Friday, August 8, 2014

Gibbs free energy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy (IUPAC recommended name: Gibbs energy or Gibbs function; also known as free enthalpy^[1] to distinguish it from Helmholtz free energy) is a thermodynamic potential that measures the "usefulness" or process-initiating work obtainable from a thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and pressure (isothermal, isobaric). Just as in mechanics, where potential energy is defined as capacity to do work, similarly different potentials have different meanings. The Gibbs free energy (SI units J/mol) is the maximum amount of non-expansion work that can be extracted from a closed system; this maximum can be attained only in a completely reversible process. When a system changes from a well-defined initial state to a well-defined final state, the Gibbs free energy ΔG equals the work exchanged by the system with its surroundings, minus the work of the pressure forces, during a reversible transformation of the system from the same initial state to the same final state.^[2]
Gibbs energy (also referred to as ∆G) is also the chemical potential that is minimized when a system reaches equilibrium at constant pressure and temperature. Its derivative with respect to the reaction coordinate of the system vanishes at the equilibrium point. As such, it is a convenient criterion of spontaneity for processes with constant pressure and temperature.
The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American mathematician Josiah Willard Gibbs. In 1873, Gibbs described this "available energy" as

the greatest amount of mechanical work which can be obtained from a given quantity of a certain substance in a given initial state, without increasing its total volume or allowing heat to pass to or from external bodies, except such as at the close of the processes are left in their initial condition.^[3]

The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that "the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes." In his 1876 magnum opus On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a graphical analysis of multi-phase chemical systems, he engaged his thoughts on chemical free energy in full.

Overview

The reaction C_(s)^diamond⇒C_(s)^graphite has a negative change in Gibbs free energy and is therefore thermodynamically favorable at 25°C and 1 atm. However, even though favorable, it is so slow that it is not observed. Whether a reaction is thermodynamically favorable does not determine its rate.

In a simple manner, with respect to STP reacting systems, a general rule of thumb is that every system seeks to achieve a minimum of free energy.

Hence, out of this general natural tendency, a quantitative measure as to how near or far a potential reaction is from this minimum is when the calculated energetics of the process indicate that the change ΔG in Gibbs free energy is negative. In essence, this means that such a reaction will be favoured and will release energy. The energy released equals the maximum amount of work that can be performed as a result of the chemical reaction. In contrast, if conditions indicated a positive ΔG, then energy—in the form of work—would have to be added to the reacting system for the reaction to occur.

The equation can also be seen from the perspective of both the system and its surroundings (the universe). For the purposes of calculation, we assume the reaction is the only reaction going on in the universe. Thus the entropy released or absorbed by the system is actually the entropy that the environment must absorb or release respectively. Thus the reaction will only be allowed if the total entropy change of the universe is equal to zero (a thermal equilibrium state) or positive. The input of heat into an "endergonic" chemical reaction (e.g. the elimination of cyclohexanol to cyclohexene) can be seen as coupling an inherently unfavourable reaction (elimination) to a favourable one (burning of coal or the energy source of a heat source) such that the total entropy change of the universe is more than or equal to zero, making the Gibbs free energy of the coupled reaction negative.

In traditional use, the term "free" was attached to Gibbs free energy for systems at constant pressure and temperature to mean "available in the form of useful work."^[2] For Gibbs free energy, we add the qualification that it is the energy free for non-volume work.^[4] (A similar meaning applies used in conjunction with Helmholtz free energy, for systems at constant volume and temperature). However, an increasing number of books and journal articles do not include the attachment "free", referring to G as simply "Gibbs energy". This is the result of a 1988 IUPAC meeting to set unified terminologies for the international scientific community, in which the adjective ‘free’ was supposedly banished.^[5] ^[6] ^[7] This standard, however, has not yet been universally adopted.

History

The quantity called "free energy" is a more advanced and accurate replacement for the outdated term affinity, which was used by chemists in previous years to describe the force that caused chemical reactions.

In 1873, Willard Gibbs published A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces, in which he introduced the preliminary outline of the principles of his new equation able to predict or estimate the tendencies of various natural processes to ensue when bodies or systems are brought into contact. By studying the interactions of homogeneous substances in contact, i.e., bodies, being in composition part solid, part liquid, and part vapor, and by using a three-dimensional volume–entropy–internal energy graph, Gibbs was able to determine three states of equilibrium, i.e., "necessarily stable", "neutral", and "unstable", and whether or not changes would ensue.

Hence, in 1882, the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz stated that affinity is the largest quantity of work which can be gained when the reaction is carried out in a reversible manner, e.g., electrical work in a reversible cell. The maximum work is thus regarded as the diminution of the free, or available, energy of the system (Gibbs free energy G at T = constant, P = constant or Helmholtz free energy F at T = constant, V = constant), whilst the heat given out is usually a measure of the diminution of the total energy of the system (Internal energy). Thus, G or F is the amount of energy "free" for work under the given conditions.

Until this point, the general view had been such that: "all chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the affinities of the reactions vanish". Over the next 60 years, the term affinity came to be replaced with the term free energy. According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term "affinity" by the term "free energy" in much of the English-speaking world.

Graphical interpretation

Gibbs free energy was originally defined graphically. In 1873, American engineer Willard Gibbs published his first thermodynamics paper, "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids", in which Gibbs used the two coordinates of the entropy and volume to represent the state of the body. In his second follow-up paper, "A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces", published later that year, Gibbs added in the third coordinate of the energy of the body, defined on three figures. In 1874, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell used Gibbs' figures to make a 3D energy-entropy-volume thermodynamic surface of a fictitious water-like substance.^[8] Thus, in order to understand the very difficult concept of Gibbs free energy one must be able to understand its interpretation as Gibbs defined originally by section AB on his figure 3 and as Maxwell sculpted that section on his 3D surface figure.

American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1873 figures two and three (above left and middle) used by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1874 to create a three-dimensional entropy (x), volume (y), energy (z) thermodynamic surface diagram for a fictitious water-like substance, transposed the two figures of Gibbs (above right) onto the volume-entropy coordinates (transposed to bottom of cube) and energy-entropy coordinates (flipped upside down and transposed to back of cube), respectively, of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates; the region AB being the first-ever three-dimensional representation of Gibbs free energy, or what Gibbs called "available energy"; the region AC being its capacity for entropy, what Gibbs defined as "the amount by which the entropy of the body can be increased without changing the energy of the body or increasing its volume.

Definitions

Willard Gibbs’ 1873 available energy (free energy) graph, which shows a plane perpendicular to the axis of v (volume) and passing through point A, which represents the initial state of the body. MN is the section of the surface of dissipated energy. Qε and Qη are sections of the planes η = 0 and ε = 0, and therefore parallel to the axes of ε (internal energy) and η (entropy), respectively. AD and AE are the energy and entropy of the body in its initial state, AB and AC its available energy (Gibbs free energy) and its capacity for entropy (the amount by which the entropy of the body can be increased without changing the energy of the body or increasing its volume) respectively.

The Gibbs free energy is defined as:

G(p,T) = U + pV - TS

which is the same as:

G(p,T) = H - TS

where:

U is the internal energy (SI unit: joule)
p is pressure (SI unit: pascal)
V is volume (SI unit: m³)
T is the temperature (SI unit: kelvin)
S is the entropy (SI unit: joule per kelvin)
H is the enthalpy (SI unit: joule)

The expression for the infinitesimal reversible change in the Gibbs free energy as a function of its 'natural variables' p and T, for an open system, subjected to the operation of external forces (for instance electrical or magnetical) X_i, which cause the external parameters of the system a_i to change by an amount da_i, can be derived as follows from the First Law for reversible processes:

T\mathrm{d}S= \mathrm{d}U + p\mathrm{d}V-\sum_{i=1}^k \mu_i \,\mathrm{d}N_i + \sum_{i=1}^n X_i \,\mathrm{d}a_i + \cdots

\mathrm{d}(TS) - S\mathrm{d}T= \mathrm{d}U + \mathrm{d}(pV) - V\mathrm{d}p-\sum_{i=1}^k \mu_i \,\mathrm{d}N_i + \sum_{i=1}^n X_i \,\mathrm{d}a_i + \cdots

\mathrm{d}(U-TS+pV)=V\mathrm{d}p-S\mathrm{d}T+\sum_{i=1}^k \mu_i \,\mathrm{d}N_i - \sum_{i=1}^n X_i \,\mathrm{d}a_i + \cdots

\mathrm{d}G =V\mathrm{d}p-S\mathrm{d}T+\sum_{i=1}^k \mu_i \,\mathrm{d}N_i - \sum_{i=1}^n X_i \,\mathrm{d}a_i + \cdots

where:

μ_i is the chemical potential of the ith chemical component. (SI unit: joules per particle^[9] or joules per mole^[2])
N_i is the number of particles (or number of moles) composing the ith chemical component.

This is one form of Gibbs fundamental equation.^[10] In the infinitesimal expression, the term involving the chemical potential accounts for changes in Gibbs free energy resulting from an influx or outflux of particles. In other words, it holds for an open system. For a closed system, this term may be dropped.

Any number of extra terms may be added, depending on the particular system being considered. Aside from mechanical work, a system may, in addition, perform numerous other types of work. For example, in the infinitesimal expression, the contractile work energy associated with a thermodynamic system that is a contractile fiber that shortens by an amount −dl under a force f would result in a term fdl being added. If a quantity of charge −de is acquired by a system at an electrical potential Ψ, the electrical work associated with this is −Ψde, which would be included in the infinitesimal expression. Other work terms are added on per system requirements.^[11]
Each quantity in the equations above can be divided by the amount of substance, measured in moles, to form molar Gibbs free energy. The Gibbs free energy is one of the most important thermodynamic functions for the characterization of a system. It is a factor in determining outcomes such as the voltage of an electrochemical cell, and the equilibrium constant for a reversible reaction. In isothermal, isobaric systems, Gibbs free energy can be thought of as a "dynamic" quantity, in that it is a representative measure of the competing effects of the enthalpic and entropic driving forces involved in a thermodynamic process.

The temperature dependence of the Gibbs energy for an ideal gas is given by the Gibbs–Helmholtz equation and its pressure dependence is given by:

\frac{G}{N} = \frac{G}{N}^\circ + kT\ln \frac{p}{{p^\circ }}

if the volume is known rather than pressure then it becomes:

\frac{G}{N} = \frac{G}{N}^\circ + kT\ln \frac{V^\circ}{{V }}

or more conveniently as its chemical potential:

\frac{G}{N} = \mu = \mu^\circ + kT\ln \frac{p}{{p^\circ }}.

In non-ideal systems, fugacity comes into play.

Derivation

The Gibbs free energy total differential natural variables may be derived via Legendre transforms of the internal energy.

\mathrm{d}U = T\mathrm{d}S - p \,\mathrm{d}V + \sum_i \mu_i \,\mathrm{d} N_i\,

Because S, V, and N_i are extensive variables, Euler's homogeneous function theorem allows easy integration of dU:^[12]

U = T S - p V + \sum_i \mu_i N_i\,

The definition of G from above is

G = U + p V - T S\,

Taking the total differential, we have

\mathrm{d} G = \mathrm{d}U + p\,\mathrm{d}V + V\mathrm{d}p - T\mathrm{d}S - S\mathrm{d}T\,

Replacing dU with the result from the first law gives^[12]

\begin{align} \mathrm{d} G &= T\mathrm{d}S - p\,\mathrm{d}V + \sum_i \mu_i \,\mathrm{d} N_i + p \,\mathrm{d}V + V\mathrm{d}p - T\mathrm{d}S - S\mathrm{d}T\\ &= V\mathrm{d}p - S\mathrm{d}T + \sum_i \mu_i \,\mathrm{d} N_i \end{align}

The natural variables of G are then p, T, and {N_i}.

Homogeneous systems

Because some of the natural variables are intensive, dG may not be integrated using Euler integrals as is the case with internal energy. However, simply substituting the Gibbs-Duhem relation result for U into the definition of G gives a standard expression for G:^[12]

\begin{align} G &= T S - p V + \sum_i \mu_i N_i + p V - T S\\ &= \sum_i \mu_i N_i \end{align}

This result applies to homogeneous, macroscopic systems, but not to all thermodynamic systems.^[13]

Gibbs free energy of reactions

To derive the Gibbs free energy equation for an isolated system, let S_tot be the total entropy of the isolated system, that is, a system that cannot exchange heat or mass with its surroundings. According to the second law of thermodynamics:

\Delta S_{tot} \ge 0 \,

and if ΔS_tot = 0 then the process is reversible. The heat transfer Q vanishes for an adiabatic system. Any adiabatic process that is also reversible is called an isentropic

\left( {Q\over T} = \Delta S = 0 \right) \,

process.
Now consider a system having internal entropy S_int. Such a system is thermally connected to its surroundings, which have entropy S_ext. The entropy form of the second law applies only to the closed system formed by both the system and its surroundings. Therefore a process is possible only if

\Delta S_{int} + \Delta S_{ext} \ge 0 \,

If Q is the heat transferred to the system from the surroundings, then −Q is the heat lost by the surroundings, so that

\Delta S_{ext} = - {Q \over T},

corresponds to the entropy change of the surroundings.
We now have:

\Delta S_{int} - {Q \over T} \ge 0 \,

Multiplying both sides by T:

T \Delta S_{int} - Q \ge 0 \,

Q is the heat transferred to the system; if the process is now assumed to be isobaric, then Q_p = ΔH:

T \Delta S_{int} - \Delta H \ge 0\,

ΔH is the enthalpy change of reaction (for a chemical reaction at constant pressure). Then:

\Delta H - T \Delta S_{int} \le 0 \,

for a possible process. Let the change ΔG in Gibbs free energy be defined as

\Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S_{int} \,

(eq.1)

Notice that it is not defined in terms of any external state functions, such as ΔS_ext or ΔS_tot. Then the second law, which also tells us about the spontaneity of the reaction, becomes:

\Delta G < 0 \,

favoured reaction (Spontaneous)

\Delta G = 0 \,

Neither the forward nor the reverse reaction prevails (Equilibrium)

\Delta G > 0 \,

disfavoured reaction (Nonspontaneous)

Gibbs free energy G itself is defined as

G = H - T S_{int} \,

(eq.2)

but notice that to obtain equation (1) from equation (2) we must assume that T is constant. Thus, Gibbs free energy is most useful for thermochemical processes at constant temperature and pressure: both isothermal and isobaric. Such processes don't move on a P-V diagram, such as phase change of a pure substance, which takes place at the saturation pressure and temperature. Chemical reactions, however, do undergo changes in chemical potential, which is a state function. Thus, thermodynamic processes are not confined to the two dimensional P-V diagram. There is a third dimension for n, the quantity of gas. For the study of explosive chemicals, the processes are not necessarily isothermal and isobaric. For these studies, Helmholtz free energy is used.

If an isolated system (Q = 0) is at constant pressure (Q = ΔH), then

\Delta H = 0 \,

Therefore the Gibbs free energy of an isolated system is

\Delta G = -T \Delta S \,

and if ΔG ≤ 0 then this implies that ΔS ≥ 0, back to where we started the derivation of ΔG.

Useful identities

\Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,

(for constant temperature)

\Delta_r G^\circ = -R T \ln K \,

\Delta_r G = \Delta_r G^\circ + R T \ln Q_r \,

(see Chemical equilibrium)

\Delta G = -nFE \,

\Delta G^\circ = -nFE^\circ \,

and rearranging gives

nFE^\circ = RT \ln K \,

nFE = nFE^\circ - R T \ln Q_r \, \,

E = E^\circ - \frac{R T}{n F} \ln Q_r \, \,

which relates the electrical potential of a reaction to the equilibrium coefficient for that reaction (Nernst equation).
where

ΔG = change in Gibbs free energy
ΔH = change in enthalpy
T = absolute temperature
ΔS = change in entropy
R = gas constant
ln = natural logarithm
Δ_rG = change of reaction in Gibbs free energy
Δ_rG° = standard change of reaction in Gibbs free energy
K = equilibrium constant
Q_r = reaction quotient
n = number of electrons per mole product
F = Faraday constant (coulombs per mole)
E = electrode potential of the reaction

Moreover, we also have:

K_{eq}=e^{- \frac{\Delta_r G^\circ}{RT}}

\Delta_r G^\circ = -RT(\ln K_{eq}) = -2.303\,RT(\log_{10} K_{eq})

which relates the equilibrium constant with Gibbs free energy.

Gibbs free energy, the second law of thermodynamics, and metabolism

A particular chemical reaction is said to proceed spontaneously if the hypothetical total change in entropy of the universe due to that reaction is greater than or equal to zero Joules per Kelvin. As discussed in the Overview, under certain assumptions Gibbs free energy can be thought of as a negative proxy for the change in total entropy of the universe (it's negative because change in Gibbs free energy is negative when change in total entropy of the universe is positive, and vice versa). Thus, a reaction with a positive Gibbs free energy will not proceed spontaneously. However, in biological systems, energy inputs from other energy sources (including the sun and exothermic chemical reactions) are "coupled" with reactions that are not entropically favored (i.e. have a Gibbs free energy above zero). Between two (or more) coupled reactions, total entropy in the universe always increases. This coupling allows an endergonic reactions, such as photosynthesis and DNA synthesis, to proceed without decreasing the total entropy of the universe. Thus biological systems do not violate the second law of thermodynamics.

Standard energy change of formation

The standard Gibbs free energy of formation of a compound is the change of Gibbs free energy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of that substance from its component elements, at their standard states (the most stable form of the element at 25 degrees Celsius and 101.3 kilopascals). Its symbol is Δ_fG˚.

All elements in their standard states (oxygen gas, graphite, etc.) have 0 standard Gibbs free energy change of formation, as there is no change involved.

Δ_rG = Δ_rG˚ + RT ln Q_r; Q_r is the reaction quotient.

At equilibrium, Δ_rG = 0 and Q_r = K so the equation becomes Δ_rG˚ = −RT ln K; K is the equilibrium constant.

Table of selected substances^[14]

Substance	State	Δ_fG°(kJ/mol)	Δ_fG°(kcal/mol)
NO	g	87.6	20.9
NO₂	g	51.3	12.3
N₂O	g	103.7	24.78
H₂O	g	-228.6	−54.64
H₂O	l	-237.1	−56.67
CO₂	g	-394.4	−94.26
CO	g	-137.2	−32.79
CH₄	g	-50.5	−12.1
C₂H₆	g	-32.0	−7.65
C₃H₈	g	-23.4	−5.59
C₆H₆	g	129.7	29.76
C₆H₆	l	124.5	31.00

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny?

Recapitulation theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The theory of recapitulation, also called the biogenetic law or embryological parallelism— often expressed in Ernst Haeckel's phrase as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"—is a largely discredited biological hypothesis that in developing from embryo to adult, animals go through stages resembling or representing successive stages in the evolution of their remote ancestors. With different formulations, such ideas have been applied and extended to several fields and areas, including the origin of language, religion, biology, cognition and mental activities,^[1] anthropology,^[2] education theory^[3] and developmental psychology.^[4] While examples of embryonic stages show that molecular features of ancestral organisms exist, the theory of recapitulation itself has been viewed within the field of developmental biology as a historical side-note rather than as dogma.^[5]^[6]^[7]

In contrast, there is no consensus against the validity of the theory outside biology. Recapitulation theory is still considered plausible and is applied by some researchers in fields such as the study of the origin of language,^[8] cognitive development,^[9] behavioral development in animal species.^[10]

Origins

The earliest recorded trace of a recapitulation theory is from the Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik I (664 – 610 BCE), who used it as a hypothesis on the origin of language.^[11]^[12] The concept of recapitulation was first formulated outside the field of biology. It was widely held among traditional theories of the origin of language (glottology), being assumed as a premise that children's use of language gives insights on its origin and evolution.^[13]

The idea was reprised in 1720 by Giambattista Vico in his influential Scienza Nuova.^[13]^[14]^[15] It was first formulated in biology in the 1790s among the German Natural philosophers,^[16] after which, Marcel Danesi states, it soon gained the status of a supposed biogenetic law.^[13]
The first formal formulation was proposed by Étienne Serres in 1824–26 as what became known as the "Meckel-Serres Law", it attempted to provide a link between comparative embryology and a "pattern of unification" in the organic world. It was supported by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and became a prominent part of his ideas which suggested that past transformations of life could have had environmental causes working on the embryo, rather than on the adult as in Lamarckism. These naturalistic ideas led to disagreements with Georges Cuvier. It was widely supported in the Edinburgh and London schools of higher anatomy around 1830, notably by Robert Edmond Grant, but was opposed by Karl Ernst von Baer's ideas of divergence, and attacked by Richard Owen in the 1830s.^[17]

Haeckel

George Romanes's 1892 copy of Ernst Haeckel's controversial embryo drawings (this version of the figure is often attributed incorrectly to Haeckel).^[18]

Ernst Haeckel attempted to synthesize the ideas of Lamarckism and Goethe's Naturphilosophie with Charles Darwin's concepts. While often seen as rejecting Darwin's theory of branching evolution for a more linear Lamarckian "biogenic law" of progressive evolution, this is not accurate: Haeckel used the Lamarckian picture to describe the ontogenetic and phylogenetic history of individual species, but agreed with Darwin about the branching of all species from one, or a few, original ancestors.^[19] Since early in the twentieth century, Haeckel's "biogenetic law" has been refuted on many fronts.^[7]
Haeckel formulated his theory as "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny". The notion later became simply known as the recapitulation theory. Ontogeny is the growth (size change) and development (shape change) of an individual organism; phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species. Haeckel claimed that the development of advanced species passes through stages represented by adult organisms of more primitive species.^[7] Otherwise put, each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary history.

For example, Haeckel proposed that the pharyngeal grooves between the pharyngeal arches in the neck of the human embryo not only roughly resembled gill slits of fish, but directly represented an adult "fishlike" developmental stage, signifying a fishlike ancestor. Embryonic pharyngeal slits, which form in many animals when the thin branchial plates separating pharyngeal pouches and pharyngeal grooves perforate, open the pharynx to the outside. Pharyngeal arches appear in all tetrapod embryos: in mammals, the first pharyngeal arch develops into the lower jaw (Meckel's cartilage), the malleus and the stapes. But these embryonic pharyngeal arches, grooves, pouches, and slits in human embryos can not at any stage carry out the same function as the gills of an adult fish.

Haeckel produced several embryo drawings that often overemphasized similarities between embryos of related species. The misinformation was propagated through many biology textbooks, and popular knowledge, even today. Modern biology rejects the literal and universal form of Haeckel's theory.^[20]
Haeckel's drawings were disputed by Wilhelm His, who had developed a rival theory of embryology.^[21] His developed a "causal-mechanical theory" of human embryonic development.^[22]
Darwin's view, that early embryonic stages are similar to the same embryonic stage of related species but not to the adult stages of these species, has been confirmed by modern evolutionary developmental biology^{[citation needed]}.

Modern status

The Haeckelian form of recapitulation theory is considered defunct.^[23] However, embryos do undergo a period where their morphology is strongly shaped by their phylogenetic position, rather than selective pressures.^[24]

"Embryos do reflect the course of evolution, but that course is far more intricate and quirky than Haeckel claimed. Different parts of the same embryo can even evolve in different directions. As a result, the Biogenetic Law was abandoned, and its fall freed scientists to appreciate the full range of embryonic changes that evolution can produce—an appreciation that has yielded spectacular results in recent years as scientists have discovered some of the specific genes that control development."^[25]

Influence

Cognitive development

Although Haeckel's specific form of recapitulation theory is now discredited among biologists, the strong influence it had on social and educational theories of the late 19th century still resonates in the 21st century. Research in the late 20th century confirmed that "both biological evolution and the stages in the child’s cognitive development follow much the same progression of evolutionary stages as that suggested in the archaeological record."^[9]

English philosopher Herbert Spencer was one of the most energetic promoters of evolutionary ideas to explain many phenomena. He compactly expressed the basis for a cultural recapitulation theory of education in the following claim, published in 1861, five years before Haeckel first published on the subject:^[3] G. Stanley Hall used Haeckel's theories as the basis for his theories of child development.

If there be an order in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of knowledge in the same order.... Education is a repetition of civilization in little.^[26]

— Herbert Spencer

Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget favored a weaker version of the formula, according to which ontogeny parallels phylogeny because the two are subject to similar external constraints.^[27]

The Austrian pioneer in psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, also favored Haeckel's doctrine. He was trained as a biologist under the influence of recapitulation theory at the time of its domination, and retained a Lamarckian outlook with justification from the recapitulation theory.^[28] He also distinguished between physical and mental recapitulation, in which the differences would become an essential argument for his theory of neuroses.^[28]

Art criticism

More recently, several art historians, most prominently musicologist Richard Taruskin, have applied the term "ontogeny becomes phylogeny" to the process of creating and recasting art history, often to assert a perspective or argument. For example, the peculiar development of the works by modernist composer Arnold Schoenberg (here an "ontogeny") is generalized in many histories into a "phylogeny" – a historical development ("evolution") of Western Music toward atonal styles of which Schoenberg is a representative. Such historiographies of the "collapse of traditional tonality" are faulted by art historians as asserting a rhetorical rather than historical point about tonality's "collapse".^[29]

Taruskin also developed a variation of the motto into the pun "ontogeny recapitulates ontology" to refute the concept of "absolute music" advancing the socio-artistic theories of Carl Dalhaus. Ontology is the investigation of what exactly something is, and Taruskin asserts that an art object becomes that which society and succeeding generations made of it. For example, composer Johann Sebastian Bach's St. John Passion, composed in the 1720s, was appropriated by the Nazi regime in the 1930s for propaganda. Taruskin claims the historical development of the Passion (its ontogeny) as a work with an anti-Semitic message does, in fact, inform the work's identity (its ontology), even though that was an unlikely concern of the composer. Music or even an abstract visual artwork can not be truly autonomous ("absolute") because it is defined by its historical and social reception.^[29]

Archie Bunker

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Archie Bunker
Bunker holding his grandson, Joey Stivic, 1975
First appearance	"Meet the Bunkers" (All in the Family)
Last appearance	"I'm Torn Here" (Archie Bunker's Place)
Created by	Norman Lear Based on Alf Garnett, a character created by Johnny Speight
Portrayed by	Carroll O'Connor
Information
Occupation	Blue-collar worker (loading dock foreman, janitor, and taxi driver) Bar Owner (1977-)
Family	David Bunker (father) Sarah Bunker, née Longstreet (mother) Michael Stivic (son-in-law) Joey Stivic (grandson) Alfred "Fred" Bunker (brother) Philip Bunker (brother) Alma Bunker (sister) Linda Bunker (niece) Barbara Lee "Billie" Bunker (niece) Katherine Bunker (sister-in-law) Oscar (cousin) Lou (cousin) Fred (cousin)
Spouse(s)	Edith Bunker (1948-1980, her death^[1])
Children	Gloria Bunker Stivic (daughter)

Archibald "Archie" Bunker is a fictional New Yorker in the 1970s top-rated American television sitcom All in the Family and its spin-off Archie Bunker's Place, played to acclaim by Carroll O'Connor. Bunker, a principal character of the series, is a veteran of World War II, reactionary, conservative, blue-collar worker, and family man. The Bunker character was first seen by the American public when All in the Family premiered on January 12, 1971, where he was depicted as the head of a family. In 1979, the show was retooled and renamed Archie Bunker’s Place, finally going off the air in 1983. Bunker lived at the fictional address of 704 Hauser Street in the borough of Queens in New York City.

All in the Family got many of its laughs by playing on Archie's bigotry, although the dynamic tension between Archie and liberal Mike provided an ongoing political and social sounding board for a variety of topics. Archie appears in all but seven episodes of the series (three were missed because of a contractual dispute between Carroll O'Connor and Norman Lear in Season 5).

In 1999 TV Guide ranked him number 5 on its 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time list.^[2] In 2005, Archie Bunker was listed as number 1 on Bravo's 100 Greatest TV Characters,^[3] defeating runners-up such as Ralph Kramden, Lucy Ricardo, Arthur Fonzarelli, and Homer Simpson.

Archie's armchair is in the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History.

Character traits

Famous for his gruff, ignorant, bigoted persona—blacks, Hispanics, "Communists," hippies, gays, Jews, Catholics, "women's libbers", and Polish-Americans are frequent targets of his barbs—Archie is in fact a complex character. Rather than being motivated by malice, he is portrayed as hardworking, a loving father and husband, and a basically decent man whose views are merely a product of the era and working-class environment in which he had been raised. Nevertheless, Archie is bad-tempered and frequently tells his long-suffering, scatter-brained wife Edith to "Stifle yourself" and "Dummy up". Series creator Norman Lear admitted that this is how his father treated Lear's mother.^[4]

As the series progressed, Archie mellows somewhat, albeit often out of necessity. In one episode, he expresses revulsion for a Ku Klux Klan-like organization which he accidentally joins.^[5] On another occasion, when asked to speak at the funeral of his friend, Stretch Cunningham, Archie—surprised to learn that his friend was Jewish—overcomes his initial discomfort and delivers a moving eulogy, closing with a heartfelt "Shalom." Most crucially, in 1978, the character became the guardian of Edith's step-cousin Floyd's nine-year old daughter, Stephanie (Danielle Brisebois), and comes to accept her Jewish faith, even buying her a Star of David pendant.^[6]

Archie was also known for his frequent malapropisms and spoonerisms. For example, he refers to Edith's gynecologist as a "groinacologist", and to Catholic priests who go around sprinkling "incest" (incense) on their congregation. By the show's second season, these had become dubbed "Bunkerisms", "Archie Bunkerisms" or simply "Archie-isms".^[7]^[8]

Bunker's own ethnicity is never explicitly stated, other than the fact that he is a WASP. (Archie's character voice was created by a mix of accents Carroll O'Connor heard while studying acting in New York City.^{[citation needed]}) Archie mocks the British and refers to England as a "fag country," because of their English accents. He also refers to Germans as "Krauts", the Irish as "Micks", the Japanese as "Japs", the Italians as "Dagos", the Chinese as "Chinks", Polish people as "Polacks," Hispanics or Latinos as "Spics," and Jewish people as "Hebes." He often uses the words "colored" or "spade" in reference to African-Americans.

Archie often misquotes the Bible. He takes pride in being religious, although he rarely attends church services and constantly mispronounces the name of his minister, Reverend Felcher, as "Reverend Fletcher."

The inspiration for Archie Bunker was Alf Garnett, the character from the BBC1 sitcom Till Death Us Do Part, on which All in the Family was based.^[9]

Character biography

When first introduced on All in the Family in 1971, Archie is the head of a family consisting of his wife Edith (Jean Stapleton), his adult daughter Gloria (Sally Struthers), and his liberal son-in-law, college student Michael "Mike" Stivic (Rob Reiner), with whom Archie disagrees on virtually everything; he frequently characterizes Mike as a "dumb Polack", and usually addresses him as "Meathead" because, in Archie's words, he is "dead from the neck up". During the show's first five seasons, Mike and Gloria are living with Archie and Edith, so that Mike could put himself through college. They later move to their own home, though it turns out to be next door, allowing Archie and Mike to interact nearly as much as they had when they were living in the same house.

Archie was born on May 20, 1924^[10] to parents David and Sarah.^[11] Information on his siblings is inconsistent, as three are mentioned, but he is also stated to be an only child. Archie celebrates his 50th birthday in a 1974 episode, and another series shows him to be still alive on April 4, 1983. He is a Taurus.^[12]

While locked in the storeroom of Archie's Place with Mike in the episode "Two's a Crowd", a drunk Archie confides that as a child, his family was desperately poor and that he was teased in school because he wore one shoe on one foot and a boot on the other, with kids nicknaming him "Shoe-Booty". In the same episode, Mike learns that Archie was mentally and physically abused by his father, who was the source of his bigoted views. Yet Archie then goes on to vehemently defend his father, who he claims loved him and taught him "right from wrong." The only clue to his father's occupation is a railroad watch that Archie receives from his formerly long-estranged brother, Alfred, or "Fred", played by actor Richard McKenzie, who later appeared in two episodes, Archie's Brother and The Return of Archie's Brother.

Fred and Archie, as it is learned when Fred visits Archie in the "Archie's Brother" episode, had not seen each other in the 29 years since Archie and Edith's wedding, although they apparently had communicated over the years via phone, their long estrangement fueled because of a petty argument, apparently out of a sibling rivalry of sorts going back to their childhood; Fred visits Archie for support because he is about to go into the hospital for a major operation, and the two apparently seem to patch things up between them. However, in Fred's return trip to visit Archie and Edith, he arrives with a beautiful 18-year-old wife named Katherine. This leads to a heated discussion, which erupts into argument between Archie and Fred over May–September romances, and places another strain on the relationship between Archie and Fred, who storms angrily out of the Bunker home with his teen bride.

Archie is a World War II veteran who had been based in Foggia, Italy for twenty-two months. During a visit with a doctor it is stated that he had an undistinguished military record for his non-combat ground role in the Air Corps, which at the time was a branch subordinate to the Army Air Forces.
Archie often insisted that he was a member of the Air Corps. He received the Good Conduct Medal^[13] and in the episode "Archie's Civil Rights" it is disclosed he also received the Purple Heart for being hit in his buttocks by shrapnel.

He married Edith Bunker 22 years before the first season. Later recollections of their mid-1940s courtship do not result in a consistent timeline. On the flashback episode showing Mike and Gloria's wedding, Archie indicates to Mike that his courtship of Edith lasted two years, and hints that their relationship was not consummated until a month after their wedding night. Edith elsewhere recollects that Archie fell asleep on their wedding night, and blurts out that their sex life has not been very active in recent years. On another occasion, Edith reveals Archie's history of gambling addiction, which caused problems in the early years of their marriage. Archie also reveals that when Edith was in labor with Gloria, he took her to Bayside Hospital on the Q5 bus because "the subway don't run to Bayside."

According to Edith, Archie's resentment of Mike stemmed primarily from the fact that Mike was attending college, while Archie had been forced to drop out of high school during the Great Depression to help support his family. Archie does not take advantage of the GI Bill to further his education, although he does attend night school to earn a high school diploma in 1973. Archie is also revealed to have been an outstanding baseball player in his youth; his dream was to pitch for the New York Yankees. He had to give up this dream when he left high school to enter the workforce. His uncle got him a job on a loading dock after World War II, and by the 1970s he was a foreman.

A Protestant, Archie seldom attends church, despite professing strong Christian views. The original pilot mentions that in the 22 years Archie and Edith were married, Archie had only attended church seven times (including their wedding day), and that Archie had walked out of the sermon the most recent time, disgusted with the preacher's message (which he perceived as leftist). Archie's religiosity often translates into knee-jerk opposition to atheism or agnosticism (which Mike and Gloria variously espoused), Catholicism, and, until late in the series, Judaism.

Archie is a Republican^[14] and an outspoken supporter of Richard Nixon, as well as an early (1976) supporter of Ronald Reagan, correctly predicting his election in 1980. During the Vietnam War, he dismisses peace protesters as unpatriotic, and has little good to say about the Civil Rights Movement. Despite having an adversarial relationship with his black neighbors, the Jeffersons, he forms an unlikely friendship with their son Lionel, who performs various odd jobs for the Bunkers, and tolerates Archie's patronizing racial views.

The later spinoff series 704 Hauser features a new, black family moving into Bunker's old home. The series is set in 1994, but does not indicate whether Bunker, who would be 70 by this time, is still alive. His grandson, Joey Stivic, appears briefly in the first episode of the series, but makes no statement one way or the other on this point.

Viewer reactions

Such was the name recognition and societal influence of the Bunker character that by 1972 commentators were discussing the "Archie Bunker vote" (i.e., the voting bloc comprising urban, white, working-class men) in that year's presidential election; in the same year, there was a parody election campaign, complete with T-shirts, campaign buttons, and bumper stickers, advocating "Archie Bunker for President." The character's imprint on American culture is such that Archie Bunker's name was still being used in the media in 2008, to describe a certain group of voters who voted in that year's U.S. presidential election.^[15]^[16]

Norman Lear originally intended that Bunker be strongly disliked by audiences. Lear was shocked when Bunker quietly became a beloved figure to much of middle America. Lear thought that Bunker's opinions on race, sex, marriage, and religion were so wrong as to represent a parody of right wing bigotry. Sammy Davis, Jr., who was both black and Jewish, genuinely liked the character. He felt that Bunker's bigotry was based on his rough, working-class life experiences, and that Bunker was honest and forthright in his opinions, showing an openness to changing his views if an individual treated him right. Davis in fact appeared in an episode of All in the Family.

Mindfulness in Buddhism

Sati (Buddhism)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sati (Pali^[1] Sanskrit: smṛti), translated as mindfulness or awareness is a spiritual or psychological faculty (indriya) that forms an essential part of Buddhist practice. It is one of the seven factors of enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the noble eightfold path.

Definition

The Abhidhammattha Sangaha, a key Abhidharma text from the Theravāda tradition, defines sati as follows:

The word sati derives from a root meaning 'to remember,' but as a mental factor it signifies presence of mind, attentiveness to the present, rather than the faculty of memory regarding the past. It has the characteristic of not wobbling, i.e. not floating away from the object. Its function is absence of confusion or non-forgetfulness. It is manifested as guardianship, or as the state of confronting an objective field. Its proximate cause is strong perception (thirasaññā) or the four foundations of mindfulness.^[2]

The Abhidharma-samuccaya, a key Abhidharma text from the Mahāyāna tradition, defines smṛti as follows:

What is smṛti? It is not to let what one knows slip away from one's mind. Its function is not to be distracted.^[3]

Mindfulness means not only, "moment to moment awareness of present events," but also, "remembering to be aware of something or to do something at a designated time in the future".^{[note 1]} In fact, "the primary connotation of this Sanskrit term [smrti] (and its corresponding Pali term sati) is recollection".^{[note 1]}

Translations

Translations of Mindfulness
English:	mindfulness, awareness, inspection, recollection, retention
Pali:	sati
Sanskrit:	smṛti (स्मृति)
Chinese:	nian, 念
Japanese:	念 (ネン) (rōmaji: nen)
Korean:	염 (RR: yeom or yŏm)
Tibetan:	དྲན་པ། (Wylie: dran pa; THL: trenpa/drenpa)
Vietnamese:	niệm
Glossary of Buddhism

The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. Translators rendered the Sanskrit word as trenpa in Tibetan (wylie: dran pa) and as nian 念 in Chinese.

Pali

The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".^[4] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "Correct meditation",^[5] Davids explained,

sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."^[6]

Henry Alabaster, in The Wheel of the Law: Buddhism Illustrated From Siamese Sources by the Modern Buddhist, A Life of Buddha, and an Account of the Phrabat (1871), had earlier defined "Satipatthan/Smrityupasthana" as "The act of keeping one's self mindful."^[7]

The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensee), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (ca. 1200).^[8]

John D. Dunne, an associate professor at Emory University whose current research focuses especially on the concept of "mindfulness" in both theoretical and practical contexts, asserts that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing and that a number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.^[9]

Bhikkhu Bodhi also points to the meaning of "sati" as "memory":

The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning “to remember,” and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.^[10]

Sanskrit

The Sanskrit word smṛti स्मृति (also transliterated variously as smriti, smRti, or sm'Rti) literally means "that which is remembered", and refers both to "mindfulness" in Buddhism and "a category of metrical texts" in Hinduism, considered second in authority to the Śruti scriptures.

Monier Monier-Williams's Sanskrit-English Dictionary differentiates eight meanings of smṛti स्मृति, "remembrance, reminiscence, thinking of or upon, calling to mind, memory":

memory as one of the Vyabhicāri-bhāvas [transient feelings];
Memory (personified either as the daughter of Daksha and wife of Aṅgiras or as the daughter of Dharma and Medhā);
the whole body of sacred tradition or what is remembered by human teachers (in contradistinction to Śruti or what is directly heard or revealed to the Rishis; in its widest acceptation this use of the term Smṛti includes the 6 Vedangas, the Sūtras both Śrauta and Grhya, the Manusmṛti, the Itihāsas (e.g., the Mahābhārata and Ramayana), the Puranas and the Nītiśāstras, "according to such and such a traditional precept or legal text";
the whole body of codes of law as handed down memoriter or by tradition (esp. the codes of Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti and the 16 succeeding inspired lawgivers) … all these lawgivers being held to be inspired and to have based their precepts on the Vedas;
symbolical name for the number 18 (from the 18 lawgivers above);
a kind of meter;
name of the letter g- ग्;
desire, wish^[11]

Chinese

Buddhist scholars translated smṛti with the Chinese word nian 念 "study; read aloud; think of; remember; remind". Nian is commonly used in Modern Standard Chinese words such as guannian 觀念 (观念) "concept; idea", huainian 懷念 (怀念) "cherish the memory of; think of", nianshu 念書 (念书) "read; study", and niantou 念頭 (念头) "thought; idea; intention". Two specialized Buddhist terms are nianfo 念佛 "chant the name of Buddha; pray to Buddha" and nianjing 念經 (念经) "chant/recite sutras".

This Chinese character nian 念 is composed of jin 今 "now; this" and xin 心 "heart; mind". Bernhard Karlgren graphically explains nian meaning "reflect, think; to study, learn by heart, remember; recite, read – to have 今 present to 心 the mind".^[12] The Chinese character nian or nien 念 is pronounced as Korean yeom or yŏm 염, Japanese ネン or nen, and Vietnamese niệm.

A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms gives basic translations of nian: "Recollection, memory; to think on, reflect; repeat, intone; a thought; a moment."^[13]

The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism gives more detailed translations of nian "mindfulness, memory":

Recollection (Skt. smṛti; Tib. dran pa). To recall, remember. That which is remembered. The function of remembering. The operation of the mind of not forgetting an object. Awareness, concentration. Mindfulness of the Buddha, as in Pure Land practice. In Abhidharma-kośa theory, one of the ten omnipresent factors 大地法. In Yogâcāra, one of the five 'object-dependent' mental factors 五別境;
Settled recollection; (Skt. sthāpana; Tib. gnas pa). To ascertain one's thoughts;
To think within one's mind (without expressing in speech). To contemplate; meditative wisdom;
Mind, consciousness;
A thought; a thought-moment; an instant of thought. (Skt. kṣana);
Patience, forbearance.^[14]

Alternate translations

The terms sati/smriti have been translated as:

Attention (Jack Kornfield)
Awareness
Concentrated attention (Mahasi Sayadaw)
Inspection (Herbert Guenther)
Mindfulness
Mindful attention
Self-recollection (Jack Kornfield)
Recollecting mindfulness (Alexander Berzin)
Recollection (Erik Pema Kunsang, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu)
Reflective awareness (Buddhadasa Bhikkhu)
Retention
Presence (Symran) Dav Panesar

Practice

Mindfulness, which, among other things, is an attentive awareness of the reality of things (especially of the present moment) is an antidote to delusion, and is considered as one of the 'powers' (Pali: bala) that contribute to the attainment of nirvana. This faculty becomes a power in particular when it is coupled with clear comprehension of whatever is taking place. Nirvana is a state of being in which greed, hatred and delusion (Pali: moha) have been overcome and abandoned, and are absent from the mind.

Anapanasati

Ānāpānasati (Pali; Sanskrit: ānāpānasmṛti; Chinese: 安那般那; Pīnyīn: ānnàbānnà; Sinhala: ආනා පානා සති), meaning 'mindfulness of breathing' ("sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation), is a form of Buddhist meditation now common to the Tibetan, Zen, Tiantai, and Theravada schools of Buddhism, as well as western-based mindfulness programs. Anapanasati means to feel the sensations caused by the movements of the breath in the body, as is practiced in the context of mindfulness. According to tradition, Anapanasati was originally taught by the Buddha in several sutras including the Ānāpānasati Sutta.^{[note 2]} (MN 118)

Satipaṭṭhāna

The Buddha advocated that one should establish mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna) in one's day-to-day life, maintaining as much as possible a calm awareness of one's body, feelings, mind, and dharmas. The practice of mindfulness supports analysis resulting in the arising of wisdom (Pali: paññā, Sanskrit: prajñā).^{[note 3]} A key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative stabilisation must be combined with liberating discernment.^[16]

The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Sanskrit: Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra) is an early text dealing with mindfulness.

Vipassanā

Vipassanā (Pāli) is commonly used as a synonym for vipassanā-meditation, in which satipatthana, four foundations of mindfulness or anapanasati, "mindfulness of breathing," is used to become aware of the impermanence of everything that exists. Vipassanā in the Buddhist tradition means insight into the true nature of reality.^[17]^[18]

In the Theravadin context, this entails insight into the three marks of existence, namely the impermanence of and the unsatisfactoriness of every conditioned thing that exists, and non-self. In Mahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.^[19]

Vipassanā is commonly used as one of two poles for the categorization of types of Buddhist practice, the other being samatha (Pāli; Sanskrit: śamatha).^[20] Though both terms appear in the Sutta Pitaka^{[note 4]}, Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as two separate paths originates in the earliest interpretations of the Sutta Pitaka,^[25] not in the suttas themselves.^[26]^{[note 5]} Various traditions disagree which techniques belong to which pole.^[27] According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, samatha is used as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads to liberation.

Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement, modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices,^[28] which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa

In Buddhist practice, "mindfulness" also includes samprajaña, meaning "clear comprehension" and apramāda meaning "vigilance".^[29]^{[note 6]} All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.

In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:

He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.^[30]^{[note 7]}

In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, sati and sampajañña are combined with atappa (Pali; Sanskrit: ātapaḥ), or "ardency,"^{[note 8]} and the three together comprise yoniso manisikara (Pali; Sanskrit: yoniśas manaskāraḥ), "appropriate attention" or "wise reflection."^[31]

English	Pali	Sanskrit/Nepali	Chinese	Tibetan
mindfulness/awareness	sati	smṛiti स्मृति	念 (niàn)	trenpa (wylie: dran pa)
clear comprehension	sampajañña	samprajñāna संप्रज्ञान	正知力 (zhèng zhī lì)	sheshin (wylie: shes bzhin)
vigilance/heedfulness	appamada	apramāda अप्रमाद	不放逸座 (bù fàng yì zuò)	bakyö (wylie: bag yod)
ardency	atappa	ātapaḥ आतप	勇猛 (yǒng měng)	nyima (wylie: nyi ma)
attention/engagement	manasikara	manaskāraḥ मनस्कारः	如理作意 (rú lǐ zuò yì)	yila jeypa (wylie: yid la byed pa)
foundation of mindfulness	satipaṭṭhāna	smṛtyupasthāna स्मृत्युपस्थान	念住 (niànzhù)	trenpa neybar zagpa (wylie: dran pa nye bar gzhag pa)

"Bare attention"

Georges Dreyfus has expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in Buddhist context means also "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information. Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating:

[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one’s experiences.^[32]

Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention":

Mahasi’s technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness" — the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude.^[33]

Jay Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, calling to mind and vigilantly retaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality – at least in the context of Buddhism from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.^[34]

Āgamas

The Āgamas of early Buddhism discuss ten forms of mindfulness. The Ekottara Āgama has:^[35]

mindfulness of the Buddha
mindfulness of the Dharma
mindfulness of the Sangha
mindfulness of giving
mindfulness of the heavens
mindfulness of stopping and resting
mindfulness of discipline
mindfulness of breathing
mindfulness of the body
mindfulness of death

According to Nan Huaijin, the Ekottara Āgama emphasizes mindfulness of breathing more than any of the other methods, and provides the most specific teachings on this one form of mindfulness.^[36]

Mindfulness (psychology)

Mindfulness practice, inherited from the Buddhist tradition, is being employed in psychology to alleviate a variety of mental and physical conditions, including obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, and in the prevention of relapse in depression and drug addiction.^[37]

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Friday, August 8, 2014

Gibbs free energy

Gibbs free energy

Overview

History

Graphical interpretation

Definitions

Derivation

Homogeneous systems

Gibbs free energy of reactions

Useful identities

Gibbs free energy, the second law of thermodynamics, and metabolism

Standard energy change of formation

Table of selected substances[14]

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny?

Recapitulation theory

Origins

Haeckel

Modern status

Influence

Cognitive development

Art criticism

Archie Bunker

Archie Bunker

Character traits

Character biography

Viewer reactions

Mindfulness in Buddhism

Sati (Buddhism)

Definition

Translations

Pali

Sanskrit

Chinese

Alternate translations

Practice

Anapanasati

Satipaṭṭhāna

Vipassanā

Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa

"Bare attention"

Āgamas

Mindfulness (psychology)

Child abandonment

Table of selected substances^[14]