Metastability, a state in which signals (such as oscillatory
waves) fall outside their natural equilibrium state but persist for an
extended period of time, is a principle that describes the brain's
ability to make sense out of seemingly random environmental cues. In
the past 25 years, interest in metastability and the underlying
framework of nonlinear dynamics has been fueled by advancements in the methods by which computers model brain activity.
Overview
EEG
measures the gross electrical activity of the brain that can be
observed on the surface of the skull. In the metastability theory, EEG
outputs produce oscillations that can be described as having
identifiable patterns that correlate with each other at certain frequencies. Each neuron in a neuronal network normally outputs a dynamical oscillatory waveform, but also has the ability to output a chaotic waveform.
When neurons are integrated into the neural network by interfacing
neurons with each other, the dynamical oscillations created by each
neuron can be combined to form highly predictable EEG oscillations.
By identifying these correlations and the individual neurons that
contribute to predictable EEG oscillations, scientists can determine
which cortical domains
are processing in parallel and which neuronal networks are intertwined.
In many cases, metastability describes instances in which distal parts
of the brain interact with each other to respond to environmental
stimuli.
Frequency domains of metastability
It
has been suggested that one integral facet of brain dynamics underlying
conscious thought is the brain's ability to convert seemingly noisy or chaotic signals into predictable oscillatory patterns.
In EEG oscillations of neural networks, neighboring waveform frequencies are correlated on a logarithmic scale rather than a linear
scale. As a result, mean frequencies in oscillatory bands cannot link
together according to linearity of their mean frequencies. Instead, phase transitions are linked according to their ability to couple with adjacent phase shifts in a constant state of transition between unstable and stable phase synchronization. This phase synchronization forms the basis of metastable behavior in neural networks.
Metastable behavior occurs at the high frequency domain known as 1/f regime. This regime describes an environment in which a noisy signal (also known as pink noise) has been induced, where the amount of power the signal outputs over a certain bandwidth (its power spectral density) is inversely proportional to its frequency.
Noise at the 1/f regime can be found in many biological systems – for instance, in the output of a heartbeat in an ECG waveform—but serves a unique purpose for phase synchrony in neuronal networks. At the 1/f
regime, the brain is in the critical state necessary for a conscious
response to weak or chaotic environmental signals because it can shift
the random signals into identifiable and predictable oscillatory
waveforms.
While often transient, these waveforms exist in a stable form long
enough to contribute to what can be thought of as conscious response to
environmental stimuli.
Theories of metastability
Oscillatory activity and coordination dynamics
The dynamical system
model, which represents networks composed of integrated neural systems
communicating with one another between unstable and stable phases, has
become an increasingly popular theory underpinning the understanding of
metastability. Coordination dynamics[4]
forms the basis for this dynamical system model by describing
mathematical formulae and paradigms governing the coupling of
environmental stimuli to their effectors.
History of coordination dynamics and the Haken-Kelso-Bunz (HKB) model
The
so-named HKB model is one of the earliest and well-respected theories
to describe coordination dynamics in the brain. In this model, the
formation of neural networks can be partly described as self-organization,
where individual neurons and small neuronal systems aggregate and
coordinate to either adapt or respond to local stimuli or to divide
labor and specialize in function.
Transition of parallel movement of index fingers to antiparallel, symmetric movement.
In the last 20 years,
the HKB model has become a widely accepted theory to explain the
coordinated movements and behaviors of individual neurons into large,
end-to-end neural networks. Originally the model described a system in
which spontaneous transitions observed in finger movements could be
described as a series of in-phase and out-of-phase movements.
In the mid-1980s HKB model experiments, subjects were asked to
wave one finger on each hand in two modes of direction: first, known as
out of phase, both fingers moving in the same direction back and forth
(as windshield wipers might move); and second, known as in-phase, where
both fingers come together and move away to and from the midline of the
body. To illustrate coordination dynamics, the subjects were asked to
move their fingers out of phase with increasing speed until their
fingers were moving as fast as possible. As movement approached its
critical speed, the subjects’ fingers were found to move from
out-of-phase (windshield-wiper-like) movement to in-phase (toward
midline movement).
The HKB model, which has also been elucidated by several complex
mathematical descriptors, is still a relatively simple but powerful way
to describe seemingly-independent systems that come to reach synchrony
just before a state of self-organized criticality.
Evolution of cognitive coordination dynamics
In the last 10 years,
the HKB model has been reconciled with advanced mathematical models and
supercomputer-based computation to link rudimentary coordination
dynamics to higher-order processes such as learning and memory.
The traditional EEG is still useful to investigate coordination between different parts of the brain. 40 Hz gamma wave
activity is a prominent example of the brain's ability to be modeled
dynamically and is a common example of coordination dynamics.
Continuous study of these and other oscillations has led to an important
conclusion: analyzing waves as having a common signal phase but a
different amplitude leads to the possibility that these different signals serve a synergistic function.
Some unusual characteristics of these waves: they are virtually
simultaneous and have a very short onset latency, which implies that
they operate faster than synaptic conduction would allow; and that their recognizable patterns are sometimes interrupted by periods of randomness.
The latter idiosyncrasy has served as the basis for assuming an
interaction and transition between neural subsystems. Analysis of
activation and deactivation of regions of the cortex has shown a dynamic
shift between dependence and interdependence, reflecting the brain's metastable nature as a function of a coordinated dynamical system.
fMRI, large-scale electrode arrays, and MEG
expand upon the patterns seen in EEG by providing visual confirmation
of coordinated dynamics. The MEG, which provides an improvement over
EEG in spatiotemporal characterization, allows researchers to stimulate
certain parts of the brain with environmental cues and observe the
response in a holistic brain model. Additionally, MEG has a response time of about one millisecond,
allowing for a virtually real-time investigation of the active
turning-on and -off of selected parts of the brain in response to
environmental cues and conscious tasks.
Social coordination dynamics and the phi complex
A
developing field in coordination dynamics involves the theory of social
coordination, which attempts to relate the DC to normal human
development of complex social cues
following certain patterns of interaction. This work is aimed at
understanding how human social interaction is mediated by metastability
of neural networks. fMRI and EEG are particularly useful in mapping
thalamocortical response to social cues in experimental studies.
A new theory called the phi complex has been developed by J. A. Scott Kelso and fellow researchers at Florida Atlantic University to provide experimental results for the theory of social coordination dynamics.
In Kelso's experiments, two subjects were separated by an opaque
barrier and asked to wag their fingers; then the barrier was removed and
the subjects were instructed to continue to wag their fingers as if no
change had occurred. After a short period, the movements of the two
subjects sometimes became coordinated and synchronized (but other times
continued to be asynchronous). The link between EEG and conscious
social interaction is described as Phi, one of several brain rhythms
operating in the 10 Hz range. Phi consists of two components: one to
favor solitary behavior and another to favor interactive (interpersonal) behavior. Further analysis of Phi may reveal the social and interpersonal implications of degenerative diseases such as schizophrenia—or may provide insight into common social relationships such as the dynamics of alpha and omega-males or the popular bystander effect
describing how people diffuse personal responsibility in emergency
situations depending on the number of other individuals present.
Dynamic core
A second theory of metastability involves a so-called dynamic core, which is a term to loosely describe the thalamocortical region believed to be the integration center of consciousness.
The dynamic core hypothesis (DCH) reflects the use and disuse of
interconnected neuronal networks during stimulation of this region. A
computer model of 65,000 spiking neurons shows that neuronal groups existing in the cortex and thalamus
interact in the form of synchronous oscillation. The interaction
between distinct neuronal groups forms the dynamic core and may help
explain the nature of conscious experience. A critical feature of the
DCH is that instead of thinking binarily about transitions between
neural integration and non-integration (i.e., that the two are either
one or the other with no in-between), the metastable nature of the
dynamic core can allow for a continuum of integration.
Neural Darwinism
One theory used to integrate the dynamic core with conscious thought involves a developing concept known as neural Darwinism. In this model, metastable interactions in the thalamocortical region cause a process of selectionism via re-entry
(a phenomenon describing the overall reciprocity and interactivity
between signals in distant parts of the brain through coupled signal
latency). Neuronal selectivity involves mechanochemical events that
take place pre- and post-natally whereby neuronal connections are influenced by environmental experiences. The modification of synaptic signals as it relates to the dynamic core provides further explanation for the DCH.
Despite growing evidence for the DCH, the ability to generate
mathematical constructs to model and predict dynamic core behavior has
been slow to progress. Continued development of stochastic processes
designed to graph neuronal signals as chaotic and non-linear has
provided some algorithmic basis for analyzing how chaotic environmental
signals are coupled to enhance selectivity of neural outgrowth or coordination in the dynamic core.
Global workspace hypothesis
The global workspace hypothesis is another theory to elucidate metastability, and has existed in some form since 1983.
This hypothesis also focuses on the phenomenon of re-entry, the
ability of a routine or process to be used by multiple parts of the
brain simultaneously.
Both the DCH and global neuronal workspace (GNW) models involve
re-entrance, but the GNW model elaborates on re-entrant connectivity
between distant parts of the brain and long-range signal flow. Workspace
neurons are similar anatomically but separated spatially from each
other.
One interesting aspect of the GNW is that with sufficient
intensity and length over which a signal travels, a small initiation
signal can be compounded to activate an "ignition" of a critical
spike-inducing state. This idea is analogous to a skier on the slope of
a mountain, who, by disrupting a few blocks of ice with his skis,
initiates a giant avalanche in his wake. To help prove the circuit-like amplification theory, research has shown that inducing lesions in long-distance connections corrupts performance in integrative models.
A popular experiment to demonstrate the global workspace hypothesis involves showing a subject a series of backward-masked visual words (e.g., "the dog sleeps quietly" is shown as "ylteiuq speels god eht")
and then asking the subject to identify the forward "translation" of
these words. Not only did fMRI detect activity in the word-recognition
portion of the cortex, but additionally, activity is often detected in
the parietal and prefrontal cortices. In almost every experiment, conscious input in word and audition
tasks shows a much wider use of integrated portions of the brain than
in identical unconscious input. The wide distribution and constant
signal transfer between different areas of the brain in experimental
results is a common method to attempt to prove the neural workspace
hypothesis. More studies are being conducted to determine precisely the
correlation between conscious and unconscious task deliberation in the
realm of the global workspace.
The operational architectonics theory of brain–mind
Although the concept of metastability has been around in Neuroscience for some time,
the specific interpretation of metastability in the context of brain
operations of different complexity has been developed by Andrew and
Alexander Fingelkurts within their model of Operational Architectonics of brain–mind functioning. Metastability is basically a theory of how global integrative and local segregative tendencies coexist in the brain.
The Operational Architectonics is centered on the fact that in the
metastable regime of brain functioning, the individual parts of the
brain exhibit tendencies to function autonomously at the same time as
they exhibit tendencies for coordinated activity. In accordance with Operational Architectonics,
the synchronized operations produced by distributed neuronal assemblies
constitute the metastable spatial-temporal patterns. They are
metastable because intrinsic differences in the activity between
neuronal assemblies are sufficiently large that they each do their own
job (operation), while still retaining a tendency to be coordinated
together in order to realize the complex brain operation.
The future of metastability
In
addition to study investigating the effects of metastable interactions
on traditional social function, much research will likely focus on
determining the role of the coordinated dynamic system and the global
workspace in the progression of debilitating diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and schizophrenia.
An interest in the effect of a traumatic or semi-traumatic brain injury (TBI)
on the coordinated dynamical system has developed in the last five
years as the number of TBI cases has risen from war-related injuries.
In chemistry and physics, metastability is an intermediate energetic state within a dynamical system other than the system's state of least energy.
A ball resting in a hollow on a slope is a simple example of
metastability. If the ball is only slightly pushed, it will settle back
into its hollow, but a stronger push may start the ball rolling down the
slope. Bowling pins
show similar metastability by either merely wobbling for a moment or
tipping over completely. A common example of metastability in science is
isomerisation.
Higher energy isomers are long lived because they are prevented from
rearranging to their preferred ground state by (possibly large) barriers
in the potential energy.
During a metastable state of finite lifetime, all state-describing parameters reach and hold stationary values. In isolation:
the state of least energy is the only one the system will
inhabit for an indefinite length of time, until more external energy is
added to the system (unique "absolutely stable" state);
the system will spontaneously leave any other state (of higher
energy) to eventually return (after a sequence of transitions) to the
least energetic state.
The metastability concept originated in the physics of first-order phase transitions. It then acquired new meaning in the study of aggregated subatomic particles
(in atomic nuclei or in atoms) or in molecules, macromolecules or
clusters of atoms and molecules. Later, it was borrowed for the study of
decision-making and information transmission systems.
Metastability is common in physics and chemistry – from an atom (many-body assembly) to statistical ensembles of molecules (viscous fluids, amorphous solids, liquid crystals, minerals, etc.) at molecular levels or as a whole (see Metastable states of matter and grain piles
below). The abundance of states is more prevalent as the systems grow
larger and/or if the forces of their mutual interaction are spatially
less uniform or more diverse.
In dynamic systems (with feedback) like electronic circuits, signal trafficking, decisional, neural and immune systems, the time-invariance of the active or reactive patterns with respect to the external influences defines stability and metastability (see brain metastability below). In these systems, the equivalent of thermal fluctuations in molecular systems is the "white noise" that affects signal propagation and the decision-making.
Statistical physics and thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
is a branch of physics that studies the dynamics of statistical
ensembles of molecules via unstable states. Being "stuck" in a
thermodynamic trough without being at the lowest energy state is known
as having kinetic stability or being kinetically persistent. The
particular motion or kinetics of the atoms involved has resulted in getting stuck, despite there being preferable (lower-energy) alternatives.
States of matter
Metastable states of matter (also referred as metastates) range from melting solids (or freezing liquids), boiling liquids (or condensing gases) and sublimating solids to supercooled liquids or superheated
liquid-gas mixtures. Extremely pure, supercooled water stays liquid
below 0 °C and remains so until applied vibrations or condensing seed
doping initiates crystallization centers. This is a common situation for the droplets of atmospheric clouds.
Condensed matter and macromolecules
Metastable phases are common in condensed matter and crystallography. This is the case for anatase, a metastable polymorph of titanium dioxide, which despite commonly being the first phase to form in many synthesis processes due to its lower surface energy, is always metastable, with rutile being the most stable phase at all temperatures and pressures.
As another example, diamond is a stable phase only at very high pressures, but is a metastable form of carbon at standard temperature and pressure. It can be converted to graphite (plus leftover kinetic energy), but only after overcoming an activation energy – an intervening hill. Martensite is a metastable phase used to control the hardness of most steel. Metastable polymorphs of silica are commonly observed. In some cases, such as in the allotropes of solid boron, acquiring a sample of the stable phase is difficult.
The bonds between the building blocks of polymers such as DNA, RNA, and proteins are also metastable. Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is a highly metastable molecule, colloquially described as being
"full of energy" that can be used in many ways in biology.
Generally speaking, emulsions/colloidal systems and glasses are metastable. The metastability of silica glass, for example, is characterised by lifetimes on the order of 1098 years (as compared with the lifetime of the universe, which is thought to be around 13.787×109 years).
Sandpiles are one system which can exhibit metastability if a steep slope or tunnel is present. Sand grains form a pile due to friction.
It is possible for an entire large sand pile to reach a point where it
is stable, but the addition of a single grain causes large parts of it
to collapse.
The avalanche
is a well-known problem with large piles of snow and ice crystals on
steep slopes. In dry conditions, snow slopes act similarly to sandpiles.
An entire mountainside of snow can suddenly slide due to the presence
of a skier, or even a loud noise or vibration.
All other states besides the ground state (or those degenerate with it) have higher energies. Of all these other states, the metastable states are the ones having lifetimes lasting at least 102 to 103 times longer than the shortest lived states of the set.
A metastable state is then long-lived (locally stable with respect to configurations of 'neighbouring' energies) but not eternal (as the global minimum
is). Being excited – of an energy above the ground state – it will
eventually decay to a more stable state, releasing energy. Indeed, above
absolute zero,
all states of a system have a non-zero probability to decay; that is,
to spontaneously fall into another state (usually lower in energy). One
mechanism for this to happen is through tunnelling.
Nuclear physics
Some energetic states of an atomic nucleus (having distinct spatial mass, charge, spin, isospin distributions) are much longer-lived than others (nuclear isomers of the same isotope), e.g. technetium-99m. The isotope tantalum-180m,
although being a metastable excited state, is long-lived enough that it
has never been observed to decay, with a half-life calculated to be
least 4.5×1016 years, over 3 million times the current age of the universe.
Atomic and molecular physics
Some atomic energy levels are metastable. Rydberg atoms
are an example of metastable excited atomic states. Transitions from
metastable excited levels are typically those forbidden by electric
dipole selection rules.
This means that any transitions from this level are relatively unlikely
to occur. In a sense, an electron that happens to find itself in a
metastable configuration is trapped there. Since transitions from a
metastable state are not impossible (merely less likely), the electron
will eventually decay to a less energetic state, typically by an
electric quadrupole transition, or often by non-radiative de-excitation
(e.g., collisional de-excitation).
This slow-decay property of a metastable state is apparent in phosphorescence, the kind of photoluminescence
seen in glow-in-the-dark toys that can be charged by first being
exposed to bright light. Whereas spontaneous emission in atoms has a
typical timescale on the order of 10−8 seconds, the decay of
metastable states can typically take milliseconds to minutes, and so
light emitted in phosphorescence is usually both weak and long-lasting.
In chemical systems, a system of atoms or molecules involving a change in chemical bond can be in a metastable state, which lasts for a relatively long period of time. Molecular vibrations and thermal motion
make chemical species at the energetic equivalent of the top of a round
hill very short-lived. Metastable states that persist for many seconds
(or years) are found in energetic valleys which are not the lowest possible valley (point 1 in illustration). A common type of metastability is isomerism.
The stability or metastability of a given chemical system depends on its environment, particularly temperature and pressure.
The difference between producing a stable vs. metastable entity can
have important consequences. For instances, having the wrong crystal polymorph can result in failure of a drug while in storage between manufacture and administration. The map of which state is the most stable as a function of pressure, temperature and/or composition is known as a phase diagram. In regions where a particular state is not the most stable, it may still be metastable.
Reaction intermediates are relatively short-lived, and are usually thermodynamically unstable rather than metastable. The IUPAC recommends referring to these as transient rather than metastable.
Metastability is also used to refer to specific situations in mass spectrometry and spectrochemistry.
Electronic circuits
A
digital circuit is supposed to be found in a small number of stable
digital states within a certain amount of time after an input change.
However if an input changes at the wrong moment a digital circuit which
employs feedback (even a simple circuit such as a flip-flop) can enter a metastable state and take an unbounded length of time to finally settle into a fully stable digital state.
Computational neuroscience
Metastability in the brain is a phenomenon studied in computational neuroscience
to elucidate how the human brain recognizes patterns. Here, the term
metastability is used rather loosely. There is no lower-energy state,
but there are semi-transient signals in the brain that persist for a
while and are different than the usual equilibrium state.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_resolution Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution.
Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively
communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies
to the rest of group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain
beliefs) and by engaging in collective negotiation.
Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict
in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way
disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs, perspectives,
understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way
disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral
resolution is reflective of how the disputants act, their behavior. Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.
Dispute resolution is conflict resolution limited to law, such as arbitration and litigation processes.
The concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use
of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to
promote effective resolution.
Theories and models
There
are a plethora of different theories and models linked to the concept
of conflict resolution. A few of them are described below.
Conflict resolution curve
There
are many examples of conflict resolution in history, and there has been
a debate about the ways to conflict resolution: whether it should be
forced or peaceful. Conflict resolution by peaceful means is generally
perceived to be a better option. The conflict resolution curve derived
from an analytical model that offers a peaceful solution by motivating
conflicting entities. Forced resolution of conflict might invoke another conflict in the future.
Conflict resolution curve (CRC) separates conflict styles into
two separate domains: domain of competing entities and domain of
accommodating entities. There is a sort of agreement between targets and
aggressors on this curve. Their judgements of badness compared to
goodness of each other are analogous on CRC. So, arrival of conflicting
entities to some negotiable points on CRC is important before peace
building. CRC does not exist (i.e., singular) in reality if the
aggression of the aggressor is certain. Under such circumstances it
might lead to apocalypse with mutual destruction.
The curve explains why nonviolent struggles ultimately toppled
repressive regimes and sometimes forced leaders to change the nature of
governance. Also, this methodology has been applied to capture conflict
styles on the Korean Peninsula and dynamics of negotiation processes.
Dual concern model
The
dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective
that assumes individuals' preferred method of dealing with conflict is
based on two underlying themes or dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).
According to the model, group members balance their concern for
satisfying personal needs and interests with their concern for
satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The
intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals
towards exhibiting different styles of conflict resolution. The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles or strategies that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.
Avoidance conflict style
Characterized by joking, changing or avoiding the topic, or even denying that a problem exists, the conflict avoidance
style is used when an individual has withdrawn in dealing with the
other party, when one is uncomfortable with conflict, or due to cultural
contexts.
During conflict, these avoiders adopt a "wait and see" attitude, often
allowing conflict to phase out on its own without any personal
involvement. By neglecting to address high-conflict situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester or spin out of control.
Accommodating conflict style
In contrast, yielding, "accommodating", smoothing or suppression
conflict styles are characterized by a high level of concern for others
and a low level of concern for oneself. This passive pro-social
approach emerges when individuals derive personal satisfaction from
meeting the needs of others and have a general concern for maintaining
stable, positive social relationships.
When faced with conflict, individuals with an accommodating conflict
style tend to harmonize into others' demands out of respect for the
social relationship. With this sense of yielding to the conflict,
individuals fall back to others' input instead of finding solutions with
their own intellectual resolution.
Competitive conflict style
The competitive,
"fighting" or forcing conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness
(i.e., concern for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for
others). Groups consisting of competitive members generally enjoy
seeking domination over others, and typically see conflict as a "win or
lose" predicament.
Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views by
employing competitive power tactics (arguments, insults, accusations or
even violence) that foster intimidation.
Conciliation conflict style
The conciliation,
"compromising", bargaining or negotiation conflict style is typical of
individuals who possess an intermediate level of concern for both
personal and others' outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing
so, anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions.
By accepting some demands put forth by others, compromisers believe
this agreeableness will encourage others to meet them halfway, thus
promoting conflict resolution. This conflict style can be considered an extension of both "yielding" and "cooperative" strategies.
Cooperation conflict style
Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self behavior, the cooperation,
integration, confrontation or problem-solving conflict style is
typically used when an individual has elevated interests in their own
outcomes as well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict,
cooperators collaborate with others in an effort to find an amicable
solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict.
Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both highly
assertive and highly empathetic.
By seeing conflict as a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly
invest time and resources into finding a "win-win" solution.
According to the literature on conflict resolution, a cooperative
conflict resolution style is recommended above all others. This
resolution may be achieved by lowering the aggressor's guard while
raising the ego.
Relational dialectics theory
Relational dialectics theory (RDT), introduced by Leslie Baxter and Barbara Matgomery (1988),
explores the ways in which people in relationships use verbal
communication to manage conflict and contradiction as opposed to
psychology. This concept focuses on maintaining a relationship even
through contradictions that arise and how relationships are managed
through coordinated talk. RDT assumes that relationships are composed of
opposing tendencies, are constantly changing, and tensions arises from
intimate relationships.
The main concepts of RDT are:
Contradictions – The concept is that the contrary has the
characteristics of its opposite. People can seek to be in a relationship
but still need their space.
Totality – The totality comes when the opposites unite. Thus, the
relationship is balanced with contradictions and only then it reaches
totality
Process – Comprehended through various social processes. These
processes simultaneously continue within a relationship in a recurring
manner.
Praxis – The relationship progresses with experience and both people
interact and communicate effectively to meet their needs. Praxis is a
concept of practicability in making decisions in a relationship despite
opposing wants and needs
Strategy of conflict
Strategy of conflict, by Thomas Schelling, is the study of negotiation during conflict and strategic behavior that results in the development of "conflict behavior". This idea is based largely on game theory.
In "A Reorientation of Game Theory", Schelling discusses ways in which
one can redirect the focus of a conflict in order to gain advantage over
an opponent.
Conflict is a contest. Rational behavior, in this contest, is a matter of judgment and perception.
Strategy makes predictions using "rational behavior – behavior
motivated by a serious calculation of advantages, a calculation that in
turn is based on an explicit and internally consistent value system".
Cooperation is always temporary, interests will change.
Conflict resolution is a social
situation where the armed conflicting parties in a (voluntarily)
agreement resolve to live peacefully with – and/or dissolve – their
basic incompatibilities and henceforth cease to use arms against one
another.
The "conflicting parties" concerned in this definition are formally
or informally organized groups engaged in intrastate or interstate
conflict.
'Basic incompatibility' refers to a severe disagreement between at least
two sides where their demands cannot be met by the same resources at
the same time. The cost of conflict can be balanced by the price of unjust peace.
Conflict resolution mechanisms
One
theory discussed within the field of peace and conflict studies is
conflict resolution mechanisms: independent procedures in which the
conflicting parties can have confidence. They can be formal or informal
arrangements with the intention of resolving the conflict. In Understanding Conflict Resolution Wallensteen draws from the works of Lewis A. Coser, Johan Galtung and Thomas Schelling, and presents seven distinct theoretical mechanisms for conflict resolutions:
A shift in priorities for one of the conflicting parties.
While it is rare that a party completely changes its basic positions,
it can display a shift in to what it gives highest priority. In such an
instance new possibilities for conflict resolutions may arise.
The contested resource is divided. In essence, this means
both conflicting parties display some extent of shift in priorities
which then opens up for some form of "meeting the other side halfway"
agreement.
Horse-trading between the conflicting parties. This means
that one side gets all of its demands met on one issue, while the other
side gets all of its demands met on another issue.
The parties decide to share control, and rule together over
the contested resource. It could be permanent, or a temporary
arrangement for a transition period that, when over, has led to a
transcendence of the conflict.
The parties agree to leave control to someone else. In this mechanism the primary parties agree, or accept, that a third party takes control over the contested resource.
The parties resort to conflict resolution mechanisms, notably arbitration
or other legal procedures. This means finding a procedure for resolving
the conflict through some of the previously mentioned five ways, but
with the added quality that it is done through a process outside of the
parties' immediate control.
Some issues can be left for later. The argument for this is
that political conditions and popular attitudes can change, and some
issues can gain from being delayed, as their significance may pale with
time.
According to conflict database Uppsala Conflict Data Program's definition war may occur between parties who contest an incompatibility. The nature of an incompatibility can be territorial or governmental, but a warring party must be a "government of a state or any opposition organization or alliance of organizations that uses armed force to promote its position in the incompatibility in an intrastate or an interstate armed conflict". Wars can conclude with a peace agreement,
which is a "formal agreement... which addresses the disputed
incompatibility, either by settling all or part of it, or by clearly
outlining a process for how [...] to regulate the incompatibility." A ceasefire
is another form of agreement made by warring parties; unlike a peace
agreement, it only "regulates the conflict behaviour of warring
parties", and does not resolve the issue that brought the parties to war
in the first place.
Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to avoid violence in solving such incompatibilities. Beginning in the last century, political theorists have been developing the theory of a global peace system that relies upon broad social and political measures to avoid war in the interest of achieving world peace. The Blue Peace approach developed by Strategic Foresight Group
facilitates cooperation between countries over shared water resources,
thus reducing the risk of war and enabling sustainable development.
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional
practice, both in the U.S. and around the world. The escalating costs of
conflict have increased use of third parties who may serve as a
conflict specialists to resolve conflicts. In fact, relief and
development organizations have added peace-building specialists to their
teams. Many major international non-governmental organizations
have seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained in conflict
analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this expansion has resulted in the
need for conflict resolution practitioners to work in a variety of
settings such as in businesses, court systems, government agencies,
nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions throughout the
world. Democracy has a positive influence on conflict resolution.
According to the Cambridge dictionary, a basic definition of conflict is: "an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles."
Conflicts such as disagreements may occur at any moment, being a normal
part of human interactions. The type of conflict and its severity may
vary both in content and degree of seriousness; however, it is
impossible to completely avoid it. Actually, conflict in itself is not
necessarily a negative thing. When handled constructively it can help
people to stand up for themselves and others, to evolve and learn how to
work together to achieve a mutually satisfactory solution. But if
conflict is handled poorly it can cause anger, hurt, divisiveness and
more serious problems.
If it is impossible to completely avoid conflict as it was said,
the possibilities to experience it are usually higher particularly in
complex social contexts in which important diversities are at stake.
Specially because of this reason, speaking about conflict resolution
becomes fundamental in ethnically diverse and multicultural work
environments, in which not only "regular" work disagreements may occur
but in which also different languages, worldviews, lifestyles and
ultimately value differences may diverge.
Conflict resolution is the process by which two or more parties
engaged in a disagreement, dispute or debate reach an agreement
resolving it.
It involves a series of stages, involved actors, models and approaches
that may depend on the kind of confrontation at stake and the surrounded
social and cultural context. However, there are some general actions
and personal skills that may be very useful when facing a conflict to
solve (independently of its nature), e.g. an open minded orientation
able to analyze the different point of views and perspectives involved,
as well as an ability to empathize, carefully listen and clearly
communicate with all the parts involved. Sources of conflict may be so
many, depending on the particular situation and the specific context,
but some of the most common include:
Personal differences such as values, ethics, personalities, age,
education, gender, socioeconomic status, cultural background,
temperament, health, religion, political beliefs, etc. Thus, almost any
social category that serves to differentiate people may become an object
of conflict when it does negatively diverge with people who do not
share it.
Clashes of ideas, choices or actions. Conflict occurs when people does
not share common goals, or common ways to reach a particular objective
(e.g. different work styles). Conflict occurs also when there is direct
or indirect competition between people or when someone may feel excluded
from a particular activity or by some people within the company. Lack
of communication or poor communication are also significant reasons to
start a conflict, to misunderstand a particular situation and to create
potentially explosive interactions.
Fundamental strategies
Although different conflicts may require different ways to handle
them, this is a list of fundamental strategies that may be implemented
when handling a conflictive situation:
Reaching agreement on rules and procedures: Establishing ground
rules may include the following actions: a. Determining a site for the
meeting; b. Setting a formal agenda; c. Determining who attends; d.
Setting time limits; e. Setting procedural rules; f. Following specific
"do(s) and don't(s)".
Reducing tension and synchronizing the de-escalation
of hostility: In highly emotional situations when people feel angry,
upset, frustrated, it is important to implement the following actions:
a. Separating the involved parties; b. Managing tensions – jokes as an
instrument to give the opportunity for catharsis; c. Acknowledging
others' feelings – actively listening to others; d. De-escalation by
public statements by parties – about the concession, the commitments of
the parties.
Improving the accuracy of communication, particularly improving each
party's understanding of the other's perception: a. Accurate
understanding of the other's position; b. Role reversal, trying to adopt
the other's position (empathetic attitudes); c. Imaging – describing
how they see themselves, how the other parties appears to them, how they
think the other parties will describe them and how the others see
themselves.
Controlling the number and size of issues in the discussion: a.
Fractionate the negotiation – a method that divides a large conflict
into smaller parts: 1. Reduce the number of parties on each side; 2.
Control the number of substantive issues; 3. Search for different ways
to divide big issues.
Establishing common ground where parties can find a basis for
agreement: a. Establishing common goals or superordinate goals; b.
Establishing common enemies; c. Identifying common expectations; d.
Managing time constraints and deadlines; e. Reframing the parties' view
of each other; f. Build trust through the negotiation process.
Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives that each
party presents to the other: a. Giving the other party an acceptable
proposal; b. Asking for a different decision; c. Sweeten the other
rather than intensifying the threat; d. Elaborating objective or
legitimate criteria to evaluate all possible solutions.
Approaches
A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace; as mentioned
before, it can occur because of the most different grounds of diversity
and under very different circumstances. However, it is usually a matter
of interests, needs, priorities, goals or values interfering with each
other; and, often, a result of different perceptions more than actual
differences. Conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects,
organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs.
personal needs, and they are usually immersed in complex relations of
power that need to be understood and interpreted in order to define the
more tailored way to manage the conflict. There are, nevertheless, some
main approaches that may be applied when trying to solve a conflict that
may lead to very different outcomes to be valued according to the
particular situation and the available negotiation resources:
Forcing
When
one of the conflict's parts firmly pursues his or her own concerns
despite the resistance of the other(s). This may involve pushing one
viewpoint at the expense of another or maintaining firm resistance to
the counterpart's actions; it is also commonly known as "competing".
Forcing may be appropriate when all other, less forceful methods, do not
work or are ineffective; when someone needs to stand up for his/her own
rights (or the represented group/organization's rights), resist
aggression and pressure. It may be also considered a suitable option
when a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g.
in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression), and as a very
last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict.
However, forcing may also negatively affect the relationship with
the opponent in the long run; may intensified the conflict if the
opponent decides to react in the same way (even if it was not the
original intention); it does not allow to take advantage in a productive
way of the other side's position and, last but not least, taking this
approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some
individuals.
Win-win / collaborating
Collaboration
involves an attempt to work with the other part involved in the
conflict to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand, or at least
to find a solution that most satisfies the concerns of both parties. The
win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a
mutually beneficial result; and it includes identifying the underlying
concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each
party's concerns. From that point of view, it is the most desirable
outcome when trying to solve a problem for all partners.
Collaborating may be the best solution when consensus and
commitment of other parties is important; when the conflict occurs in a
collaborative, trustworthy environment and when it is required to
address the interests of multiple stakeholders. But more specially, it
is the most desirable outcome when a long-term relationship is important
so that people can continue to collaborate in a productive way;
collaborating is in few words, sharing responsibilities and mutual
commitment. For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution
is less stressful; however, the process of finding and establishing a
win-win solution may be longer and should be very involving.
It may require more effort and more time than some other methods;
for the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is
crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required.
Compromising
Different
from the win-win solution, in this outcome the conflict parties find a
mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties.
This can occur as both parties converse with one another and seek to
understand the other's point of view.
Compromising may be an optimal solution when the goals are moderately
important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving
approaches. It may be useful when reaching temporary settlement on
complex issues and as a first step when the involved parties do not know
each other well or have not yet developed a high level of mutual trust.
Compromising may be a faster way to solve things when time is a factor.
The level of tensions can be lower as well, but the result of the
conflict may be also less satisfactory.
If this method is not well managed, and the factor time becomes
the most important one, the situation may result in both parties being
not satisfied with the outcome (i.e. a lose-lose situation). Moreover,
it does not contribute to building trust in the long run and it may
require a closer monitoring of the kind of partially satisfactory
compromises acquired.
Withdrawing
This
technique consists on not addressing the conflict, postpone it or
simply withdrawing; for that reason, it is also known as Avoiding. This
outcome is suitable when the issue is trivial and not worth the effort
or when more important issues are pressing, and one or both the parties
do not have time to deal with it. Withdrawing may be also a strategic
response when it is not the right time or place to confront the issue,
when more time is needed to think and collect information before acting
or when not responding may bring still some winnings for at least some
of the involves parties. Moreover, withdrawing may be also employed when
someone know that the other party is totally engaged with hostility and
does not want (can not) to invest further unreasonable efforts.
Withdrawing may give the possibility to see things from a
different perspective while gaining time and collecting further
information, and specially is a low stress approach particularly when
the conflict is a short time one. However, not acting may be interpreted
as an agreement and therefore it may lead to weakening or losing a
previously gained position with one or more parties involved.
Furthermore, when using withdrawing as a strategy more time, skills and
experiences together with other actions may need to be implemented.
Smoothing
Smoothing
is accommodating the concerns of others first of all, rather than one's
own concerns. This kind of strategy may be applied when the issue of
the conflict is much more important for the counterparts whereas for the
other is not particularly relevant. It may be also applied when someone
accepts that he/she is wrong and furthermore there are no other
possible options than continuing an unworthy competing-pushing
situation. Just as withdrawing, smoothing may be an option to find at
least a temporal solution or obtain more time and information, however,
it is not an option when priority interests are at stake.
There is a high risk of being abused when choosing the smoothing
option. Therefore, it is important to keep the right balance and to not
give up one own interests and necessities. Otherwise, confidence in
one's ability, mainly with an aggressive opponent, may be seriously
damaged, together with credibility by the other parties involved. Needed
to say, in these cases a transition to a Win-Win solution in the future
becomes particularly more difficult when someone.
Between organizations
Relationships between organizations, such as strategic alliances, buyer-supplier partnerships, organizational networks, or joint ventures
are prone to conflict. Conflict resolution in inter-organizational
relationships has attracted the attention of business and management
scholars. They have related the forms of conflict (e.g., integrity-based
vs. competence-based conflict) to the mode of conflict resolution
and the negotiation and repair approaches used by organizations. They
have also observed the role of important moderating factors such as the
type of contractual arrangement, the level of trust between organizations, or the type of power asymmetry.
Other forms
Conflict management
Conflict management
refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the
label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances—standing
up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to
be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip,
ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance.
Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation
can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure—or
social geometry—of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from
conflict resolution.
In order for actual conflict to occur, there should be an expression of
exclusive patterns which explain why and how the conflict was expressed
the way it was. Conflict is often connected to a previous issue.
Resolution refers to resolving a dispute to the approval of one or both
parties, whereas management is concerned with an ongoing process that
may never have a resolution. Neither is considered the same as conflict
transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict
parties.
Counseling
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counseling may prove helpful. Although few organizations
can afford to have professional counselors on staff, given some
training, managers may be able to perform this function. Nondirective
counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being
a good listener—something often considered to be important in a
manager.
Sometimes simply being able to express one's feelings to a
concerned and understanding listener is enough to relieve frustration
and make it possible for an individual to advance to a problem-solving
frame of mind. The nondirective approach is one effective way for
managers to deal with frustrated subordinates and coworkers.
There are other, more direct and more diagnostic, methods that
could be used in appropriate circumstances. However, the great strength
of the nondirective approach
lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness, and that it deliberately
avoids the manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting emotional
problems, which would call for special psychological training. Listening
to staff with sympathy and understanding is unlikely to escalate the
problem, and is a widely used approach for helping people cope with
problems that interfere with their effectiveness in the workplace.
Culture-based
The Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau (illustration from a Bible card published 1907 by the Providence Lithograph Company)
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field is highly sensitive to cultural practices. In Western cultural contexts, such as Canada and the United States,
successful conflict resolution usually involves fostering communication
among disputants, problem solving, and drafting agreements that meet
underlying needs. In these situations, conflict resolvers often talk
about finding a mutually satisfying ("win-win") solution for everyone involved.
In many non-Western cultural contexts, such as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China,
it is also important to find "win-win" solutions; however, the routes
taken to find them may be very different. In these contexts, direct
communication between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at
stake in the conflict can be perceived as very rude, making the
conflict worse and delaying resolution. It can make sense to involve
religious, tribal, or community leaders; communicate difficult truths
through a third party; or make suggestions through stories.
Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve because
the expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there is
much occasion for misunderstanding.
In animals
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-humans, including dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes, elephants, and primates. Aggression
is more common among relatives and within a group than between groups.
Instead of creating distance between the individuals, primates tend to
be more intimate in the period after an aggressive incident. These
intimacies consist of grooming and various forms of body contact. Stress responses,
including increased heart rates, usually decrease after these
reconciliatory signals. Different types of primates, as well as many
other species who live in groups, display different types of
conciliatory behavior. Resolving conflicts that threaten the interaction
between individuals in a group is necessary for survival, giving it a
strong evolutionary
value. A further focus of this is among species that have stable social
units, individual relationships, and the potential for intragroup
aggression that may disrupt beneficial relationships. The role of these
reunions in negotiating relationships is examined along with the
susceptibility of these relationships to partner value asymmetries and
biological market effects.
These findings contradict previous existing theories about the general
function of aggression, i.e. creating space between individuals (first
proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to be more the case in conflicts between groups than it is within groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore reconciliation
in other animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with
reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of anecdotal observations
and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post-conflict
behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until
1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation in feralsheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in spotted hyenas, lions, bottlenose dolphins, dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, domestic dogs, and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy,
with teachers and students both encouraged to learn about mechanisms
that lead to aggressive action and those that lead to peaceful
resolution. The University of Law,
one of the oldest common law training institutions in the world, offers
a legal-focused master's degree in conflict resolution as an LL.M.
(Conflict resolution).
Tel Aviv University offers two graduate degree programs in the field of conflict resolution, including the English-language International Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, allowing students to learn in a geographic region which is the subject of much research on international conflict resolution.
The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace & Conflict Resolution at
Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, is one of the first centers
for peace and conflict resolution to be established at an Indian
university. It offers a two-year full-time MA course in Conflict
Analysis and Peace-Building, as well as a PhD in Conflict and Peace
Studies.
In Sweden Linnaeus University, Lund University and Uppsala University offer programs on bachelor, master and/or doctoral level in Peace and Conflict Studies.
Uppsala University also hosts its own Department of Peace and Conflict
Research, among other things occupied with running the conflict database
UCDP (Uppsala Conflict Data Program).
Mahatma Gandhi, often considered a founder of the modern nonviolence movement, spread the concept of ahimsa through his movements and writings, which then inspired other nonviolent activists.
Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to
others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting
people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an
outcome and it may refer to a general philosophy of abstention from
violence. It may be based on moral, religious or spiritual principles, or the reasons for it may be strategic or pragmatic.
Failure to distinguish between the two types of nonviolent approaches
can lead to distortion in the concept's meaning and effectiveness, which
can subsequently result in confusion among the audience.
Although both principled and pragmatic nonviolent approaches preach for
nonviolence, they may have distinct motives, goals, philosophies, and
techniques.
However, rather than debating the best practice between the two
approaches, both can indicate alternative paths for those who do not
want to use violence.
Nonviolence has "active" or "activist" elements, in that believers
generally accept the need for nonviolence as a means to achieve
political and social change. Thus, for example, Tolstoyan and Gandhism nonviolence is both a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of violence, but at the same time it sees nonviolent action (also called civil resistance) as an alternative to passive acceptance of oppression
or armed struggle against it. In general, advocates of an activist
philosophy of nonviolence use diverse methods in their campaigns for
social change, including critical forms of education and persuasion,
mass noncooperation, civil disobedience, nonviolent direct action, constructive program, and social, political, cultural and economic forms of intervention.
Petra Kelly founded the German Green Party on nonviolence
The term "nonviolence" is often linked with peace or it is used
as a synonym for it, and despite the fact that it is frequently equated
with pacifism, this equation is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists.
Nonviolence specifically refers to the absence of violence and it is
always the choice to do no harm or the choice to do the least amount of
harm, and passivity is the choice to do nothing. Sometimes nonviolence
is passive, and other times it isn't. For example, if a house is burning
down with mice or insects in it, the most harmless appropriate action
is to put the fire out, not to sit by and passively let the fire burn.
At times there is confusion and contradiction about nonviolence,
harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence
in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts. For
example, someone who passionately opposes abortion
or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortion
care provider or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a
violent person.
Origins
Nonviolence or ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
Jain and Buddhist thoughts have explored nonviolence very deeply, not
limiting it to humans but extending it to the animal world as well as
nature, in a very explicit fashion. In Jainism, it is the very core idea
of very 'way of life' practicing it in mun (thoughts), vachan (spoken
word) and karm (action). It is a multidimensional concept,
inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the
divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt
oneself. It has also been related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of ahimsa, the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.
Forms of nonviolence
In
the political realm, advocates of nonviolent action believe cooperation
and consent are the roots of civil or political power: all regimes,
including bureaucratic institutions, financial institutions, and the
armed segments of society (such as the military and police); depend on
compliance from citizens.
On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to
challenge the power misuse of rulers by organising and encouraging
(oppressed) people to withdraw their consent and cooperation. The forms
of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs
and political analysis. Religious or ethically based nonviolence is
sometimes referred to as principled,philosophical, or ethical nonviolence, while nonviolence based on political analysis is often referred to as tactical,strategic, or pragmatic
nonviolent action. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present
within the thinking of particular movements or individuals.
Pragmatic
The fundamental concept of pragmatic (tactical or strategic)
nonviolent action is to create a social dynamic or political movement
that can project a national and global dialogue that affects social
change without necessarily winning over those who wish to maintain the
status quo. Gene Sharp
promoted the pragmatic nonviolence approach. Sharp was an American
political scientist known for his nonviolent struggle work. Those who
follow Sharp's pragmatic nonviolence approach believe in practicality
rather than the moral aspect of the struggle. They believe that violence
is too costly to engage in. The goals are to change their oppressor's
behavior; end a specific injustice or violent situation; and seek a win
for themselves, while opponents they perceive as enemies with
conflicting interests should lose. Conflict is seen as inevitable, and the rejection of violence is an effective way to challenge power. Those who follow pragmatic nonviolence ideology are willing to engage in nonviolent coercion, and try to avoid suffering.
In modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used
extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such
as labor, peace, environment and women's movements. Lesser known is the
role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in
undermining the power of repressive political regimes in the developing
world and the former eastern bloc. Susan Ives emphasizes this point by
quoting Walter Wink:
"In
1989, thirteen nations comprising 1,695,000,000 people experienced
nonviolent revolutions that succeeded beyond anyone's wildest
expectations ... If we add all the countries touched by major nonviolent
actions in our century (the Philippines, South Africa ... the
independence movement in India ...), the figure reaches 3,337,400,000, a
staggering 65% of humanity! All this in the teeth of the assertion,
endlessly repeated, that nonviolence doesn't work in the 'real' world."
— Walter Wink, Christian theologian
As a technique for social struggle, nonviolent action has been
described as "the politics of ordinary people", reflecting its
historically mass-based use by populations throughout the world and
history.
Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are
the most likely to lead to just ends. When Gandhi said that "the means
may be likened to the seed, the end to a tree," he expressed the
philosophical kernel of what some refer to as prefigurative politics.
Martin Luther King Jr., a student of Gandhian nonviolent resistance,
concurred with this tenet, concluding that "nonviolence demands that the
means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek." Proponents of
nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably
re-shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance,
that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a
peaceful society.
Gandhi famously advocated for the Indian independence movement to strictly adhere to the principles of nonviolence.
Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in
that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the
possibility of the doers changing their behaviour, and perhaps their
beliefs. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote, "Nonviolent resistance... avoids
not only external physical violence but also internal violence of
spirit. The nonviolent resister not only refuses to shoot his opponent,
but he also refuses to hate him."
Finally, the notion of Satya,
or Truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi
saw Truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in
its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the Truth, he
believed, but all need the pieces of others' truths in order to pursue
the greater Truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of
dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations. On a
practical level, the willingness to listen to another's point of view is
largely dependent on reciprocity. In order to be heard by one's
opponents, one must also be prepared to listen.
The Semai have principle called punan, which includes nonviolence
The nonviolence approach involves accepting that violence is wrong and nonviolence is the best ethical response to any conflict. The followers of this approach believe in human harmony and a moral rejection of violence and coercion.
They accept the total commitment to nonviolence and encourage those who
want to use nonviolent actions to reject all forms of violence and
coercion. Principled nonviolence has a religious or ideological basis.
This type of nonviolence aims to change the opponent's heart and mind by
showing love to them rather than hatred, partnering with the opponents
to bring about social change by ending all violence and social
injustices, and seeking a solution whereby all parties win.
The techniques they use include persuasion while trying to avoid
coercion, and they accept that suffering is part of the means to
transform themselves and others.
For many, practicing nonviolence goes deeper than abstaining from
violent behavior or words. It means overriding the impulse to be
hateful and holding love for everyone, even those with whom one strongly
disagrees. In this view, because violence is learned, it is necessary
to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible
opportunity. For some, the commitment to non-violence entails a belief
in restorative or transformative justice,
an abolition of the death penalty and other harsh punishments. This
may involve the necessity of caring for those who are violent.
Nonviolence, for many, involves a respect and reverence for all sentient, and perhaps even non-sentient, beings. This might include abolitionism against animals as property, the practice of not eating animal products or by-products (vegetarianism or veganism), spiritual practices of non-harm to all beings, and caring for the rights of all beings. Mahatma Gandhi, James Bevel, and other nonviolent proponents advocated vegetarianism as part of their nonviolent philosophy. Buddhists extend this respect for life to animals and plants, while Jainism extend this respect for life to animals, plants and even small organisms such as insects.The classical Indian text of the Tirukkuṛaḷ, which is believed to be of Hindu or Jain origin, decrees ahimsa and moral vegetarianism as the most fundamental of all personal virtues. These ideas can also be found in Western mystical and Neoplatonic traditions.
Mahatma Gandhi was one of the most well-known advocates for and practitioners of principled nonviolence.
Semai people
The Semai ethnic group living in the center of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia are known for their nonviolence. The Semai punan ethical or religious principle
strongly pressures members of the culture towards nonviolent,
non-coercive, and non-competitive behaviour. It has been suggested that
the Semai's non-violence is a response to historic threats from slaving
states; as the Semai were constantly defeated by slavers and Malaysian
immigrants, they preferred to flee rather than fight and thus evolved
into a general norm of non-violence. This does not mean the Semai are incapable of violence however; during the Malayan Emergency,
the British enlisted some Semai to fight against MNLA insurgents and
according to Robert Knox Dentan the Semai believe that as Malaysia
industrialises, it will be harder for the Semai to use their strategy of
fleeing and they will have to fight instead.
Religious
Hinduism
Ancient Vedic texts
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts.
The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices,
indirectly mention Ahimsa, but do not emphasise it. Over time, the Hindu
scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is
increasingly refined and emphasised, ultimately Ahimsa becomes the
highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn
10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya (truthfulness) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra; later, the Yajur Veda
dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look
at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each
other with the eyes of a friend".
The term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of "non-injury". The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.
The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals
("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala
Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written
in about the 8th century BCE.
Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1). Some scholars state that this 8th or 7th-century BCE mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.
Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though
Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism
tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Arjavam (sincerity), Danam (charity), Tapo (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).
The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava, Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara and Saucha. According to Kaneda,
the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'.
It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living
creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.
The Epics
The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Mahaprasthanika Parva has the verse:
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and literally means: Ahimsa is the highest virtue,
Ahimsa is the highest self-control, Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa
is the best suffering, Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the
finest strength, Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest
happiness, Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest
teaching. Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita,
among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about
appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These
verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war.
However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for
example, considers this debate about nonviolence and lawful violence as a
mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or
she faces moral questions.
Self-defence, criminal law, and war
The
classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what
people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are
faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a
crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of
reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.
War
The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be
avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last
resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose
virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its
method lawful.
War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons
used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not
indiscriminate tools of destruction.
All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the
opponent, not designed to cause misery to the opponent; for example, use
of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is
not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to
the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors
must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to your realm and
given medical treatment. Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.
Self-defence
In matters of self-defence, different interpretations of ancient
Hindu texts have been offered. For example, Tähtinen suggests
self-defence is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of
Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an
armed attacker. Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.
Alternate theories of self-defence, inspired by Ahimsa, build principles similar to theories of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such principles of self-defence. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.
According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self-defence, one must
not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that
some people will, out of ignorance, error or fear, attack other persons
or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of
self-defence, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralise the aggression of
the attacker, and avoid the conflict. The best defence is one where the
victim is protected, as well as the attacker is respected and not
injured if possible. Under Ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and
appropriate self-defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity,
assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker.
Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death
penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be
killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and
should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own
brothers and sons.
Other scholars conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional and not cruel.
Non-human life
The
Hindu precept of 'cause no injury' applies to animals and all life
forms. This precept isn't found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but
increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 BC and 400 AD.
In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including
cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of
Ahimsa to non-human life.
Hindu scriptures, dated to between 5th century and 1st century BC, while discussing human diet, initially suggest kosher
meat may be eaten, evolving it with the suggestion that only meat
obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, then that one should eat
no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life
as one that lives on flowers, roots and fruits alone.
Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against dharma (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics
shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without
harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or
animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human
beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least
harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa precept, given the
constraints of life and human needs. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita,
a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century, in Chapter XLVI
suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and
recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for
pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.
Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about
the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a
universal consensus.
Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of
vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested
exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates
of Ahimsa.
In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate
their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long
discourse.
Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to
animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or
after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic
consequences of violence.
The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They
discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated
plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Scholars
claim the principles of ecological non-violence is innate in the Hindu
tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal
virtue.
The dharmic philosophy of ancient India exists in all Indian languages and culture. For example, the Tirukkuṛaḷ, written between 200 BCE and 500 CE, and sometimes called the TamilVeda, is one of the most cherished classics written in a South Indian language. The Tirukkuṛaḷ dedicates Chapters 26, 32 and 33 of Book 1 to the virtue of ahimsa, namely, moral vegetarianism, non-harming, and non-killing, respectively. The Tirukkuṛaḷ says that ahimsa applies to all life forms.
The
hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The
word in the middle is "Ahimsa". The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of Ahimsā is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions is considered hiṃsā (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is ahimsā (noninjury).
The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of
Jainism'. Other vows like truth (Satya) are meant for safeguarding the
vow of ahimsā. In the practice of Ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken anuvrata (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows". The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma. When lord Mahaviraswami revived and reorganized the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE, Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 8th century BCE. He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva's followers.
In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at
odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus,
whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation
of Ahimsa. According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory.
The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects.
It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional
warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.
Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday
life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed
for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is
indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for
preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.
For example, Jains often do not go out at night, when they are more
likely to step upon an insect. In their view, injury caused by
carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action. Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees.
Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails
unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms
and insects, but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.
Theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection
from all kinds of injury, but Jains recognise a hierarchy of life.
Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. For the
mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed,
three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal has
touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the
more they care about non-injuring it. Among the five-sensed beings, the
precept of non-injury and non-violence to the rational ones (humans) is
strongest in Jain Ahimsa.
Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.
Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence,
there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.
In Buddhist texts Ahimsa (or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā) is part of the Five Precepts (Pañcasīla),
the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of
Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk
community.
The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did
not invite religious sanctions for layperson, but their power has been
in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in
afterlife during rebirth.
Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish
realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder
victim was a monk.
Saving animals from slaughter for meat, is believed to be a way to
acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been
voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated
belief in karma and rebirth.
The Buddhist texts not only recommended Ahimsa, but suggest avoiding
trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:
These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower:
trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat,
trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.
— Anguttara Nikaya V.177, Translated by Martine Batchelor
Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct.
War
Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged.The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.
Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pali Canon.
While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and
portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked
by an army.
It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted
or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or
anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.
The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam
rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the
Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle
are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if
he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to
kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.
In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is
generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.
Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi,
a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack
on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into
battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won
the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajatashatru and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha
has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against
him personally, and Ajatashatru was still his nephew. He released
Ajatashatru and did not harm him.
Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is
a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue",
while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatashatru.
According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite
factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of
killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a
living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a
living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some
means; and (5) the resulting death.
Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is
complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent.
Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary
intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression,
and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative
karmic repercussions.
According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Ahimsa, from the Buddha's doctrine, "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any."
Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not
make Ahimsa a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of
principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.
Laws
The emperors of Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty and early Song dynasty banned killing in Lunar calendar 1st, 5th, and 9th month. Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692.Some also banned fishing for some time each year.
There were bans after death of emperors, Buddhist and Taoist prayers,
and natural disasters such as after a drought in 1926 summer Shanghai
and an 8 days ban from August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (八七水災), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.
Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: Acts of Protest and Persuasion, Noncooperation, and Nonviolent Intervention.
Acts of protest
Nonviolent
acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a
group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The
goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue,
persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate
future nonviolent action. The message can be directed toward the public,
opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and
persuasion include speeches, public communications, petitions, symbolic acts, art, processions (marches), and other public assemblies.
Noncooperation
Noncooperation
involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness
to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of noncooperation
is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic
process. Methods of noncooperation include labour strikes, economic boycotts, civil disobedience, sex strike, tax refusal, and general disobedience.
Nonviolent intervention
Compared
with protest and noncooperation, nonviolent intervention is a more
direct method of nonviolent action. Nonviolent intervention can be used
defensively—for example to maintain an institution or independent
initiative—or offensively- for example, to drastically forward a
nonviolent cause into the "territory" of those who oppose it.
Intervention is often more immediate and initially effective than the
other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the
participants involved.
Gene Sharp,
a political scientist who sought to advance the worldwide study and use
of strategic nonviolent action in conflict, wrote extensively about the
methods of nonviolent action. In his 1973 book Waging Nonviolent Struggle he described 198 methods of nonviolent action, and in it places several examples of constructive program in this category. In early Greece, Aristophanes' Lysistrata gives the fictional example of women withholding sexual favors from their husbands until war was abandoned (a sex strike). A modern work of fiction inspired by Gene Sharp and by Aristophanes is the 1986 novel A Door into Ocean by Joan Slonczewski,
depicting an ocean world inhabited by women who use nonviolent means to
repel armed space invaders. Other methods of nonviolent intervention
include occupations (sit-ins), fasting (hunger strikes), truck cavalcades, and dual sovereignty/parallel government.
Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political
and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy.
Successful nonviolent cross-border intervention projects include the Guatemala Accompaniment Project, Peace Brigades International and Christian Peacemaker Teams. Developed in the early 1980s, and originally inspired by the Gandhian Shanti Sena,
the primary tools of these organisations have been nonviolent
protective accompaniment, backed up by a global support network which
can respond to threats, local and regional grassroots diplomatic and peacebuilding efforts, human rights observation and witnessing, and reporting.
In extreme cases, most of these groups are also prepared to do
interpositioning: placing themselves between parties who are engaged or
threatening to engage in outright attacks in one or both directions.
Individual and large group cases of interpositioning, when called for,
have been remarkably effective in dampening conflict and saving lives.
Another powerful tactic of nonviolent intervention invokes public
scrutiny of the perceived oppressors as a result of the resisters
remaining nonviolent in the face of violent repression. If the military
or police attempt to repress nonviolent resisters violently, the power
to act shifts from the hands of the oppressors to those of the
resisters. If the resisters are persistent, the military or police will
be forced to accept the fact that they no longer have any power over the
resisters. Often, the willingness of the resisters to suffer has a
profound effect on the mind and emotions of the oppressor, leaving them
unable to commit such a violent act again.
Many leftist and socialist movements have hoped to mount a
"peaceful revolution" by organising enough strikers to completely
paralyse the state and corporate apparatus, allowing workers to
re-organise society along radically different lines. Some have argued that a relatively nonviolent revolution would require fraternisation with military forces.
Criticism
Ernesto Che Guevara, Leon Trotsky, Frantz Fanon
and others have argued that violence is a necessary accompaniment to
revolutionary change or that the right to self-defense is fundamental. Subhas Chandra Bose
supported Gandhi and nonviolence early in his career but became
disillusioned with it and became an effective advocate of violence.
In the essay "Reflections on Gandhi", George Orwell
argued that the nonviolent resistance strategy of Gandhi could be
effective in countries with "a free press and the right of assembly",
which could make it possible "not merely to appeal to outside opinion,
but to bring a mass movement into being, or even to make your intentions
known to your adversary"; but he was skeptical of Gandhi's approach
being effective in the opposite sort of circumstances.
Reinhold Niebuhr
similarly affirmed Gandhi's approach while criticising aspects of it.
He argued, "The advantage of non-violence as a method of expressing
moral goodwill lies in the fact that it protects the agent against the
resentments which violent conflict always creates in both parties to a
conflict, and it proves this freedom of resentment and ill-will to the
contending party in the dispute by enduring more suffering than it
causes." However, Niebuhr also held, "The differences between violent
and non-violent methods of coercion and resistance are not so absolute
that it would be possible to regard violence as a morally impossible
instrument of social change."
The concept of nonviolence is a false ideal. It presupposes the
existence of compassion and a sense of justice on the part of one's
adversary. When this adversary has everything to lose and nothing to
gain by exercising justice and compassion, his reaction can only be
negative.
Malcolm X
also clashed with civil rights leaders over the issue of nonviolence,
arguing that violence should not be ruled out if no option remained. He
noted that: "I believe it's a crime for anyone being brutalized to
continue to accept that brutality without doing something to defend
himself."
In his book How Nonviolence Protects the State, anarchistPeter Gelderloos
criticises nonviolence as being ineffective, racist, statist,
patriarchal, tactically and strategically inferior to militant activism,
and deluded.
Gelderloos claims that traditional histories whitewash the impact of
nonviolence, ignoring the involvement of militants in such movements as
the Indian independence movement and the Civil Rights Movement and falsely showing Gandhi and King as being their respective movement's most successful activists.
He further argues that nonviolence is generally advocated by privileged
white people who expect "oppressed people, many of whom are people of
color, to suffer patiently under an inconceivably greater violence,
until such time as the Great White Father is swayed by the movement's
demands or the pacifists achieve that legendary 'critical mass.'" On the other hand, anarchism also includes a section committed to nonviolence called anarcho-pacifism. The main early influences were the thought of Henry David Thoreau and Leo Tolstoy while later the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi gained importance. It developed "mostly in Holland, Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War".
The efficacy of nonviolence was also challenged by some anti-capitalist protesters advocating a "diversity of tactics" during street demonstrations across Europe and the US following the anti-World Trade Organization protests in Seattle, Washington in 1999. American feminist writer D. A. Clarke,
in her essay "A Woman With A Sword," suggests that for nonviolence to
be effective, it must be "practiced by those who could easily resort to
force if they chose."
Nonviolence advocates see some truth in this argument: Gandhi
himself said often that he could teach nonviolence to a violent person
but not to a coward and that true nonviolence came from renouncing
violence, not by not having any to renounce. This is the meaning of his
quote "It is better to be violent, if there is violence in our hearts,
than to put on the cloak of nonviolence to cover impotence."
Advocates responding to criticisms of the efficacy of nonviolence
point to the limited success of non-violent struggles even against the
Nazi regimes in Denmark and even in Berlin.
A study by Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan found that nonviolent
revolutions are twice as effective as violent ones and lead to much
greater degrees of democratic freedom.
Research
A
2016 study finds that "increasing levels of globalization are
positively associated with the emergence of nonviolent campaigns, while
negatively influencing the probability of violent campaigns. Integration
into the world increases the popularity of peaceful alternatives to
achieve political goals."
A 2020 study found that nonviolent campaigns were more likely to
succeed when there was not an ethnic division between actors in the
campaign and in the government. According to a 2020 study in the American Political Science Review,
nonviolent civil rights protests boosted vote shares for the Democratic
party in presidential elections in nearby counties, but violent
protests substantially boosted white support for Republicans in counties
near to the violent protests.
