 1799 to 1845. Consequently, "it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy." It has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years.
The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government.
The president of Iceland,
in contrast, is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a
diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a
national referendum. They are elected by popular vote for a term of four years with no term limit. The current president is Guðni Th. Jóhannesson.
On 1 August 2016, he became the new president of Iceland, and he was
re-elected with an overwhelming majority of the vote in the 2020 presidential election.
The elections for the president, the Althing, and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.
The cabinet in the country's government is typically appointed by
the president after a general election to the Althing. However, the
appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political
parties, who decide amongst themselves which parties can form the
cabinet and how to distribute its seats, as long as it has majority
support in the Althing. If the party leaders are unable to come to an
agreement within a reasonable period of time, the president will
personally appoint the cabinet. This has not happened since the republic
was founded in 1944, although in 1942 the regent, Sveinn Björnsson,
appointed a non-parliamentary government. Sveinn held the practical
position of a president at the time, and later became the country's
first official president in 1944.
The governments of Iceland have always been coalition
governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political
party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout
the republican period. There is no legal consensus on the extent of the
political power possessed by the office of the president; several
provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some
important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest
differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir
as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state.
She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first
country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.
Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, and municipalities.
The eight regions are primarily used for statistical purposes. District
court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.
Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the
same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were
changed to the current six constituencies:
South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).
The redistricting change was made to balance the weight of different
districts of the country since previously a vote cast in the sparsely
populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote
cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has
been reduced by the new system but still exists.
Sixty-nine municipalities in Iceland govern local matters like schools, transport, and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions
of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections
and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous
municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.
Nordic prime ministers and the president of Finland visiting the White House in 2016, with Iceland's Sigurður second from the left
Iceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe, and OECD,
maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all
nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United
States, Canada, and the other NATO nations are particularly close.
Historically, due to cultural, economic, and linguistic similarities,
Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.
Iceland is a member of the European Economic Area
(EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the
European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009,
the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of the
application for EU membership and officially applied on 17 July 2009. However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following the 2013 Icelandic parliamentary election
the two parties that formed the island's new government—the centrist
Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party—announced they
would hold a referendum on EU membership. In 2015, Minister for Foreign Affairs Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson
informed the EU that Iceland would no longer pursue membership, but the
application was not formally withdrawn and there have been subsequent
calls for a referendum on the issue.
Iceland was the neutral host of the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over exclusive economic zones. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars, which included confrontations between the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy over British fishermen: in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from 3 to 4 nmi
(5.6 to 7.4 km; 3.5 to 4.6 mi), in 1958–1961 following a further
extension to 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi), in 1972–1973 with another
extension to 50 nmi (92.6 km; 57.5 mi), and in 1975–1976 after another
extension to 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi).
According to the 2011 Global Peace Index,
Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of
armed forces, low crime rate and high level of socio-political
stability. Iceland is listed in Guinness World Records as the "country ranked most at peace" and the "lowest military spending per capita".
Akureyri is the largest town in Iceland outside the Capital Region. Most rural towns are based on the fishing industry, which provides 40% of Iceland's exports.
Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing,
which still provides ~20% of export earnings and employed 7% of the
workforce.The economy is now more dependent on tourism, but important sectors continue to be: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Iceland's economic dependence on fishing is diminishing, from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 20% in 2020.
Until the 20th century, Iceland was a fairly poor country. Whaling in Iceland
was historically significant. It is now one of the most developed
countries in the world. Strong economic growth led Iceland to be ranked third in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2021/2022. According to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland had the second-highest quality of life in the world. Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking is sixth.
Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis,
with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012, compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.
The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna
(ISK). Iceland is the only country in the world to have a population
under two million yet still have a floating exchange rate and an
independent monetary policy. A poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed.
Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that
67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and
service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%. The tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism
and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million
visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population. 1.7 million people visited Iceland in 2016, 3 times more than the number that came in 2010. Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton, and dairy products. The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.
Iceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world. As of 2016, it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015. According to the Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 20th most innovative country in the world in 2022 and 2023. Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax
system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75% and combined
with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not
including the many available deductions. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world. There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax
was eliminated in 2006. Employment regulations are relatively flexible
and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights
are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are
applied to fishery management. Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.
Despite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest
among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change.
Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by
OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The
OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy. There was a currency crisis
that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in
Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the
economy. An assessment by the OECD 2011
determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly
in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the
financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing
industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving
monetary policy to address inflation. Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and as of 2015 is the 31st-highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.
Iceland was hit especially hard by the Great Recession
that began in December 2007 because of the failure of its banking
system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the
country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion).
In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation
to minimise the impact of the financial crisis. The Financial
Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the
emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three
largest banks. Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson,
stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks'
foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on
the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks were to be run
into bankruptcy.
On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2019, it was 3.5%), a move forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund
(IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally
resumed on the open market, with a valuation at around 250 ISK per euro,
less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of
2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week
before. On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.
On 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to
public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new
left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about
removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank
through changes in the law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in
the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.
Thousands of Icelanders left the country after the collapse, many
of those moving to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to
Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625. In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament's Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis. By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt.
According to Bloomberg
in 2014, Iceland was on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result
of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the
banks to fail.
Iceland has a high level of car ownership per capita, with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport.
Iceland has 13,034 km (8,099 mi) of administered roads, of which
4,617 km (2,869 mi) are paved and 8,338 km (5,181 mi) are not. The road
speed limits are 30 and 50 km/h (19 and 31 mph) in towns, 80 km/h
(50 mph) on gravel country roads and 90 km/h (56 mph) on hard-surfaced
roads. A great number of interior roads remain unpaved, mostly
little-used rural roads.
Route 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur),
completed in 1974, is the main road that runs around Iceland and
connects most inhabited parts of the island. The interior of the island
is mostly uninhabitable. The road is paved and is 1,332 km (828 mi) long
with one lane in each direction, except between and within larger towns
and cities where it has more lanes. On Route 1 there are some 30 single lane bridges, particularly prevalent in the southeast.
Long-distance bus operated by the public bus company Strætó bs
Public transport
City buses in Reykjavík (including the Capital Region) are operated by Strætó bs. Long-distance public bus services throughout the country are also provided by Strætó bs. Smaller towns such as Akureyri, Reykjanesbær and Selfoss also provide local bus services. Public and private bus services are available to and from Keflavik International Airport.
Keflavík International Airport (KEF) is the largest airport and the main aviation hub for international passenger transport. KEF is in the southwest of the country, 49 km (30 mi) from the Reykjavík city centre.
Reykjavík Airport (RKV)
is the second-largest airport, located just 1.5 km from the capital
centre. Reykjavík Airport serves daily regular domestic flights within
Iceland, general aviation, private aviation and medivac traffic.
Akureyri Airport (AEY) and Egilsstaðir Airport (EGS)
are two other airports with domestic service and limited international
service. Akureyri Airport opened an expanded international terminal in
2024. There are a total of 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.
Sea
Norröna ferry in Seyðisfjorður, bound to the Faroe Islands and Denmark
Several ferry services provide regular access to various island communities or shorten travel distances. The Smyril Line operates the ship Norröna providing an international ferry service from Seyðisfjörður to the Faroe Islands and Denmark.
Several companies provide maritime transport services to Iceland, including Eimskip and Samskip. Iceland's largest ports are managed by Faxaflóahafnir.
The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station services the Capital Region's hot water and electricity needs. Virtually all of Iceland's electricity comes from renewable resources.Iceland electricity production by source
Renewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.
In 2023, battery electric vehicles constituted 50.1% of new registrations and around 18% of the country's vehicle fleet was electrified in 2024.Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells.
Despite this, Icelanders emitted 16.9 tonnes of CO2 per capita in 2016, the highest among EFTA and EU members, mainly resulting from transport and aluminium smelting. Nevertheless, in 2010, Iceland was reported by Guinness World Records as "the Greenest Country", reaching the highest score by the Environmental Sustainability Index, which measures a country's water use, biodiversity and adoption of clean energies, with a score of 93.5/100.
On 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area. Three exploration licences were awarded but all were subsequently relinquished.
Iceland's official governmental goal is to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by the year 2030 and reach carbon neutrality by the year 2040.
As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global
Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies
in the world.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and
they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools,
primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered
by the municipalities. The government does allow citizens to home educate their children, however, under a very strict set of demands.
Students must adhere closely to the government-mandated curriculum, and
the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching
certificate.
Nursery school, or leikskóli,
is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years and is
the first step in the education system. The current legislation
concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for
ensuring that the curriculum is suitable to make the transition into
compulsory education as easy as possible.
Compulsory education, or grunnskóli,
comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is
conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for
children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months,
beginning between 21 August and 1 September, and ending between 31 May
and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a
new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place
five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in
Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.
Upper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia
in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory
education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of
education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All
schools in Iceland are mixed-sex schools. The largest seat of higher
education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.
An OECD assessment found that 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have
earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the
OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the
equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD
average of 80%. Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered excellent: the Programme for International Student Assessment ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average. Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.
According to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission,
Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and
development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU
average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to reach by 2020. Iceland was ranked 17th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 20th in 2019. A 2010 UNESCO
report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D
(US$100 million or more), Iceland ranked ninth by proportion of GDP,
tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the
United Kingdom and Canada.
Reykjavík, Iceland's largest metropolitan area and the centre of the Capital Region which, with a population of 233,034, makes for 64% of Iceland's population (numbers from 2020)
The original population of Iceland was of Norse and Gaelic
origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the
settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type
and genetic analyses. One such genetic study indicated that the
majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority
of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland
were Norsemen who brought Gaelic slaves with them.
Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database that is intended to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from
40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the
mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from
volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.
The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the
population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of
the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000.
Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in
population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to
320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a
developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or
younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few
European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table below).
In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population)
living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic
parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held
foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant)
have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be
temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008
as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.
The southwest corner of Iceland is by far the most densely
populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the
northernmost national capital in the world. More than 70 percent of
Iceland's population lives in the southwest corner (Greater Reykjavík and the nearby Southern Peninsula), which covers less than two percent of Iceland's land area. The largest town outside Greater Reykjavík is Reykjanesbær,
which is located on the Southern Peninsula, less than 50 km (31 mi)
from the capital. The largest town outside the southwest corner is Akureyri in northern Iceland.
Some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red settled Greenland in the late tenth century. The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000, and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500. People from Greenland attempted to set up a settlement at Vinland in North America, but abandoned it in the face of hostility from the Indigenous residents.
Emigration of Icelanders to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. As of 2006, Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.
Iceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse.
In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the
other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection,
and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on
native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic
tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree
a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of
isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of
the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.
Icelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.
English and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school
curriculum. English is widely understood and spoken, while basic to
moderate knowledge of Danish is common mainly among the older
generations. Polish
is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the largest minority of
Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible
to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska (i.e. Scandinavian) in Iceland.
Rather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most Western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic
surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practised. Patronymic last
names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names
are based on the first name of the mother. These follow the person's
given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir ("Elísabet, Jón's daughter" (Jón being the father)) or Ólafur Katrínarson ("Ólafur, Katrín's son" (Katrín being the mother)).
Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and
the Icelandic telephone directory lists people alphabetically by the
first name rather than by surname. All new names must be approved by the Icelandic Naming Committee.
Iceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare (Icelandic: Velferðarráðuneytið)
and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service
fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and
private insurance is practically nonexistent.
A considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care, and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP and 14th in spending per capita. Overall, the country's health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization. According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations. As of 2009,
Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of
3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with
an OECD average of 8.4).
Icelanders are among the world's healthiest people, with 81% reporting they are in good health, according to an OECD survey. Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries. Iceland has many campaigns for health and wellbeing, including the famous television show Lazytown, starring and created by former gymnastics champion Magnus Scheving. Infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average. Almost all women choose to terminate pregnancies of children with Down syndrome in Iceland. The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the fourth-highest in the world.
Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an
overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population
density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens.
According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic materials in the
atmosphere is far lower than in any other industrialised country
measured.
In 2019, the age-adjusted suicide rate in Iceland was 11.2 cases per 100,000.
Approximately 80 percent of Icelanders legally affiliate with a
religious denomination, a process that happens automatically at birth
and from which they can choose to opt out. They also pay a church tax
(sóknargjald), which the government directs to help support their
registered religion, or, in the case of no religion, the University of
Iceland.
The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation
of every Icelandic citizen. In 2017, Icelanders were divided into
religious groups as follows:
On March 8, 2021, Iceland formally recognised Judaism as a religion
for the first time. Iceland's Jews will have the choice to register as
such and direct their taxes to their own religion. Among other benefits,
the recognition will also allow Jewish marriage, baby-naming and
funeral ceremonies to be civilly recognised.
Iceland is a very secular country; as with other Nordic nations, church attendance is relatively low.
The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious
organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief
demographics of the population. According to a study published in 2001,
23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic.
A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered
themselves "religious", 31% considered themselves "non-religious",
while 10% defined themselves as "convinced atheists", placing Iceland
among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the
world.
Icelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages.
Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic
culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation
of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Nordic languages.
In contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place
relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a
public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission,
over 85% of Icelanders believe independence is "very important",
compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for
the EU25. Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.
According to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were
satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be
satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% reported having more positive
experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD
average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD.
A more recent 2012 survey found that around three-quarters of
respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a
global average of about 53%.
Icelanders are known for their strong sense of community and lack of social isolation:
An OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely
on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country.
Similarly, only 6% reported "rarely" or "never" socialising with others.
This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and
homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh
survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of
unity and cooperation.
Egalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world. The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.
Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic
countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is
consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women
to live in.
A translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century.
Important compositions from the 15th to the 19th century include sacred
verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.
Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest
number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland
imports and translates more international literature than any other
nation. Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.
Most books in Iceland are sold between late September to early November. This period is known as Jólabókaflóð, the Christmas Book Flood. The Flood begins with the Iceland Publisher's Association distributing Bókatíðindi, a catalogue of all new publications, free to each Icelandic home.
Iceland is liberal about LGBT rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships
for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of
marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex
couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting,
and assisted insemination treatment. In 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law,
making it gender-neutral and defining marriage as between two
individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to
legalise same-sex marriage. The law took effect on 27 June 2010.
The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for
same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only
option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.
The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.
Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen,
returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death
in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several
other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson,
who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's
landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists
quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These
included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir.
Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the
application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render
the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson
is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered
to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s,
many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in
their work.
In recent years the artistic practice has multiplied, and the
Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large-scale projects
and exhibitions. The artist-run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of
which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank,
has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces,
exhibitions, and projects. The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum, and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.
Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both
religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music,
due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's
history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th
century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century when Magnús
Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes. The best-known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of Kvæðamannafélagið Iðunn [is].
Among Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir, who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's
Kravis Emerging Composer, an honour that includes a $50,000 cash prize
and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the
second recipient.
Iceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn.
Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast
throughout the country, including in some parts of the interior. The
main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.
Iceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's educational musical comedy programme created by Magnús Scheving.
It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is
shown in over 100 countries, including the Americas, the UK and Sweden. The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær. The 2015 television crime series Trapped
aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim
and according to the Guardian "the unlikeliest TV hit of the year".
In 1992, the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his Children of Nature.
It features the story of an old man who is unable to continue running
his farm. After being unwelcomed in his daughter's and father-in-law's
house in town, he is put in a home for the elderly. There, he meets an
old girlfriend of his youth, and they both begin a journey through the
wilds of Iceland to die together. This is the only Icelandic movie to
have ever been nominated for an Academy Award.
On 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative,
proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of
journalists and whistle-blowers—the strongest journalist protection law
in the world. According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest-ranked countries in press freedom.
CCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, are headquartered in Reykjavík. CCP Games hosts the third-most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game, according to Guinness World Records.
Iceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world. Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union
ranks the country third in its development of information and
communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and
2010.
In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching
possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet
pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as
it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community
expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block
access to pornography without compromising freedom of speech.
Much of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products,
with little to no use of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate,
fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional
dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in
contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr (a yogurt-like cheese), hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding, Flatkaka (flatbread), dried fish and dark rye bread traditionally baked in the ground in geothermal areas. Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.
Breakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord.
The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually
involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most
Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut.
It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled,
boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to
be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as slátur, which consists of offal
(internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in
sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled
cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.
Coffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, with the country being third placed by per capita consumption worldwide in 2016, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon. Coca-Cola
is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have
one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world.
Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is brennivín (literally "burnt [i.e., distilled] wine"), which is similar in flavouring to the akvavit variant of Scandinavian brännvin. It is a type of schnapps made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði ("Black Death"). Modern distilleries on Iceland produce vodka (Reyka), gin (Ísafold), moss schnapps (Fjallagrasa), and a birch-flavoured schnapps and liqueur
(Foss Distillery's Birkir and Björk). Martin Miller blends Icelandic
water with its England-distilled gin on the island. Strong beer was banned until 1989, so bjórlíki, a mixture of legal, low-alcohol pilsner beer and vodka, became popular. Several strong beers are now made by Icelandic breweries.
Sport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.
Iceland is also the smallest country to ever qualify for Eurobasket,
having done so in both 2015 and 2017. However, they have not managed to
win a single game in the European Basketball final stages.
Iceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing,
with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of
activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for
golf, there are nevertheless many golf courses throughout the island,
and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than
Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of
approximately 300,000.
Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the
Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club. Iceland has also won the second most World's Strongest Man competitions of any country with nine titles, including four by both Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson and most recently Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson in 2018.
Iceland is also one of the leading countries in ocean rowing. Icelandic explorer and endurance athlete Fiann Paul holds the highest number of performance-based Guinness World Records within a single athletic discipline. As of 2020, he is the first and only person to achieve the Ocean Explorers Grand Slam (performing open-water crossings on each of the five oceans using human-powered vessels) and has claimed overall speed Guinness World Records for the fastest rowing of all four oceans (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and the Arctic) in a human-powered row boat. He had achieved a total of 41, including 33 performance based Guinness World Records by 2020.
Swimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools
are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the
national curriculum. Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.
The oldest sports association in Iceland is the Reykjavík
Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very
popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and
nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence. To this day,
it remains a significant pastime.
Iceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War. As of 2008, there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population. Bridge
is also popular, with Iceland participating in several international
tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950.
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