A mental state, or a mental property, is a state of mind of a person. Mental states comprise a diverse class, including perception, pain/pleasure experience, belief, desire, intention, emotion, and memory. There is controversy concerning the exact definition of the term. According to epistemic approaches,
the essential mark of mental states is that their subject has
privileged epistemic access while others can only infer their existence
from outward signs. Consciousness-based approaches hold that all mental states are either conscious themselves or stand in the right relation to conscious states. Intentionality-based approaches, on the other hand, see the power of minds to refer to objects and represent the world as the mark of the mental. According to functionalist approaches,
mental states are defined in terms of their role in the causal network
independent of their intrinsic properties. Some philosophers deny all
the aforementioned approaches by holding that the term "mental" refers
to a cluster of loosely related ideas without an underlying unifying
feature shared by all. Various overlapping classifications of mental
states have been proposed. Important distinctions group mental phenomena
together according to whether they are sensory, propositional, intentional, conscious or occurrent.
Sensory states involve sense impressions like visual perceptions or
bodily pains. Propositional attitudes, like beliefs and desires, are
relations a subject has to a proposition. The characteristic of
intentional states is that they refer to or are about objects or states
of affairs. Conscious states are part of the phenomenal experience while
occurrent states are causally efficacious within the owner's mind, with
or without consciousness. An influential classification of mental
states is due to Franz Brentano, who argues that there are only three
basic kinds: presentations, judgments, and phenomena of love and hate.
Mental states are usually contrasted with physical or material aspects. For (non-eliminative) physicalists, they are a kind of high-level property that can be understood in terms of fine-grained neural activity. Property dualists, on the other hand, claim that no such reductive explanation is possible. Eliminativists may reject the existence of mental properties, or at least of those corresponding to folk psychological categories such as thought and memory. Mental states play an important role in various fields, including philosophy of mind, epistemology and cognitive science. In psychology,
the term is used not just to refer to the individual mental states
listed above but also to a more global assessment of a person's mental
health.
Definition
Various
competing theories have been proposed about what the essential features
of all mental states are, sometimes referred to as the search for the
"mark of the mental". These theories can roughly be divided into epistemic approaches, consciousness-based approaches, intentionality-based approaches and functionalism. These approaches disagree not just on how mentality is to be defined but also on which states count as mental.
Mental states encompass a diverse group of aspects of an entity, like
this entity's beliefs, desires, intentions, or pain experiences. The
different approaches often result in a satisfactory characterization of
only some of them. This has prompted some philosophers to doubt that
there is a unifying mark of the mental and instead see the term "mental"
as referring to a cluster of loosely related ideas.
Mental states are usually contrasted with physical or material aspects.
This contrast is commonly based on the idea that certain features of
mental phenomena are not present in the material universe as described
by the natural sciences and may even be incompatible with it.
Epistemic and consciousness-based approaches
Epistemic approaches emphasize that the subject has privileged access to all or at least some of their mental states. It is sometimes claimed that this access is direct, private and infallible. Direct access
refers to non-inferential knowledge. When someone is in pain, for
example, they know directly that they are in pain, they do not need to
infer it from other indicators like a body part being swollen or their
tendency to scream when it is touched.
But we arguably also have non-inferential knowledge of external
objects, like trees or cats, through perception, which is why this
criterion by itself is not sufficient. Another epistemic privilege often
mentioned is that mental states are private in contrast to public external facts.
For example, the fallen tree lying on a person's leg is directly open
to perception by the bystanders while the victim's pain is private: only
they know it directly while the bystanders have to infer it from their
screams. It was traditionally often claimed that we have infallible
knowledge of our own mental states, i.e. that we cannot be wrong about
them when we have them.
So when someone has an itching sensation, for example, they cannot be
wrong about having this sensation. They can only be wrong about the
non-mental causes, e.g. whether it is the consequence of bug bites or of
a fungal infection. But various counterexamples have been presented to
claims of infallibility, which is why this criterion is usually not
accepted in contemporary philosophy. One problem for all epistemic approaches to the mark of the mental is that they focus mainly on conscious states but exclude unconscious states. A represseddesire, for example, is a mental state to which the subject lacks the forms of privileged epistemic access mentioned.
One way to respond to this worry is to ascribe a privileged status to conscious mental states. On such a consciousness-based approach,
conscious mental states are non-derivative constituents of the mind
while unconscious states somehow depend on their conscious counterparts
for their existence.An influential example of this position is due to John Searle, who holds that unconscious mental states have to be accessible to consciousness to count as "mental" at all. They can be understood as dispositions to bring about conscious states. This position denies that the so-called "deep unconscious", i.e. mental contents inaccessible to consciousness, exists. Another problem for consciousness-based approaches,
besides the issue of accounting for the unconscious mind, is to
elucidate the nature of consciousness itself. Consciousness-based
approaches are usually interested in phenomenal consciousness, i.e. in qualitative experience, rather than access consciousness, which refers to information being available for reasoning and guiding behavior.
Conscious mental states are normally characterized as qualitative and
subjective, i.e. that there is something it is like for a subject to be
in these states. Opponents of consciousness-based approaches often point
out that despite these attempts, it is still very unclear what the term
"phenomenal consciousness" is supposed to mean.
This is important because not much would be gained theoretically by
defining one ill-understood term in terms of another. Another objection
to this type of approach is to deny that the conscious mind has a
privileged status in relation to the unconscious mind, for example, by
insisting that the deep unconscious exists.
Intentionality-based approaches
Intentionality-based approaches see intentionality as the mark of the mental. The originator of this approach is Franz Brentano, who defined intentionality as the characteristic of mental states to refer to or be about objects.
One central idea for this approach is that minds represent the world
around them, which is not the case for regular physical objects.
So a person who believes that there is ice cream in the fridge
represents the world as being a certain way. The ice cream can be
represented but it does not itself represent the world. This is why a
mind is ascribed to the person but not to the ice cream, according to
the intentional approach. One advantage of it in comparison to the epistemic approach
is that it has no problems to account for unconscious mental states:
they can be intentional just like conscious mental states and thereby
qualify as constituents of the mind.
But a problem for this approach is that there are also some non-mental
entities that have intentionality, like maps or linguistic expressions.
One response to this problem is to hold that the intentionality of
non-mental entities is somehow derivative in relation to the
intentionality of mental entities. For example, a map of Addis Ababa may
be said to represent Addis Ababa not intrinsically but only
extrinsically because people interpret it as a representation. Another difficulty is that not all mental states seem to be intentional. So while beliefs and desires are forms of representation, this seems not to be the case for pains and itches, which may indicate a problem without representing it.
But some theorists have argued that even these apparent counterexamples
should be considered intentional when properly understood.
Behaviorism and functionalism
Behaviorist
definitions characterize mental states as dispositions to engage in
certain publicly observable behavior as a reaction to particular
external stimuli.
On this view, to ascribe a belief to someone is to describe the
tendency of this person to behave in certain ways. Such an ascription
does not involve any claims about the internal states of this person, it
only talks about behavioral tendencies.
A strong motivation for such a position comes from empiricist
considerations stressing the importance of observation and the lack
thereof in the case of private internal mental states. This is sometimes
combined with the thesis that we could not even learn how to use mental
terms without reference to the behavior associated with them.
One problem for behaviorism is that the same entity often behaves
differently despite being in the same situation as before. This suggests
that explanation needs to make reference to the internal states of the
entity that mediate the link between stimulus and response. This problem is avoided by functionalist
approaches, which define mental states through their causal roles but
allow both external and internal events in their causal network.On this view, the definition of pain-state may include aspects such as
being in a state that "tends to be caused by bodily injury, to produce
the belief that something is wrong with the body and ... to cause
wincing or moaning".
One important aspect of both behaviorist and functionalist approaches is that, according to them, the mind is multiply realizable.
This means that it does not depend on the exact constitution of an
entity for whether it has a mind or not. Instead, only its behavioral
dispositions or its role in the causal network matter.
The entity in question may be a human, an animal, a silicon-based alien
or a robot. Functionalists sometimes draw an analogy to the
software-hardware distinction where the mind is likened to a certain
type of software that can be installed on different forms of hardware.
Closely linked to this analogy is the thesis of computationalism, which defines the mind as an information processing system that is physically implemented by the neural activity of the brain.
One problem for all of these views is that they seem to be unable
to account for the phenomenal consciousness of the mind emphasized by consciousness-based approaches.
It may be true that pains are caused by bodily injuries and themselves
produce certain beliefs and moaning behavior. But the causal profile of
pain remains silent on the intrinsic unpleasantness of the painful
experience itself. Some states that are not painful to the subject at
all may even fit these characterizations.
Theories under the umbrella of externalism emphasize the mind's
dependency on the environment. According to this view, mental states and
their contents are at least partially determined by external
circumstances.
For example, some forms of content externalism hold that it can depend
on external circumstances whether a belief refers to one object or
another. The extended mind thesis states that external circumstances not only affect the mind but are part of it. The closely related view of enactivism holds that mental processes involve an interaction between organism and environment.
Classifications of mental states
There
is a great variety of types of mental states, which can be classified
according to various distinctions. These types include perception, belief, desire, intention, emotion and memory. Many of the proposed distinctions for these types have significant overlaps and some may even be identical. Sensory states involve sense impressions, which are absent in non-sensory states. Propositional attitudes are mental states that have propositional contents, in contrast to non-propositional states. Intentional states refer to or are about objects or states of affairs, a feature which non-intentional states lack. A mental state is conscious if it belongs to a phenomenal experience. Unconscious mental states are also part of the mind but they lack this phenomenal dimension. Occurrent mental states are active or causally efficacious within the owner's mind while non-occurrent or standing states exist somewhere in the back of one's mind but do not currently play an active role in any mental processes. Certain mental states are rationally evaluable: they are either rational or irrational depending on whether they obey the norms of rationality. But other states are arational:
they are outside the domain of rationality. A well-known classification
is due to Franz Brentano, who distinguishes three basic categories of
mental states: presentations, judgments, and phenomena of love and hate.
Types of mental states
There is a great variety of types of mental states including perception, bodily awareness, thought, belief, desire, motivation, intention, deliberation, decision, pleasure, emotion, mood, imagination and memory. Some of these types are precisely contrasted with each other while other types may overlap. Perception
involves the use of senses, like sight, touch, hearing, smell and
taste, to acquire information about material objects and events in the
external world. It contrasts with bodily awareness in this sense, which is about the internal ongoings in our body and which does not present its contents as independent objects.
The objects given in perception, on the other hand, are directly (i.e.
non-inferentially) presented as existing out there independently of the
perceiver. Perception is usually considered to be reliable but our
perceptual experiences may present false information at times and can
thereby mislead us. The information received in perception is often further considered in thought, in which information is mentally represented and processed. Both perceptions and thoughts often result in the formation of new or the change of existing beliefs. Beliefs may amount to knowledge if they are justified and true. They are non-sensory cognitive propositional attitudes that have a mind-to-world direction of fit: they represent the world as being a certain way and aim at truth. They contrast with desires,
which are conative propositional attitudes that have a world-to-mind
direction of fit and aim to change the world by representing how it
should be. Desires are closely related to agency: they motivate the agent and are thus involved in the formation of intentions. Intentions are plans to which the agent is committed and which may guide actions. Intention-formation is sometimes preceded by deliberation and decision,
in which the advantages and disadvantages of different courses of
action are considered before committing oneself to one course. It is
commonly held that pleasure plays a central role in these
considerations. "Pleasure" refers to experience that feels good, that
involves the enjoyment of something. The topic of emotions
is closely intertwined with that of agency and pleasure. Emotions are
evaluative responses to external or internal stimuli that are associated
with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure and motivate various
behavioral reactions. Emotions are quite similar to moods,
some differences being that moods tend to arise for longer durations at
a time and that moods are usually not clearly triggered by or directed
at a specific event or object. Imagination is even further removed from the actual world in that it represents things without aiming to show how they actually are. All the aforementioned states can leave traces in memory that make it possible to relive them at a later time in the form of episodic memory.
Sensation, propositional attitudes and intentionality
An important distinction among mental states is between sensory and non-sensory states. Sensory states involve some form of sense impressions like visual perceptions,
auditory impressions or bodily pains. Non-sensory states, like thought,
rational intuition or the feeling of familiarity, lack sensory
contents. Sensory states are sometimes equated with qualitative states and contrasted with propositional attitude states. Qualitative states involve qualia, which constitute the subjective feeling of having the state in question or what it is like to be in it.
Propositional attitudes, on the other hand, are relations a subject has
to a proposition. They are usually expressed by verbs like believe, desire, fear or hope together with a that-clause.
So believing that it will rain today, for example, is a propositional
attitude. It has been argued that the contrast between qualitative
states and propositional attitudes is misleading since there is some
form of subjective feel to certain propositional states like
understanding a sentence or suddenly thinking of something. This would suggest that there are also non-sensory qualitative states and some propositional attitudes may be among them.
Another problem with this contrast is that some states are both sensory
and propositional. This is the case for perception, for example, which
involves sensory impressions that represent what the world is like. This representational aspect is usually understood as involving a propositional attitude.
Closely related to these distinctions is the concept of intentionality. Intentionality is usually defined as the characteristic of mental states to refer to or be about objects or states of affairs.
The belief that the moon has a circumference of 10921 km, for example,
is a mental state that is intentional in virtue of being about the moon
and its circumference. It is sometimes held that all mental states are
intentional, i.e. that intentionality is the "mark of the mental". This
thesis is known as intentionalism. But this view has various
opponents, who distinguish between intentional and non-intentional
states. Putative examples of non-intentional states include various
bodily experiences like pains and itches. Because of this association,
it is sometimes held that all sensory states lack intentionality. But such a view ignores that certain sensory states, like perceptions, can be intentional at the same time.
It is usually accepted that all propositional attitudes are
intentional. But while the paradigmatic cases of intentionality are all
propositional as well, there may be some intentional attitudes that are
non-propositional.
This could be the case when an intentional attitude is directed only at
an object. In this view, Elsie's fear of snakes is a non-propositional
intentional attitude while Joseph's fear that he will be bitten by
snakes is a propositional intentional attitude.
Conscious and unconscious
A mental state is conscious if it belongs to phenomenalexperience.
The subject is aware of the conscious mental states it is in: there is
some subjective feeling to having them. Unconscious mental states are
also part of the mind but they lack this phenomenal dimension.
So it is possible for a subject to be in an unconscious mental state,
like a repressed desire, without knowing about it. It is usually held
that some types of mental states, like sensations or pains, can only
occur as conscious mental states.
But there are also other types, like beliefs and desires, that can be
both conscious and unconscious. For example, many people share the
belief that the moon is closer to the earth than to the sun. When
considered, this belief becomes conscious, but it is unconscious most of
the time otherwise. The relation between conscious and unconscious
states is a controversial topic. It is often held that conscious states
are in some sense more basic with unconscious mental states depending on
them.
One such approach states that unconscious states have to be accessible
to consciousness, that they are dispositions of the subject to enter
their corresponding conscious counterparts.On this position there can be no "deep unconscious", i.e. unconscious mental states that can not become conscious.
The term "consciousness" is sometimes used not in the sense of phenomenal consciousness, as above, but in the sense of access consciousness.
A mental state is conscious in this sense if the information it carries
is available for reasoning and guiding behavior, even if it is not
associated with any subjective feel characterizing the concurrent
phenomenal experience. Being an access-conscious state is similar but not identical to being an occurrent mental state, the topic of the next section.
Occurrent and standing
A
mental state is occurrent if it is active or causally efficacious
within the owner's mind. Non-occurrent states are called standing or
dispositional states. They exist somewhere in the back of one's mind but
currently play no active role in any mental processes. This distinction is sometimes identified with the distinction between phenomenally conscious and unconscious mental states.
It seems to be the case that the two distinctions overlap but do not
fully match despite the fact that all conscious states are occurrent.
This is the case because unconscious states may become causally active
while remaining unconscious. A repressed desire may affect the agent's
behavior while remaining unconscious, which would be an example of an
unconscious occurring mental state. The distinction between occurrent and standing is especially relevant for beliefs and desires.
At any moment, there seems to be a great number of things we believe or
things we want that are not relevant to our current situation. These
states remain inactive in the back of one's head even though one has
them.
For example, while Ann is engaged in her favorite computer game, she
still believes that dogs have four legs and desires to get a pet dog on
her next birthday. But these two states play no active role in her
current state of mind. Another example comes from dreamlesssleep when most or all of our mental states are standing states.
Rational, irrational and arational
Certain mental states, like beliefs and intentions, are rationally evaluable: they are either rational or irrational depending on whether they obey the norms of rationality.
But other states, like urges, experiences of dizziness or hunger, are
arational: they are outside the domain of rationality and can be neither
rational nor irrational. An important distinction within rationality concerns the difference between theoretical and practical rationality.
Theoretical rationality covers beliefs and their degrees while
practical rationality focuses on desires, intentions and actions.
Some theorists aim to provide a comprehensive account of all forms of
rationality but it is more common to find separate treatments of
specific forms of rationality that leave the relation to other forms of
rationality open.
There are various competing definitions of what constitutes rationality but no universally accepted answer.
Some accounts focus on the relation between mental states for
determining whether a given state is rational. In one view, a state is
rational if it is well-grounded in another state that acts as its source
of justification.
For example, Scarlet's belief that it is raining in Manchester is
rational because it is grounded in her perceptual experience of the rain
while the same belief would be irrational for Frank since he lacks such
a perceptual ground. A different version of such an approach holds that
rationality is given in virtue of the coherence among the different
mental states of a subject.
This involves an holistic outlook that is less concerned with the
rationality of individual mental states and more with the rationality of
the person as a whole. Other accounts focus not on the relation between two or several mental states but on responding correctly to external reasons. Reasons are usually understood as facts that count in favor or against something.
On this account, Scarlet's aforementioned belief is rational because it
responds correctly to the external fact that it is raining, which
constitutes a reason for holding this belief.
Classification according to Brentano
An influential classification of mental states is due to Franz Brentano. He argues that there are three basic kinds: presentations, judgments, and phenomena of love and hate.
All mental states either belong to one of these kinds or are
constituted by combinations of them. These different types differ not in
content or what is presented but in mode or how it is presented. The
most basic kind is presentation, which is involved in every
mental state. Pure presentations, as in imagination, just show their
object without any additional information about the veridical or
evaluative aspects of their object. A judgment, on the other
hand, is an attitude directed at a presentation that asserts that its
presentation is either true or false, as is the case in regular
perception. Phenomena of love and hate involve an evaluative
attitude towards their presentation: they show how things ought to be,
and the presented object is seen as either good or bad. This happens,
for example, in desires.
More complex types can be built up through combinations of these basic
types. To be disappointed about an event, for example, can be construed
as a judgment that this event happened together with a negative
evaluation of it.
Brentano's distinction between judgments, phenomena of love and hate,
and presentations is closely related to the more recent idea of direction of fit
between mental state and world, i.e. mind-to-world direction of fit for
judgments, the world-to-mind direction of fit for phenomena of love and
hate and null direction of fit for mere presentations. Brentano's tripartite system of classification has been modified in various ways by Brentano's students. Alexius Meinong, for example, divides the category of phenomena of love and hate into two distinct categories: feelings and desires. Uriah Kriegel is a contemporary defender of Brentano's approach to the classification of mental phenomena.
Academia
Discussions about mental states can be found in many areas of study.
In cognitive psychology and the philosophy of mind, a mental state is a kind of hypothetical state that corresponds to thinking and feeling, and consists of a conglomeration of mental representations
and propositional attitudes. Several theories in philosophy and
psychology try to determine the relationship between the agent's mental
state and a proposition.
Mental states also include attitudes towards propositions, of which there are at least two—factive
and non-factive, both of which entail the mental state of acquaintance.
To be acquainted with a proposition is to understand its meaning
and be able to entertain it. The proposition can be true or false, and
acquaintance requires no specific attitude towards that truth or
falsity. Factive attitudes include those mental states that are attached
to the truth of the proposition—i.e. the proposition entails truth.
Some factive mental states include "perceiving that", "remembering
that", "regretting that", and (more controversially) "knowing that".
Non-factive attitudes do not entail the truth of the propositions to
which they are attached. That is, one can be in one of these mental
states and the proposition can be false. An example of a non-factive
attitude is believing—people can believe a false proposition and people
can believe a true proposition. Since there is the possibility of both,
such mental states do not entail truth, and therefore, are not factive.
However, belief does entail an attitude of assent toward the presumed
truth of the proposition (whether or not it is so), making it and other
non-factive attitudes different from a mere acquaintance.
The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking. These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms,
equipping them with the skills necessary to become productive members
of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises
awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations, such as UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for all children.
In prehistory, education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation. With the emergence of ancient civilizations, the invention of writing
led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal
to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible
to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance,
paving the way for the global movement to provide primary education to
all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.
The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up," and educere, meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.
However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these
general features. One approach views education as a process occurring
during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process.
Furthermore, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies
the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching
and learning.
Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to
identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve
educational practices.
Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying
specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education
theorist R. S. Peters,
for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including
imparting knowledge and understanding to the student, ensuring the
process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate
manner.
While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical
forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common
types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters.
Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be
challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact
definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share a set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent.
Evaluative or thick conceptions
of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to
lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions,
which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives, which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally, and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty.
Various scholars emphasize the importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination. They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs.
However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be
clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary
in the early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully
developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children
must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons,
such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices.
Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the
student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the
perspective and role of the teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills
in a morally appropriate manner.
On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based
on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that
this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences.
It is also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both
perspectives. In this approach, education is seen as a process of shared
experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the
collaborative solving of problems.
Types
There are several classifications of education. One classification
depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal,
non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves
different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age
and the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the
topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding.
Formal, non-formal, and informal
Tutoring exemplifies non-formal education, whereas learning how to cook from one's parents falls under informal education.
The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.
Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework,
typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern
schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and
progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education is
usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age.
Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal
schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground.
Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic,
and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring, fitness classes, and participation in the scouting movement.
Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner
through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike
formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated
authority figure responsible for teaching.
Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations
throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning
their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing a dish together.
Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools,
non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented,
such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of
everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation,
driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal
education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from the enjoyment of the
learning process, typically prevails.
While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear,
certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category.
In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred
informally, with little distinction between educational activities and
other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a
classroom, and adults commonly assumed the role of educators. However,
informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large
quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational
settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity
contributed to the increasing significance of formal education
throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards
more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from
daily life. There was a greater emphasis on understanding general
principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating
specific behaviors.
Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal
education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as the
student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the
content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher
qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The
levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).
Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses the period from birth until the commencement of primary school.
It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing
physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is
pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development,
while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and
problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for the
transition to primary education.
While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries
such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.
Primary school classroom in Ethiopia
Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of
five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry
requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing,
and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in
subjects such as history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. Another objective is to facilitate personal development.
Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with
over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such
schools.
Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically
spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower
secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school, senior high school, or college,
depending on the country). Lower secondary education usually requires
the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to
expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on
subject-specific curricula,
and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of
its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts
across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning. In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training.
Lower secondary education is compulsory in numerous countries across
Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it
represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory
lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan
Africa, and South and West Asia.
A high school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in the United States
Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15,
aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for
employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary
education is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a
broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to
select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such
as a high school diploma, is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education.
Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of
post-secondary non-tertiary education, which is akin to secondary
education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational
training to ready students for the workforce.
In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education, while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum.
Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary
education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its
culmination results in an academic degree. Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral
education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure, with the
attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones.
Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects,
providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to
specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education,
is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly
offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic
credential known as a bachelor's degree.
Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate
education and often involves independent research, normally in the form
of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.
Successful completion of formal education typically leads to
certification, a prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of
education and entering certain professions. Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet, poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students.
In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided
free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the
cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland,
Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost.
Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary
education often comes with high tuition fees, leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries, as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks.
Others
The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative
approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and
conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered
instruction within a structured school environment. Regulations govern
various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules.
Homeschooling represents one form of alternative education.
Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling
methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These
variances might encompass differences in the learning environment,
curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship.
Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment,
relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction,
fostering a more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This
category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling. Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools, Waldorf education, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools. Alternative education encompasses indigenous education,
which emphasizes the preservation and transmission of knowledge and
skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs
traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.
Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education.
Categories based on the age of the learner are childhood education,
adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education. Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities, addressing various impairments on intellectual, social, communicative, and physical
levels. Its goal is to overcome the challenges posed by these
impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate
educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also
encompasses education for intellectually gifted children, who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.
Classifications based on the teaching method include
teacher-centered education, where the teacher plays a central role in
imparting information to students, and student-centered education, where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.
In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear
purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without
conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities, which can indirectly impact the development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education
employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational
methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational
practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best
available empirical evidence. This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.
Autodidacticism,
or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions.
Primarily observed in adult education, it offers the freedom to choose
what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning
experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to
aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education, which entails continuous learning throughout one's life.
Categories of education based on the subject encompass science education, language education, art education, religious education, physical education, and sex education. Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education, including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education,
wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers,
contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not
all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities
offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education
initiatives.
State education, also known as public education,
is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general
public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a
form of free education. In contrast, private education
is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often
have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by
charging tuition fees.
A more detailed classification focuses on the social institutions
responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state,
and church.
Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are
legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must
attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary
education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than
legal obligation.
Role in society
Highly specialized professionals, such as medical researchers, often undergo extensive education to master their fields and make significant contributions to society.
Education serves various roles in society,
spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education
establishes and maintains a stable society by imparting fundamental
skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling
individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills
encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic, and proficiency in information and communications technology. Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms, shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion, stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays a pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all.
On an economic level, individuals become productive members of
society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills
necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and
providing services to others. In early societies, there was minimal specialization,
with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for
community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly
complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside
general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of
individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and
tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict,
with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity
and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and
innovation, while at times, obedience to authority is necessary to
maintain social stability.
Higher educational attainment in the US corresponds with higher median household wealth.
By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty.
It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the
quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness.
Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that
benefits society as a whole, with primary education showing particularly
high rates of return.
Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education
contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces
unemployment, and promotes social equity. Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates, partly due to heightened awareness of family planning, expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage.
Education plays a pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to
changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness
and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues, including climate change, sustainability, and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor.
By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and
actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive
towards realizing a more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development. This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation, impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet.
As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become
outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy, and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities.
On a more individual level, education fosters personal development, encompassing learning new skills, honing talents, nurturing creativity, enhancing self-knowledge, and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities.
Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being.
Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and
adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies, and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services. The social significance of education is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations, which designated 1970 as the International Education Year.
Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training
institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education
sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various
stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, healthcare professionals, law enforcement
agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals
are directly engaged in the education sector, such as students,
teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum
developers.
Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies
of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age
children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as
well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as
infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and
requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of
education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools,
colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a
program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational
goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and
depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are
usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while
vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a
field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be
discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached,
and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula,
governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and
skills are transmitted to the students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.
International organizations, such as UNESCO, have wielded significant influence in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.
Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers.
Factors of educational success
Educational success, also referred to as student and academic
achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are
met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For
practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official
exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to the individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other.
Psychological
On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.
Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be
learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions,
resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also
help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important
distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the
subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated
students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from
peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to
increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment.
Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase
motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while
maintaining a balance of positive and negative feedback through praise
and constructive criticism.
Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to
education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn
from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve
problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics
typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of
education. Intelligence is often closely associated with the concept of IQ,
a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on
mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued
that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics, logic, spatial cognition,
language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence
interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are
largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type
while performing less well in another.
According to proponents of learning style
theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is
another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style
find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas
visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in
diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be
advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities.
Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence
of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style
assessment by teachers.
Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of
learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors
encompass socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender, drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination. Consequently, they play a pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact.
Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income, including financial security, social status, social class, and various attributes related to quality of life.
Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways.
It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory,
as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means
may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering
their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in
educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers.
Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious
schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically
disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher
shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like
libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may
be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind
academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged
backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family
income. Limited access to information about higher education and
challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health, contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations.
Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and
language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to
the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit
and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities
further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students'
self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For
instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not
overtly racist, leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on a child's ethnicity.
Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as
societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education
traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the
family, while women were expected to manage households and care for
children, often limiting their access to education. Although these
disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education. This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects.
In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors
occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as the severe restrictions imposed on female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.
One facet of several social factors is characterized by the
expectations linked to stereotypes. These expectations operate
externally, influenced by how others respond to individuals belonging to
specific groups, and internally, shaped by how individuals internalize
and conform to them. In this regard, these expectations can manifest as self-fulfilling prophecies by affecting the educational outcomes they predict. Such outcomes may be influenced by both positive and negative stereotypes.
Technology and others
Technology
plays a crucial role in educational success. While educational
technology is often linked with modern digital devices such as
computers, its scope extends far beyond that. It encompasses a diverse
array of resources and tools for learning, including traditional aids
like books and worksheets, in addition to digital devices.
Educational technology can enhance learning in various ways. In the
form of media, it often serves as the primary source of information in
the classroom, allowing teachers to allocate their time and energy to
other tasks such as lesson planning, student guidance, and performance
assessment.
By presenting information using graphics, audio, and video instead of
mere text, educational technology can also enhance comprehension.
Interactive elements, such as educational games,
further engage learners in the learning process. Moreover, technology
facilitates the accessibility of educational materials to a wide
audience, particularly through online resources, while also promoting
collaboration among students and communication with teachers. The integration of artificial intelligence
in education holds promise for providing new learning experiences to
students and supporting teachers in their work. However, it also
introduces new risks related to data privacy, misinformation, and manipulation. Various organizations advocate for student access to educational technologies, including initiatives such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.
School infrastructure also plays a crucial role in educational
success. It encompasses physical aspects such as the school's location,
size, and available facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe
environment, well-maintained classrooms, appropriate classroom
furniture, as well as access to a library and a canteen, all contribute to fostering educational success.
Additionally, the quality of teachers significantly impacts student
achievement. Skilled teachers possess the ability to motivate and
inspire students, and tailor instructions to individual abilities and
needs. Their skills depend on their own education, training, and
teaching experience.
A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to
other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the
greatest impact on educational success.
Parent involvement also enhances achievement and can increase
children's motivation and commitment when they know their parents are
invested in their educational endeavors. This often results in
heightened self-esteem, improved attendance rates, and more positive
behavior at school. Parent involvement covers communication with
teachers and other school staff to raise awareness of current issues and
explore potential resolutions.
Other relevant factors, occasionally addressed in academic literature,
encompass historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal
aspects.
The primary field exploring education is known as education studies,
also termed education sciences. It seeks to understand how knowledge is
transmitted and acquired by examining various methods and forms of
education. This discipline delves into the goals, impacts, and
significance of education, along with the cultural, societal,
governmental, and historical contexts that influence it. Education theorists draw insights from various disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations.
Consequently, some argue that education studies lacks the clear
methodological and subject delineations found in disciplines like physics or history.
Education studies focuses on academic analysis and critical reflection
and differs in this respect from teacher training programs, which show
participants how to become effective teachers. Furthermore, it
encompasses not only formal education but also explores all forms and
facets of educational processes.
Various research methods are utilized to investigate educational phenomena, broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research mirrors the methodologies of the natural sciences, employing precise numerical measurements to collect data from numerous observations and utilizing statistical
tools for analysis. Its goal is to attain an objective and impartial
understanding. Conversely, qualitative research typically involves a
smaller sample size
and seeks to gain a nuanced insight into subjective and personal
factors, such as individuals' experiences within the educational
process. Mixed-methods research aims to integrate data gathered from
both approaches to achieve a balanced and comprehensive understanding.
Data collection methods vary and may include direct observation, test scores, interviews, and questionnaires.
Research projects may investigate fundamental factors influencing all
forms of education or focus on specific applications, seek solutions to
particular problems, or evaluate the effectiveness of educational
initiatives and policies.
Subfields
Education studies encompasses various subfields such as pedagogy, educational research, comparative education, and the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and history of education. The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy
that examines many of the fundamental assumptions underlying the theory
and practice of education. It explores education both as a process and a
discipline while seeking to provide precise definitions of its nature
and distinctions from other phenomena. Additionally, it delves into the
purpose of education, its various types, and the conceptualization of
teachers, students, and their relationship.
Furthermore, it encompasses educational ethics, which examines the
moral implications of education, such as the ethical principles guiding
it and how teachers should apply them to specific situations. The
philosophy of education boasts a long history and was a subject of
discourse in ancient Greek philosophy.
The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used interchangeably with
education studies, but in a more specific sense, it refers to the
subfield focused on teaching methods. It investigates how educational objectives, such as knowledge transmission or the development of skills and character traits, can be achieved.
Pedagogy is concerned with the methods and techniques employed in
teaching within conventional educational settings. While some
definitions confine it to this context, in a broader sense, it
encompasses all forms of education, including teaching methods beyond
traditional school environments. In this broader context, it explores how teachers can facilitate learning experiences for students to enhance their understanding of the subject matter and how learning itself occurs.
The psychology of education delves into the mental processes
underlying learning, focusing on how individuals acquire new knowledge
and skills and experience personal development. It investigates the
various factors influencing educational outcomes, how these factors vary
among individuals, and the extent to which nature or nurture contribute to these outcomes. Key psychological theories shaping education encompass behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Related disciplines include educational neuroscience and the neurology of education, which explore the neuropsychological processes and changes associated with learning.
The field of sociology of education delves into how education shapes socialization, examining how social factors and ideologies
influence access to education and individual success within it. It
explores the impact of education on different societal groups and its
role in shaping personal identity.
Specifically, the sociology of education focuses on understanding the
root causes of inequalities, offering insights relevant to education
policy aimed at identifying and addressing factors contributing to
inequality. Two prominent perspectives within this field are consensus theory and conflict theory.
Consensus theorists posit that education benefits society by preparing
individuals for their societal roles, while conflict theorists view
education as a tool employed by the ruling class to perpetuate inequalities.
The field of economics of education investigates the production,
distribution, and consumption of education. It seeks to optimize
resource allocation to enhance education, such as assessing the impact
of increased teacher salaries on teacher quality. Additionally, it
explores the effects of smaller class sizes
and investments in new educational technologies. By providing insights
into resource allocation, the economics of education aids policymakers
in making decisions that maximize societal benefits. Furthermore, it
examines the long-term economic implications of education, including its
role in fostering a highly skilled workforce and enhancing national
competitiveness. A related area of interest involves analyzing the
economic advantages and disadvantages of different educational systems.
Comparative education utilizes tools like the Education Index
to compare educational systems across various countries. High-scoring
countries are depicted in green, while low-scoring ones are shown in
red.
Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts
education systems. Comparisons can occur from a general perspective or
focus on specific factors like social, political, or economic aspects.
Often applied to different countries, comparative education assesses the
similarities and differences of their educational institutions
and practices, evaluating the consequences of distinct approaches. It
can be used to glean insights from other countries on effective
education policies and how one's own system may be improved.
This practice, known as policy borrowing, presents challenges as policy
success can hinge on the social and cultural context of students and
teachers. A related and contentious topic concerns whether the
educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed ones. Other key topics include the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from authoritarian regimes to democracies.
The history of education delves into the evolution of educational
practices, systems, and institutions. It explores various key
processes, their potential causes and effects, and their interrelations.
Aims and ideologies
Propaganda poster in a primary school in North Korea. Authoritarian regimes frequently employ education as a tool for indoctrinating students.
A central topic in education studies revolves around how people
should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Various
aims have been proposed, including the acquisition of knowledge and
skills, personal development, and the cultivation of character traits.
Commonly suggested attributes encompass qualities like curiosity,
creativity, rationality, and critical thinking, along with tendencies
to think, feel, and act morally. Scholars diverge on whether to
prioritize liberal values such as freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness, or qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.
Some education theorists concentrate on a single overarching
purpose of education, viewing more specific aims as means to this end. At a personal level, this purpose is often equated with assisting the student in leading a good life. Societally, education aims to cultivate individuals into productive members of society. There is debate regarding whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated individual or society as a whole.
Educational ideologies encompass systems of fundamental
philosophical assumptions and principles utilized to interpret,
understand, and assess existing educational practices and policies. They
address various aspects beyond the aims of education, including the
subjects taught, the structure of learning activities, the role of
teachers, methods for assessing educational progress, and the design of
institutional frameworks and policies. These ideologies are diverse and
often interrelated. Teacher-centered ideologies prioritize the role of
teachers in imparting knowledge to students, while student-centered
ideologies afford students a more active role in the learning process.
Process-based ideologies focus on the methods of teaching and learning,
contrasting with product-based ideologies, which consider education in
terms of the desired outcomes. Conservative ideologies uphold traditional practices, whereas Progressive ideologies advocate for innovation and creativity. Additional categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, pragmatism, as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.
Learning theories
Learning theories attempt to elucidate the mechanisms underlying learning. Influential theories include behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism posits that learning
entails a modification in behavior in response to environmental stimuli.
This occurs through the presentation of a stimulus, the association of
this stimulus with the desired response, and the reinforcement of this stimulus-response connection.
Cognitivism views learning as a transformation in cognitive structures
and emphasizes the mental processes involved in encoding, retrieving,
and processing information. Constructivism asserts that learning is
grounded in the individual's personal experiences and places greater
emphasis on social interactions and their interpretation by the learner.
These theories carry significant implications for instructional
practices. For instance, behaviorists often emphasize repetitive drills,
cognitivists may advocate for mnemonic techniques, and constructivists typically employ collaborative learning strategies.
Various theories suggest that learning is more effective when it
is based on personal experience. Additionally, aiming for a deeper
understanding by connecting new information to pre-existing knowledge is
considered more beneficial than simply memorizing a list of unrelated
facts. An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget,
who outlines four stages of learning through which children progress on
their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages. These stages correspond to
different levels of abstraction, with early stages focusing more on
simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages involve more
complex internal representations and information processing, such as logical reasoning.
Teaching methods
The teaching method
pertains to how the content is delivered by the teacher, such as
whether group work is employed rather than focusing on individual
learning. There is a wide array of teaching methods available, and the
most effective one in a given scenario depends on factors like the
subject matter and the learner's age and level of competence.
This is reflected in modern school systems, which organize students
into different classes based on age, competence, specialization, and native language
to ensure an effective learning process. Different subjects often
employ distinct approaches; for example, language education frequently
emphasizes verbal learning, while mathematical education focuses on
abstract and symbolic thinking alongside deductive reasoning. One crucial aspect of teaching methodologies
is ensuring that learners remain motivated, either through intrinsic
factors like interest and curiosity or through external rewards.
The teaching method also includes the utilization of instructional media, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, as well as implementing some form of test or evaluation to gauge learning progress. Educational assessment
is the process of documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which
can happen formally or informally and may take place before, during, or after the learning activity.
Another significant pedagogical element in many modern educational
approaches is that each lesson is part of a broader educational
framework governed by a syllabus, which often spans several months or years. According to Herbartianism,
teaching is broken down into phases. The initial phase involves
preparing the student's mind for new information. Subsequently, new
ideas are introduced to the learner and then linked to concepts already
familiar to them. In later phases, understanding transitions to a more
general level beyond specific instances, and the ideas are then applied
in practical contexts.
The history of education delves into the processes, methods, and
institutions entwined with teaching and learning, aiming to elucidate
their interplay and influence on educational practices over time.
Prehistory
Education during prehistory primarily facilitated enculturation,
emphasizing practical knowledge and skills essential for daily life,
such as food production, clothing, shelter, and safety. Formal schools
and specialized instructors were absent, with adults in the community
assuming teaching roles, and learning transpiring informally through
daily activities, including observation and imitation of elders. In oral societies, storytelling served as a pivotal means of transmitting cultural and religious beliefs across generations. With the advent of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution
around 9000 BCE, a gradual educational shift toward specialization
ensued, driven by the formation of larger communities and the demand for
increasingly intricate artisanal and technical skills.
Ancient era
Commencing in the 4th millennium BCE and spanning subsequent eras, a
pivotal transformation in educational methodologies unfolded with the advent of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China.
This breakthrough profoundly influenced the trajectory of education.
Writing facilitated the storage, preservation, and dissemination of
information, ushering in subsequent advancements such as the creation of
educational aids like textbooks and the establishment of institutions
such as schools.
Plato's Academy, depicted in a mosaic from Pompeii, is frequently regarded as the inaugural institution of higher education.
Another significant aspect of ancient education was the establishment
of formal education. This became necessary as civilizations evolved and
the volume of knowledge expanded, surpassing what informal education
could effectively transmit across generations. Teachers assumed
specialized roles to impart knowledge, leading to a more abstract
educational approach less tied to daily life. Formal education remained
relatively rare in ancient societies, primarily accessible to the
intellectual elite.
It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership,
civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated
with specific professions.
Formal education introduced a new teaching paradigm that emphasized
discipline and drills over the informal methods prevalent earlier. Two notable achievements of ancient education include the founding of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, often regarded as the earliest institution of higher learning, and the establishment of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, renowned as one of the ancient world's premier libraries.
Many facets of education during the medieval period were profoundly influenced by religious traditions. In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded considerable authority over formal education. In the Arab world, the rapid spread of Islam led to various educational advancements during the Islamic Golden Age, integrating classical and religious knowledge and establishing madrasa schools. In Jewish communities, yeshivas emerged as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law. In China, an expansive state educational and examination system, shaped by Confucian teachings, was instituted.
As new complex societies emerged in regions like Africa, the Americas,
Northern Europe, and Japan, some adopted existing educational practices,
while others developed new traditions.
The
invention of the printing press made written media widely available and
led to a significant increase in general literacy levels.
Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one that was more secular.
This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the
importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a
revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs. The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences. European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives. In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism. In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion. A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press
in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on
general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books,
which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination
of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.
These alterations paved the way for the advancement of public
education during the 18th and 19th centuries. This era witnessed the
establishment of publicly funded schools with the goal of providing
education for all, in contrast to previous periods when formal education
was primarily delivered by private schools, religious institutions, and
individual tutors. An exception to this trend was the Aztec civilization, where formal education was compulsory for youth across social classes as early as the 14th century. Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.
Contemporary era
The promotion of public education and universal access to education
gained momentum in the 20th and 21st centuries, endorsed by
intergovernmental organizations such as the UN. Key initiatives included
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.
These endeavors led to a consistent increase in all forms of education,
particularly impacting primary education. In 1970, 28% of all
primary-school-age children worldwide were not enrolled in school; by
2015, this figure had decreased to 9%.
The establishment of public education was accompanied by the
introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as
standardized tests to assess the progress of students. Contemporary
examples are the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess language proficiency in non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment,
which evaluates education systems across the world based on the
performance of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and
science. Similar shifts impacted teachers, with the establishment of
institutions and norms to regulate and oversee teacher training,
including certification mandates for teaching in public schools.
Emerging educational technologies have significantly influenced
modern education. The widespread availability of computers and the
internet has notably expanded access to educational resources and
facilitated new forms of learning, such as online education. This became
particularly pertinent during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools worldwide closed for prolonged periods, prompting many to adopt remote learning methods through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to sustain instruction.
Additionally, contemporary education is impacted by the increasing
globalization and internationalization of educational practices.
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
