https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism Liberal institutionalism (or institutional liberalism or neoliberalism) is a theory of international relations that holds that international cooperation between states
is feasible and sustainable, and that such cooperation can reduce
conflict and competition. Neoliberalism is a revised version of liberalism. Alongside neorealism, liberal institutionalism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to international relations.
In contrast to neorealist scholarship (which is skeptical of
prospects for sustainable cooperation), liberal institutionalism argues
that cooperation is feasible and sustainable. Liberal institutionalists
highlight the role of international institutions and regimes in facilitating cooperation between states. Robert Keohane's 1984 book After Hegemony used insights from the new institutional economics
to argue that the international system could remain stable in the
absence of a hegemon, thus rebutting hegemonic stability theory.
Keohane showed that international cooperation could be sustained through repeated interactions, transparency, and monitoring. According to Keohane and other liberal institutionalists, institutions facilitate cooperation by:
Reducing transaction costs
Providing information
Making commitments more credible
Establishing focal points for coordination
Facilitating the principle of reciprocity
Extending the shadow of the future
Enabling interlinkages of issues, which raises the cost of noncompliance
Terminology
Some
call the school of thought rational functionalism instead of liberal
institutionalism. Liberal institutionalism is also close to—but not
synonymous with—regime theory and neoliberalism.Robert Keohane, a political scientist largely responsible for the development of liberal institutionalism, considers his ideas part of institutionalism or rational institutionalism, even though those schools disagree with him on certain points. Keohane dislikes using the adjectives "liberal" or "neoliberal" to describe his work because he also draws from realism, a school of thought that is often contrasted with liberalism. Other major influences are the hegemonic stability theory of Stephen Krasner and the work of Charles P. Kindleberger, among others.
Liberal institutionalism differs from other common international
relations theories like realism in the fact that it does not ignore
internal politics. Furthermore, institutional liberalism follows the
idea that democracy and capitalism create systems which not only
maintain peace but also create beneficial economic opportunities for
those involved. Liberal institutionalists believe that democracies
naturally lead to peace because the many govern and not the few, and
therefore those who decide to go to war will be the many that serve.
This is in stark contrast to monarchies and dictatorships that are more
warlike due to the fact that the few that do not serve will go to war.
Beyond that liberal institutionalists defend capitalism on an
international scale because they believe that if two nations are
friendly, democratic, and capitalist the two nations will inevitably
negotiate mutually beneficial trade deals.
Role of institutions
According to liberal institutionalists, institutions facilitate cooperation by:
Reducing transaction costs
Providing information
Making commitments more credible
Establishing focal points for coordination
Facilitating the principle of reciprocity
Extending the shadow of the future
Enabling interlinkages of issues, which raises the cost of noncompliance
Critics of liberal institutionalism argue that institutions do not
overcome power politics; rather, institutions reflect power politics. Realist Joseph Grieco
argues that liberal institutionalist analyses omit that states pursue
relative gains (rather than absolute gains), and that institutionalist
analyses that focus on the issue of "cheating" ignore that the relative
gains problem is key to why realists believe international cooperation
fails. Critics also argue that it is unclear whether institutions have an
independent effect on cooperation or whether they reflect that the
members are already willing to cooperate and comply. Other critics argue that liberal institutionalist underestimate the
enforcement powers of institutions: institutions are often designed to
be weak to attract more members, and they tend to be particularly weak on issues related to security rather than economy.
They strengthen expectations about future behavior
They build coalitions, routines and connections between actors, which creates incentives for continuity
They lead to spillovers, as other forms of cooperation builds around the existing institutions
High start-up costs prevent actors from setting up challenger institutions
Learning effects create incentives for actors to stick with existing institutions.
Contentions
Keohane and Nye
Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, in response to neorealism, develop an opposing theory they dub "Complex interdependence." Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye explain, "... complex interdependence sometimes comes closer to reality than does realism." In explaining this, Keohane and Nye cover the three assumptions in
realist thought: First, states are coherent units and are the dominant
actors in international relations; second, force is a usable and
effective instrument of policy; and finally, the assumption that there
is a hierarchy in international politics.
The heart of Keohane and Nye's argument is that in international
politics there are, in fact, multiple channels that connect societies
exceeding the conventional Westphalian system of states. This manifests itself in many forms ranging from informal governmental ties to multinational corporations and organizations. Here they define their terminology; interstate relations are those channels assumed by realists; transgovernmental relations occur when one relaxes the realist assumption that states act coherently as units; transnational
applies when one removes the assumption that states are the only units.
It is through these channels that political exchange occurs, not
through the limited interstate channel as championed by realists.
Secondly, Keohane and Nye argue that there is not, in fact, a
hierarchy among issues, meaning that not only is the martial arm of
foreign policy not the supreme tool by which to carry out a state's
agenda, but that there is a multitude of different agendas that come to
the forefront. The line between domestic and foreign policy becomes
blurred in this case, as realistically there is no clear agenda in
interstate relations.
Finally, the use of military force is not exercised when complex
interdependence prevails. The idea is developed that between countries
in which a complex interdependence exists, the role of the military in
resolving disputes is negated. However, Keohane and Nye go on to state
that the role of the military is in fact important in that "alliance's
political and military relations with a rival bloc."
Lebow
Richard Ned Lebow states that the failure of neorealism lies in its "institutionalist" ontology, whereas the neorealist thinker Kenneth Waltz
states, "the creators [of the system] become the creatures of the
market that their activity gave rise to." This critical failure,
according to Lebow, is due to the realists' inability "to escape from
the predicament of anarchy." Or rather, the assumption that states do
not adapt and will respond similarly to similar constraints and
opportunities.
Mearsheimer
Norman Angell, a classical London School of Economics
liberal, had held: "We cannot ensure the stability of the present
system by the political or military preponderance of our nation or
alliance by imposing its will on a rival."
Keohane and Lisa L. Martin expound upon these ideas in the mid 1990s as a response to John J. Mearsheimer's
"The False Promise of International Institutions", where Mearsheimer
purports that, "institutions cannot get states to stop behaving as
short-term power maximizers." In fact Mearsheimer's article is a direct response to the
liberal-institutionalist movement created in response to neo-realism.
The central point in Keohane and Martin's idea is that neo-realism
insists that, "institutions have only marginal effects ... [which]
leaves [neo-realism] without a plausible account of the investments that
states have made in such international institutions as the EU, NATO, GATT, and regional trading organizations." This idea is in keeping with the notion of complex interdependence.
Moreover, Keohane and Martin argue that the fact that international
institutions are created in response to state interests, that the real
empirical question is "knowing how to distinguish the effects of
underlying conditions from those of the institutions themselves." The debate between the institutionalists and Mearsheimer is about
whether institutions have an independent effect on state behavior, or
whether they reflect great power interests that said powers employ to
advance their respective interests.
Mearsheimer is concerned with 'inner-directed' institutions,
which he states, "seek to cause peace by influencing the behavior of the
member states." In doing so he dismisses Keohane and Martin's NATO
argument in favor of the example of the European Community and the International Energy Agency.
According to Mearsheimer, NATO is an alliance that is interested in "an
outside state, or coalition of states, which the alliance aims to
deter, coerce, or defeat in war." Mearsheimer reasons that since NATO is
an alliance it has special concerns. He concedes this point to Keohane
and Martin. However, Mearsheimer reasons, "to the extent that alliances cause
peace, they do so by deterrence, which is straightforward realist
behavior." In essence, Mearsheimer believes that Keohane and Martin "are shifting
the terms of the debate, and making realist claims under the guise of
institutionalism.
Mearsheimer criticizes Martin's argument that the European Community (EC) enhances the prospects of cooperation, particularly in the case of Great Britain's sanctioning of Argentina during the Falklands War,
where it was able to secure the cooperation of other European states by
linking the issues at hand to the EC. Mearsheimer purports that the
United States was not a member of the EC and yet the US and Britain
managed to cooperate on sanctions, creating an ad hoc alliance which
effected change. "... Issue linkage was a commonplace practice in world
politics well before institutions came on the scene; moreover, Britain
and other European states could have used other diplomatic tactics to
solve the problem. After all, Britain and America managed to cooperate
on sanctions even though the United States was not a member of the EC."
The Buddhist scholar and commentator Buddhaghosa
explains that each saying recorded in the collection was made on a
different occasion in response to a unique situation that had arisen in
the life of the Buddha and his monastic community. His translation of the commentary, the Dhammapada Atthakatha, presents the details of these events and is a rich source of legend for the life and times of the Buddha.
Etymology
The title "Dhammapada" is a compound term composed of dhamma and pada, each word having a number of denotations and connotations. Generally, dhamma can refer to the Buddha's "doctrine" or an "eternal truth" or "righteousness" or all "phenomena"; at its root, pada means "foot" and thus by extension, especially in this context, means either "path" or "verse" (cf. "prosodic foot") or both. English translations of this text's title have used various combinations of these and related words.
History
According to tradition, the Dhammapada's verses were spoken by the Buddha on various occasions.[7]
Glenn Wallis states: "By distilling the complex models, theories,
rhetorical style and sheer volume of the Buddha's teachings into
concise, crystalline verses, the Dhammapada makes the Buddhist way of
life available to anyone...In fact, it is possible that the very source
of the Dhammapada in the third century B.C.E. is traceable to the need
of the early Buddhist communities in India to laicize the ascetic
impetus of the Buddha's original words." The text is part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka, although over half of the verses exist in other parts of the Pali Canon. A 4th or 5th century CE commentary attributed to Buddhaghosa includes 305 stories which give context to the verses.
The Pāli Dhammapada is one of the most popular pieces of Theravadaliterature. It is the oldest available manuscripts date to 1500 CE. A compiler is not named. A critical edition
of the Dhammapada in Latin was produced by Danish scholar Viggo
Fausbøll in 1855, becoming the first Pali text to receive this kind of
examination by the European academic community.
Parallels
Although the Pāli edition is the best-known, a number of other versions are known:
a Tibetan translation, which is popular in traditional Tibetan Buddhism
"Mahāvastu" – a Lokottaravāda text with parallels to verses in the Pāli Dhammapada's Sahassa Vagga and Bhikkhu Vagga.
"FaJuJing 法句经" – 4 Chinese works; one of these appears to be
an expanded translation of the Pali version; this has not traditionally
been very popular.
The Faju jing – translated and compiled by Weizhinan in 224 CE
The Faju piyu jing – compiled by Faju and Fali between 290-306 CE
The Chuyao jing– translated by Zhu Fonian in 383 CE
The Faju yaosong jing– translated by Tianxizai between 980-999 CE
Comparing the Pali Dhammapada, the Gandhari Dharmapada and the
Udanavarga, Brough (2001) identifies that the texts have in common 330
to 340 verses, 16 chapter headings and an underlying structure. He
suggests that the three texts have a "common ancestor" but underlines
that there is no evidence that any one of these three texts might have
been the "primitive Dharmapada" from which the other two evolved.
Organization
The Pali Dhammapada contains 423 verses in 26 chapters (listed in Pali and English):
Many of the themes within the Dhammapada are dichotomous. For example,
contrasts between joy and suffering, virtuous action and misconduct, and
truth and deceit recur throughout the text.
Excerpts
The
following Pali verses and corresponding English translations are from
Ānandajoti (2017), which also contains explanatory footnotes.
Chapter 1: Pairs (Yamakavaggo)
1.
Mind precedes thoughts, mind is their chief, their quality is made by mind, if with a base mind one speaks or acts, through that suffering follows him like a wheel follows the ox's foot.1
Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā, manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsati vā karoti vā, tato naṁ dukkham-anveti cakkaṁ va vahato padaṁ.
2.
Mind precedes thoughts, mind is their chief, their quality is made by mind, if with pure mind one speaks or acts, through that happiness follows him like a shadow which does not depart.
Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā, manasā ce pasannena bhāsati vā karoti vā, tato naṁ sukham-anveti chāyā va anapāyinī.
5.
For not by hatred do hatreds cease at any time in this place, they only cease with non-hatred, this truth is surely eternal.
Na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṁ, averena ca sammanti, esa dhammo sanantano.
The translation of this simile is debated. Suddhaso Bhikku interprets
the simile as "just as a track follows a wheel." He argues that other
interpretations involve adding words that are not a direct translation
of the original text. Specifically, cakkaṁ means wheel, va means as, vahato means following, and padaṁ means track, path, or foot.
Chapter 10: The Stick (Daṇḍavaggo)
131.
One who harms with a stick beings who desire happiness, while seeking happiness for himself, won't find happiness after death.
Sukhakāmāni bhūtāni yo daṇḍena vihiṁsati,attano sukham-esāno, pecca so na labhate sukhaṁ.
132.
One who harms not with a stick beings who desire happiness, while seeking happiness for himself, will find happiness after death.
Sukhakāmāni bhūtāni yo daṇḍena na hiṁsati, attano sukham-esāno, pecca so labhate sukhaṁ.
133.
Do not say anything harsh, spoken to they might answer back to you, for arrogant talk entails misery, and they might strike you back with a stick.
First one should establish oneself in what is suitable, then one can advise another, the wise one should not have any defilement.
Attānam-eva paṭhamaṁ patirūpe nivesaye, athaññam-anusāseyya, na kilisseyya paṇḍito.
159.
He should do himself as he would advise another to do, being well-trained, he could surely train another, for it is said the self is difficult to train.
Attānañ-ce tathā kayirā yathaññam-anusāsati, sudanto vata dametha, attā hi kira duddamo.
160.
For the self is the friend of self, for what other friend would there be?
When the self is well-trained, one finds a friend that is hard to find.
Attā hi attano nātho, ko hi nātho paro siyā?Attanā va sudantena nāthaṁ labhati dullabhaṁ.
161.
That wickedness done by oneself, born in oneself, arising in oneself, crushes the one who is stupid, as a diamond crushes a rock-jewel.
Easily done are things not good, and unbeneficial for oneself, but that which is beneficial and good is supremely hard to do.
Sukarāni asādhūni, attano ahitāni ca, yaṁ ve hitañ-ca sādhuñ-ca taṁ ve paramadukkaraṁ.
164.
Whoever reviles the worthy teaching of the Noble Ones who live by Dhamma, that stupid one, depending on wicked views, like the bamboo when it bears fruit, brings about his own destruction.
Yo sāsanaṁ arahataṁ Ari yānaṁ Dhammajīvinaṁ paṭikkosati dummedho diṭṭhiṁ nissāya pāpikaṁ, phalāni kaṭṭhakasseva attaghaññāya phallati.
165.
By oneself alone is a wicked deed done, by oneself is one defiled, by oneself is a wicked deed left undone, by oneself is one purified, purity and impurity come from oneself, for no one can purify another.
Attanā va kataṁ pāpaṁ, attanā saṅkilissati, attanā akataṁ pāpaṁ, attanā va visujjhati, suddhī asuddhī paccattaṁ, nāñño aññaṁ visodhaye.
166.
One should not neglect one's own good for another's, however great; knowing what is good for oneself one should be intent on that good.
Atta-d-atthaṁ paratthena bahunā pi na hāpaye; atta-d-attham-abhiññāya sa-d-atthapasuto siyā.
Chapter 13: The World (Lokavaggo)
167.
One should not follow lowly things, one should not abide heedlessly, one should not follow a wrong view, one should not foster worldliness.
Hīnaṁ dhammaṁ na seveyya, pamādena na saṁvase, micchādiṭṭhiṁ na seveyya, na siyā lokavaḍḍhano.
Chapter 14: The Buddha (Buddhavaggo)
183.
The non-doing of anything wicked, undertaking of what is good, the purification of one's mind - this is the teaching of the Buddhas.
Whoever has delight in the calming of thoughts, who always mindfully cultivates what is unattractive, will surely abolish this craving, he will cut off the bond of Māra.
Vitakkupasame ca yo rato asubhaṁ bhāvayatī sadā sato, esa kho vyantikāhiti, esacchecchati Mārabandhanaṁ.
English translations
See also online translations listed in External links.
Daniel Gogerly, printed the first English translation of Dhammapada, comprising verses 1–255 in 1840 in Ceylon.
Tr F. Max Müller, from Pali, 1870; reprinted in Sacred Books of the East, volume X, Clarendon/Oxford, 1881; reprinted in Buddhism,
by Clarence Hamilton; reprinted separately by Watkins, 2006; reprinted
2008 by Red and Black Publishers, St Petersburg, Florida, ISBN978-1-934941-03-4; the first complete English translation; (there was a Latin translation by V. Fausböll in 1855).
Tr J. Gray, American Mission Press, Rangoon, 1881
Tr J. P. Cooke & O. G. Pettis, Boston (Massachusetts?), 1898
Hymns of Faith, tr Albert J. Edmunds, Open Court, Chicago, & Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., London, 1902
Tr Norton T. W. Hazeldine, Denver, Colorado, 1902
The Buddha's Way of Virtue, tr W. D. C. Wagiswara & K. J. Saunders, John Murray, London, 1912
Tr Silacara, Buddhist Society, London, 1915
Tr Suriyagoda Sumangala, in Ceylon Antiquary, 1915
The Buddha's Path of Virtue, tr F. L. Woodward, Theosophical Publishing House, London & Madras, 1921
In Buddhist Legends, tr E. W. Burlinghame, Harvard Oriental Series, 1921, 3 volumes; reprinted by Pali Text Society, Bristol; translation of the stories from the commentary, with the Dhammapada verses embedded
Tr R. D. Shrikhande and/or P. L. Vaidya (according to different
bibliographies; or did one publisher issue two translations in the same
year?), Oriental Book Agency, Poona, 1923; includes Pali text
"Verses on Dhamma", in Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, volume I, tr C. A. F. Rhys Davids, 1931, Pali Text Society, Bristol; verse translation; includes Pali text
Tr N. K. Bhag(w?)at, Buddha Society, Bombay, 1931/5; includes Pali text
The Way of Truth, tr S. W. Wijayatilake, Madras, 1934
Tr Irving Babbitt, Oxford University Press, New York & London, 1936; revision of Max Müller
Tr K. Gunaratana, Penang, Malaya, 1937
The Path of the Eternal Law, tr Swami Premananda, Self-Realization Fellowship, Washington DC, 1942
Tr Dhammajoti, Maha Bodhi Society, Benares, 1944
Comp. Jack Austin, Buddhist Society, London, 1945
Stories of Buddhist India, tr Piyadassi, 2 volumes, Moratuwa, Ceylon, 1949 & 1953; includes stories from the commentary
Tr C. Kunhan Raja, Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar/Madras, 1956; includes Pali text
Free rendering and interpretation by Wesley La Violette, Los Angeles, 1956
Tr Buddharakkhita, Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore, 1959; 4th edn, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1996; includes Pali text
Tr Suzanne Karpelès, serialized in Advent (Pondicherry, India), 1960–65; reprinted in Questions and Answers, Collected Works of the Mother, 3, Pondicherry, 1977
Growing the Bodhi Tree in the Garden of the Heart, tr Khantipalo, Buddhist Association of Thailand, Bangkok, 1966; reprinted as The Path of Truth, Bangkok, 1977
Tr Ananda Maitreya, serialized in Pali Buddhist Review, 1 & 2, 1976/7; offprinted under the title Law Verses,
Colombo, 1978; revised by Rose Kramer (under the Pali title),
originally published by Lotsawa Publications in 1988, reprinted by
Parallax Press in 1995
The Buddha's Words, tr Sathienpong Wannapok, Bangkok, 1979
Wisdom of the Buddha, tr Harischandra Kaviratna, Pasadena, 1980; includes Pali text
The Eternal Message of Lord Buddha, tr Silananda, Calcutta, 1982; includes Pali text
Tr Chhi Med Rig Dzin Lama, Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies,
Sarnath, India, 1982; tr from the modern Tibetan translation by dGe-'dun
Chos-'phel; includes Pali & Tibetan texts
Tr & pub Dharma Publishing, Berkeley, California, 1985; tr from the modern Tibetan translation by dGe-'dun Chos-'phel
Commentary, with text embedded, tr Department of Pali, University of
Rangoon, published by Union Buddha Sasana Council, Rangoon (date
uncertain; 1980s)
Tr Daw Mya Tin, Burma Pitaka Association, Rangoon, 1986; probably
currently published by the Department for the Promotion and Propagation
of the Sasana, Rangoon, and/or Sri Satguru, Delhi
Path of Righteousness, tr David J. Kalupahana, Universities Press of America, Lanham, Maryland, c. 1986
Tr Raghavan Iyer, Santa Barbara, 1986; includes Pali text
Tr John Ross Carter & Mahinda Palihawadana, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1987; the original hardback edition also includes the
Pali text and the commentary's explanations of the verses; the paperback
reprint in the World's Classics Series omits these
Tr U. D. Jayasekera, Colombo, 1992
Treasury of Truth, tr Weragoda Sarada, Taipei, 1993
Dharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/; Sanskrit: धर्म, pronounced[dʱɐrmɐ]ⓘ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term dharma does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit dhr-, meaning to hold or to support,
thus referring to law that sustains things—from one's life to society,
and to the Universe at large. In its most commonly used sense, dharma
refers to an individual's moral responsibilities or duties; the dharma
of a farmer differs from the dharma of a soldier, thus making the
concept of dharma a varying dynamic. As with the other components of the
Puruṣārtha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is adharma.
In Hinduism, dharma denotes behaviour that is considered to be in accord with Ṛta—the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible. This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of
living" according to the stage of life or social position. Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the Puruṣārtha. The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion (1500–500 BCE), and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia.
In Buddhism, dharma (Pali: dhamma) refers to the teachings of the Buddha and to the true nature of reality (which the teachings point to). In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for specific "phenomena" and for the ultimate truth. Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of Tirthankara (Jina) and the body of doctrine pertaining to purification and moral transformation. In Sikhism, dharma indicates the path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing moral duties.
The word dharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/) has roots in the Sanskritdhr-, which means to hold or to support, and is related to Latin firmus (firm, stable). From this, it takes the meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskritn-stem dharman-, with a literal meaning of "bearer, supporter", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta.
In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-,
with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm"
(in the literal sense of prods or poles). Figuratively, it means
"sustainer" and "supporter" (of deities). It is semantically similar to the Greek themis ("fixed decree, statute, law").
Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and Indian religions. It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. There is no equivalent single-word synonym for dharma in western languages.
There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German,
English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused
exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators. For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma, Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as "law", "justice", "righteousness", "order", "duty", "custom", "quality", and "model", among others. However, the word dharma has become a widely accepted loanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries.
The root of the word dharma is "dhr̥", which means "to
support, hold, or bear". It is the thing that regulates the course of
change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains
constant. Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers numerous definitions of the word dharma,
such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute,
law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics,
religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality,
property. Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the
combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the
word. In common parlance, dharma means "right way of living" and "path of rightness". Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the word sanātana, it can also be described as eternal truth.
The meaning of the word dharma depends on the context, and
its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through
history. In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, dharma meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Epics, the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts. In certain contexts, dharma designates human behaviours
considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles
that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in
nature, society, family as well as at the individual level.Dharma
encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion,
customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally
upright. For further context, the word varnasramdharma is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to the stage of life one is in. The concept of Dharma is believed to have a transtemporal validity.
The antonym of dharma is adharma (Sanskrit: अधर्म), meaning that which is "not dharma". As with dharma, the word adharma
includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that
which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.
In Buddhism, dharma incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha.
History
According to Pandurang Vaman Kane, author of the book History of Dharmaśāstra, the word dharma appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda, as an adjective or noun. According to Paul Horsch, the word dharma has its origin in Vedic Hinduism. The hymns of the Rigveda claim Brahman
created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun
and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from
earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.
The Deities, mainly Indra,
then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos,
stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root
of word dharma. In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as a cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of deities. It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject. Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning. The ritual
is connected to the cosmic, and "dharmani" is equated to ceremonial
devotion to the principles that deities used to create order from
disorder, the world from chaos.
Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current
world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social
sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms. It
is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.
Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism,
in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma
also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions
founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism. According to Brereton, Dharman occurs 63 times in Rig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as satyadharman, and once as dharmavant, 4 times as dharman and twice as dhariman.
Indo-European parallels for "dharma" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian darmān, meaning "remedy". This meaning is different from the Indo-Aryandhárman, suggesting that the word "dharma" did not play a major role in the Indo-Iranian period. Instead, it was primarily developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.
It is thought that the Daena of Zoroastrianism, also meaning the "eternal Law" or "religion", is related to Sanskrit "dharma". Ideas in parts overlapping to Dharma are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese Tao, Egyptian Maat, Sumerian Me.
Eusebeia and dharma
The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from Indian Emperor Asoka in 258 BCE, and found in Afghanistan. The inscription renders the word dharma in Sanskrit as eusebeia in Greek, suggesting dharma in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.
In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BCE was discovered in Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription. This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text. According to Paul Hacker, on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia.
Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept. Eusebia means not only to venerate deities,
but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and
includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children,
the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between
biologically unrelated people. This rock inscription, concludes Paul
Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central
concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good,
of one's duty toward the human community.
Rta, maya and dharma
The evolving literature of Hinduism linked dharma to two other important concepts: Ṛta and Māyā. Ṛta in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder, thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony. Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and dharma are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere; while Māyā and dharma
are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law
and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral
life.
Day proposes dharma is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of dharma, as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner. The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where rta and dharma are linked:
O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils...
Dharma is an organising principle in Hinduism
that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with
human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of
cosmos and its parts. It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe
possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society,
and ethics. Hindudharma
includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each
individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right
conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain
harmony and order in the world. It is neither the act nor the result,
but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent
chaos in the world. It is innate characteristic, that makes the being
what it is. It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of
one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic
concert. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow. In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life. This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".
In its true essence, dharma means for a Hindu to "expand
the mind". Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the
individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together. In
the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual,
similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the
society, for better or for worse. This has been subtly echoed by the
credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning dharma is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.
In Hinduism, dharma generally includes various aspects:
Sanātana Dharma, the eternal and unchanging principals of dharma.
Varṇ āśramā dharma, one's duty at specific stages of life or inherent duties.
Āpad dharma, dharma prescribed at the time of adversities.
Sadharana dharma, moral duties irrespective of the stages of life.
Yuga dharma, dharma which is valid for a yuga, an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.
In Vedas and Upanishads
The history section of this article discusses the development of dharma concept in Vedas. This development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism. In Upanishads, the concept of dharma
continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth. It
acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is explained
as law of righteousness and equated to satya (Sanskrit: सत्यं, truth), in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:
Nothing is higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king. Truly that dharma is the Truth (Satya);
Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the
Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For
both are one.
Mimamsa, developed through commentaries on its foundational texts, particularly the Mimamsa Sutras attributed to Jaimini,
emphasizes "the desire to know dharma" as the central concern, defining
dharma as what connects a person with the highest good, always yet to
be realized. While some schools associate dharma with post-mortem
existence, Mimamsakas focus on the continual renewal and
realization of a ritual world through adherence to Vedic injunctions.
They assert that the ultimate good is essentially inaccessible to
perception and can only be understood through language, reflecting
confidence in Vedic injunctions and the reality of language as a means
of knowing.
Mimamsa addresses the delayed results of actions (like
wealth or heaven) through the concept of apurva or adrsta, an unseen
force that preserves the connection between actions and their outcomes.
This ensures that Vedic sacrifices, though their results are delayed,
are effective and reliable in guiding toward dharma.
In the Epics
The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality. In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent. In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as "dharmaraja".
Dharma is at the centre of all major events in the life of Dasharatha, Rama, Sita, and Lakshman
in Ramayana. In the Ramayana, Dasharatha upholds his dharma by honoring
a promise to Kaikeyi, resulting in his beloved son Rama's exile, even
though it brings him immense personal suffering.
In the Mahabharata, dharma is central, and it is presented through symbolism and metaphors. Near the end of the epic, Yama referred to as dharma in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira,
who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal. Yudhishthira
refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by dharma. The value and appeal of the Mahabharata, according to Ingalls, is not
as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the
12th book. Indian metaphysics, he argues, is more eloquently presented in other
Sanskrit scriptures. Instead, the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, lies in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, where there are usually three answers: one answer is of Bhima, which represents brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which appeals to piety, deities, social virtue, and tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna,
which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls,
symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man. The Epics of
Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals,
ethics, law, and other aspects of dharma. There is extensive discussion of dharma
at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free
will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the
strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing
grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny. The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of dharma with metaphors.
According to 4th-century Vatsyayana
According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained dharma by contrasting it with adharma. Vātsyāyana suggested that dharma is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought. According to Vātsyāyana:
Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft),
pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's
partner)
Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)
Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa
(caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)
Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts),
hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind
talk), svadhyaya (self-study)
Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa
(covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and
religiosity)
Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)
Dharma is part of yoga, suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga. Patanjali explained dharma in two categories: yamas (restraints) and niyamas (observances).
The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury
to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from
unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another
(acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your
partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others. The five yama apply in action, speech and mind. In explaining yama,
Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require
qualification in conduct. For example, a fisherman must injure a fish,
but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the
fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.
The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure
food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or
pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection
regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic
knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve
perfection of concentration.
Sources
Dharma is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism. For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states:
Dharma and Adharma do not go around saying, "That is us." Neither do gods, nor gandharvas, nor ancestors declare what is Dharma and what is Adharma.
— Apastamba Dharmasutra
In other texts, three sources and means to discover dharma in Hinduism are described. These, according to Paul Hacker, are: First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other Sanskrit literature
with the help of one's teacher. Second, observing the behaviour and
example of good people. The third source applies when neither one's
education nor example exemplary conduct is known. In this case, "atmatusti" is the source of dharma
in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what
satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.
Some texts of Hinduism outline dharma for society and at the individual level. Of these, the most cited one is Manusmriti, which describes the four Varnas, their rights and duties. Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss dharma with no mention of Varna (caste). Other dharma texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas. Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna. Bhrigu, in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that dharma does not require any varnas. In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially
stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and
being endogamous. Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals
had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their asramas of life, in search of moksa. While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the dharma of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate dharma with varna system of India. In 6th-century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves "protectors of varnasramadharma" – that is, dharma of varna and asramas of life.
At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four āśramas, or stages of life as individual's dharma. These are: (1) brahmacārya, the life of preparation as a student, (2) gṛhastha, the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) sannyāsa,
the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion
to moksa, spiritual matters. Patrick Olivelle suggests that "ashramas
represented life choices rather than sequential steps in the life of a
single individual" and the vanaprastha stage was added before
renunciation over time, thus forming life stages.
The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism. Dharma
enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order,
a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right
thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others,
interact successfully with society. The other three strivings are Artha – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and Moksa
– the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth
cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth. The four stages are
neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu dharma.
Dharma and poverty
Dharma
being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and
prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures. For
example, according to Adam Bowles, Shatapatha Brahmana 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and dharma
through water. Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are
abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables
people to follow Dharma – moral and lawful life. In times of
distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations
between human beings and the human ability to live according to dharma.
In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and dharma
reaches a full circle. A land with less moral and lawful life suffers
distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful
life, which further increases distress. Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers),
because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma
and achieve prosperity.
The notion of dharma as duty or propriety is found in India's
ancient legal and religious texts. Common examples of such use are pitri
dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's
duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth. In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per dharma. The Dharmashastra is a record of these guidelines and rules. The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of dharma related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras. Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different
compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient
scholars. These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of dharma
in Hinduism. These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of
the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals,
marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and
administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of
evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality.
Buddhism held the Hindu view of Dharma as "cosmic law", as in the working of Karma. The term Dharma (Pali: dhamma) later came to refer to the teachings of the Buddha (pariyatti); the practice (paṭipatti) of the Buddha's teachings is then comprehended as Dharma. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".
Buddha's teachings
For practising Buddhists, references to dharma (dhamma
in Pali) particularly as "the dharma", generally means the teachings of
the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddhadharma. It
includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such
as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems. The Buddha's teachings explain that in order to end suffering, dharma, or the right thoughts, understanding, actions and livelihood, should be cultivated.
The status of dharma is regarded variably by different
Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the
fount of all things which lie beyond the "three realms" (Sanskrit: tridhatu) and the "wheel of becoming" (Sanskrit: bhavachakra). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the dharma as the essence of the "84,000 different aspects of the teaching" (Tibetan: chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong) that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities.
Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expound upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the "truth", or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tibetan: Chö).
The dharma is one of the Three Jewels
of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that
upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels
of Buddhism are the Buddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the dharma, meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and the Sangha, meaning the community of practitioners who provide one another guidance and support.
Chan Buddhism
Dharma is employed in Chan Buddhism in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognised in dharma transmission.
Theravada Buddhism
In Theravada Buddhism obtaining ultimate realisation of the dhamma is achieved in three phases; learning, practising and realising.
In Pali:
Pariyatti – the learning of the theory of dharma as contained within the suttas of the Pali canon
Patipatti – putting the theory into practice and
Pativedha – when one penetrates the dharma or through experience realises the truth of it.
The word dharma in Jainism is found in all its key texts. It
has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas. In the
broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas, or teachings of any competing spiritual school, a supreme path, socio-religious duty, and that which is the highest mangala (holy).
The Tattvartha Sutra, a major Jain text, mentions daśa dharma (lit.'ten dharmas')
with referring to ten righteous virtues: forbearance, modesty,
straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity,
renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy. Ācārya Amṛtacandra, author of the Jain text, Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya writes:
A right believer should constantly
meditate on virtues of dharma, like supreme modesty, in order to protect
the Self from all contrary dispositions. He should also cover up the
shortcomings of others.
The term dharmāstikāya (Sanskrit: धर्मास्तिकाय) also has a specific ontological and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of its theory of six dravya (substance or a reality). In the Jain tradition, existence consists of jīva (soul, ātman) and ajīva (non-soul, anātman), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter (pudgalāstikāya), space (ākāśa), time (kāla), principle of motion (dharmāstikāya), and principle of rest (adharmāstikāya). The use of the term dharmāstikāya to mean motion and to refer to an ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in the metaphysics of Buddhism and various schools of Hinduism.
For Sikhs, the word dharam (Punjabi: ਧਰਮ, romanized: dharam) means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice. Guru Granth Sahib connotes dharma as duty and moral values. The 3HO
movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh
beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion,
moral duty and way of life.
Several works of the Sangam and post-Sangam period, many of which are of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes on dharma. Most of these texts are based on aṟam, the Tamil term for dharma. The ancient Tamil moral text of the Tirukkuṟaḷ or Kural, a text probably of Jain or Hindu origin, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam), is completely and exclusively based on aṟam. The Naladiyar, a Jain text of the post-Sangam period, follows a similar pattern as that of the Kural in emphasizing aṟam or dharma.
Dharma in symbols
The original Lion Capital of Ashoka, from Sarnath. It originally supported a large dharmachakra (the earliest symbol of the Dharma) on the top (which has been reconstructed here).The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Ashoka's dhamma.
The importance of dharma to Indian civilization is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include the Ashoka Chakra, a depiction of the dharmachakra (the "wheel of dharma"), as the central motif on its flag.
