From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indigenous education specifically focuses on teaching indigenous
knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal or non-formal
educational systems. The growing recognition and use of indigenous
education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of
indigenous knowledge through the processes of colonialism,
globalization, and modernity.
Indigenous communities are able to "reclaim and revalue their languages
and [traditions], and in so doing, improve the educational success of
indigenous students", thus ensuring their survival as a culture.
Principal
Sha (also 6th grade teacher) of the Yangjuan Primary School in Yanyuan
County, Sichuan looks over his student's essays about the schoolyard.
Increasingly, there has been a global shift toward recognizing and
understanding indigenous models of education as a viable and legitimate
form of education. There are many different educational systems
throughout the world, some that are more predominant and widely
accepted. However, members of indigenous communities celebrate diversity
in learning and see this global support for teaching traditional forms
of knowledge as a success. Indigenous ways of knowing, learning,
instructing, teaching, and training have been viewed by many postmodern
scholars as important for ensuring that students and teachers, whether
indigenous or non-indigenous, are able to benefit from education in a
culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes, and
enhances awareness of indigenous traditions, beyond the standard Western
curriculum of reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Cultural context of indigenous learning in the Americas
A growing body of scientific literature has described indigenous ways
of learning, in different cultures and countries. Learning in
indigenous communities is a process that
involves all members in the community.
The learning styles that children use in their indigenous
schooling are the same ones that occur in their community context. These
indigenous learning styles often include:
observation,
imitation, use of
narrative/
storytelling,
collaboration, and
cooperation, as seen among American Indian, Alaska Native and Latin American communities.
This is a hands on approach that emphasizes direct experience and
learning through inclusion.The child feels that they are a vital member
of the community, and they are encouraged to participate in a meaningful
way by community members. Children often effectively learn skills through this system, without being taught explicitly or in a formal manner.
This differs from Western learning styles, which tend to include
methods such as explicit instruction in which a figure of authority
directs the learner's attention, and
testing/
quizzing. Creating an educational environment for indigenous children that is
consistent with upbringing, rather than an education that follows a
traditionally Western format, allows for a child to retain knowledge
more easily, because they are learning in a way that was encouraged from
infancy within their family and community.
Traditional Western methods of education generally disregard the
importance indigenous cultures and environmental contributions, which
results in a lack of relevance for students of aboriginal backgrounds.
Modern schools have a tendency to teach skills stripped of context
which has a detrimental impact on Indigenous students because they
thrive off educational environments in which their cultures and
languages are respected and infused in learning.
Various aspects of Indigenous culture need to be considered when
discussing Indigenous learning, such as: content (how culture is
portrayed in text and through language), social culture/ interactions
(relations between class interactions and interactions within Indigenous
communities), and cognitive culture (differences in worldview,
spiritual understandings, practical knowledge, etc.).
Classroom structure
The
structure of indigenous American classrooms that reflect the
organization of indigenous communities eliminates the distinction
between the community and classroom and makes it easier for the students
to relate to the material.
Effective classrooms modeled off of the social structure of indigenous
communities are typically focused on group or cooperative learning that
provide an inclusive environment.
A key factor for successful indigenous education practices is the
student-teacher relationship. Classrooms are socially constructed in a
way that the teacher shares the control of the classroom with the
students. Rather than taking an authoritative role, the teacher is
viewed as a co-learner to the students, and they maintain a balance
between personal warmth and demand for academic achievement. For example, in an indigenous
Mazahua
community in Mexico, teachers have been observed to let their students
move freely about the classroom while working in order to consult with
other students, as well as using their instructors for occasional
guidance.
Teachers in indigenous classrooms in a
Yup'ik
community in Alaska rely on group work, encourage the students to watch
each other as a way to learn, and avoid singling out students for
praise, criticism, or recitation.
Praise, by Western standards, is minimal in indigenous classrooms, and
when it is given it is for effort, not for providing a correct answer to
a question. Classroom discourse in indigenous classrooms is an example
of how the teacher shares control with the students. Observations in the
Yup'ik and Mazahua communities show that indigenous teachers are less
likely to solicit an answer from an individual student, but rather
encourage all of the students to participate in classroom discourse.
In the Yup'ik classroom direct questions are posed to the group as
whole, and the control of talk is not the sole responsibility of the
teacher. Classrooms in indigenous communities that incorporate
indigenous ways of learning utilize open-ended questioning,
inductive/analytical reasoning, and student participation and
verbalization, in group settings.
Escuela Unitaria (One-room one-teacher)
Escuela
Unitaria is a one-room one-teacher style of schooling that is used in
some rural communities, which utilizes ways of learning common in some
indigenous or indigenous-heritage communities in the Americas. The
school serves up to six grades in a single classroom setting with
smaller groups (divided by grade level) in the classroom.
Community involvement is strongly implemented in the management of the
school. Learning activities are not just inside the classroom but also
outside in the agricultural environment. Children are self-instructed
and the content involves the students' rural community and family
participation. The school is structured to meet cultural needs and match
available resources.
This classroom setting allows for a collaborative learning environment
that includes the teacher, the students, and the community. Integration
of cultural knowledge within the curriculum allows students to
participate actively and to have a say in the responsibilities for
classroom activities.
Spirituality
Indigenous students make meaning of what they learn through spirituality.
Spirituality in learning involves students making connections between
morals, values and intellect rather than simply acquiring knowledge. Knowledge to Indigenous people is personal and involves emotions, culture, traditional skills, nature, etc. For this reason, Indigenous students need time to make connections in
class, and often benefit from a safe and respectful environment that
encourages discussions among students.
Holistic Approach to Learning
Holistic education
focuses on the "whole picture" and how concepts and ideas are
interrelated, then analyzes and makes meaning of certain ideas. This
form of education is beneficial for all students, expecially Indigenous
students. Traditionally, Indigenous forms of learning were/ are
holistic in nature, focusing in interconnections with context
(especially culture,nature, and experiences).
Indigenous American ways of learning
Indigenous
edcuation involve: oral traditions (such as listening, watching,
imitating), group work, apprenticeship, and high levels of cultural
context.
Additionally, knowledge to Indigneous people is sacred, centers on the
idea that each students constructs knowledge individually and is rooted
in experience and culture. Learning is beilieved to be life-long and involves a unique sense of
self identity and passion, as well as focuses on the importance of
community survival and contributions to life and community
sustainability.
The Indigneous ways of learning occure when diverse perspectives are
interconnected though spiritual, holistice, experiential and
transformative methods. The optimal learning environment for Indigenous students incorporates:
the land (and traditional skills); Indigenous languages, traditions,
cultures and, people (self, family, elders, and community), and
spirituality.
Active Participation
In
many indigenous communities of the Americas, children often begin to
learn through their eagerness to be active participants in their
communities. Through this, children feel incorporated as valued members
when given the opportunity to contribute to everyday social and cultural
activities .
For example, in a traditional village in Yucatán, Mexico, great
importance is placed on engaging in mature activities to help children
learn how to participate and contribute appropriately. Adults rarely
force children to contribute; rather, they provide children with a great
range of independence in deciding what to do with their time.
Therefore, children are likely to demonstrate that they want to be a
productive member of the community because they have been a part of a
social, collaborative culture that views everyday work as something that
everyone can partake and help in.
A main model of learning is to incorporate children in various
activities where they are expected to be active contributors. The
different forms of activities can vary from momentary interactions to
broad societal foundations and how those complement their community's
traditions.
In Maya Belize culture, girls as young as four can work alongside their
mothers when washing clothes in the river – rather than being given
verbal instructions, they observe keenly, imitate to the best of their
ability, and understand that their inclusion is crucial to the
community.
Rather than being separated and directed away from the mature work, the
indigenous heritage children are expected to observe and pitch in.
Indigenous communities in the Americas emphasize the ability for
community members of all ages to be able to collaborate. In this kind of
environment, children learn not only how to participate alongside
others, but are also likely to demonstrate an eagerness to contribute as
a part of their community. Integration of younger and older children
provides the opportunity for different levels of observation, listening,
and participation to occur [Rogoff et al. (2010)]. Soon after or even
during an activity, children are often seen to take it upon themselves
to participate in the same previous social and cultural activities that
they observed and participated in .
By encouraging child immersion in activities rather than specifically
asking for their participation, children have the freedom to construct
their own knowledge with self-motivation to continue cultural practices
alongside others.
Children in many indigenous cultures of the Americas actively
participate and contribute to their community and family activities by
observing and pitching in (link to LOPI page) while informally learning
to socialize and gaining a sense of responsibility amongst other skills.
A mother reported that being an active participant in everyday
activities provides children with the opportunity to gain direction in
learning and working that other environments may not provide.
For instance, 15-year-old Josefina and her family own a small
restaurant in an Indigenous community in Nocutzepo, Mexico where the
entire family collaborates to ensure the restaurant functions smoothly.
This includes everyone from the grandmother who tends to the fire for
cooking to 5-year-old Julia who contributes by carrying the pieces of
firewood. Josefina is one of the seven family members that pitches in
towards the family food stand. Through observation and listening, she
learned that the food stand was the family's main source of income.
Overtime, Josefina took it upon herself to pitch in and take over the
food stand, thus learning responsibility, cooperation, and commitment.
Nobody instructed or demanded her to help with the family business, but
she learned the community's expectations and way of living.
The inclusive and welcoming environment of the marketplace setting
encourages children to participate in everyday social practices and take
initiative to learn about their culture, facilitating communal
collaboration.
Motivation
In Indigenous American communities, the inclusion of children in
communal activities
motivates them to engage with their social world, helping them to develop a sense of belonging. Active participation involves children undertaking initiative and acting autonomously.
Similarly, Learning by Observing and Pitching In (LOPI) supports informal learning which generates self-sovereignty.
The combination of children's inclusion, development of independence,
and initiative for contribution are common elements identified in
Indigenous American ways of learning.
Education in Indigenous communities is primarily based on joint engagement in which children are motivated to
"pitch-in" in collective activities through developing solidarity within family, resulting in reciprocal bonds. Learning is viewed as an act of meaningful and productive work, not as a separate activity.
When asked to self-report about their individual contributions,
Indigenous Mexican heritage children placed emphasis on the community
rather than on individual role. Their contributions emphasized
collaboration and mutual responsibility within the community.
A study was conducted with children who had immigrated from indigenous
communities in rural Mexico. The children were less likely to view
activities that Westernized culture regarded as "chores" to be a type of
work. These children felt that activities such as taking care of
siblings, cooking, and assisting in cleaning were activities that help
the family.
When asked how they viewed participation in household work, children
from two Mexican cities reported they contribute because it is a shared
responsibility of everyone in the family. They further reported that
they want to pitch in to the work because helping and contributing
allows them to be more integrated in ongoing family and community
activities.
Many Mexican-heritage children also reported being proud of their
contributions, while their families reported the contributions of
children are valued by everyone involved.
Learning through collaborative work is often correlated with
children learning responsibility. 2. Many children in Indigenous Yucatec
families often attempt and are expected to help around their homes
with household endeavors. It is common to see children offer their help
off of the their own accord, such as Mari, an 18 month old child from an
indigenous family watched her mother clean the furniture with a
designated cleaning leaf. Mari then took it upon herself to pick a leaf
from a nearby bush and attempted to scrub the furniture as well.
Although Mari was not using the proper type of leaf, by attempting to
assist in cleaning the furniture, she demonstrated that she wanted to
help in a household activity. Mari’s mother supported and encouraged
Mari’s participation by creating an environment where she is able to
pitch in, even if not in a completely accurate manner. Parents often
offer guidance and support in Indigenous American cultures when the
child needs it—as they believe this encourages children to be
self-motivated and responsible.
Children from indigenous communities of the Americas are likely
to pitch in and collaborate freely without being asked or instructed to
do so. For example, P’urepecha children whose mothers followed more
traditional indigenous ways of living demonstrated significantly more
independent collaboration when playing Chinese checkers than
middle-class children whose mothers had less involvement in indigenous
practices of the Americas.
Similarly, when mothers from the Mayan community of San Pedro were
instructed to construct a 3-D jigsaw puzzle with their children, mothers
who practiced traditional indigenous culture showed more cooperative
engagements with their children than mothers with less traditional
practices.
These studies exemplify the idea that children from families that
practice traditional indigenous American cultures are likely to exhibit a
motivation to collaborate without instruction. Therefore, being in an
environment where collaboration is emphasized, serves as an example for
children in Indigenous American communities to pitch in out of their own
self-motivation and eagerness to contribute.
Assessment
In many indigenous communities of the Americas, children rely on
assessment
to master a task. Assessment can include the evaluation of oneself, as
well as evaluation from external influences, like parents, family
members, or community members. Assessment involves
feedback
given to learners from their support; this can be through acceptance,
appreciation or correction. The purpose of assessment is to assist the
learner as they actively participate in their activity. While
contributing in the activity, children are constantly evaluating their
learning progress based on the feedback of their support. With this
feedback, children modify their behavior in mastering their task.
In the Mexican Indigenous heritage community of Nocutzepo, there
is available feedback to a learner by observing the results of their
contribution and by observing if their support accepted or corrected
them. For example, a 5-year-old girl shapes and cooks tortillas with her
mother, when the girl would make irregular tortilla shapes her mother
would focus her daughter's attention to an aspect of her own shaping. By
doing this, the young girl would imitate her mother's movements and
improve her own skills. Feedback given by the mother helped the young
girl evaluate her own work and correct it.
In traditional
Chippewa
culture, assessment and feedback are offered in variety of ways.
Generally, Chippewa children are not given much praise for their
contributions. On occasion, the parents offer assessment through rewards
given to the child. These rewards are given as feedback for work well
done, and come in the form of a toy carved out of wood, a doll of grass,
or maple sugar. When children do not meet expectations, and fail in
their contributions, Chippewa parents make sure not to use ridicule as a
means of assessment. The Chippewa also recognize the harmful effects of
excessive scolding to a child's learning process. Chippewa parents
believes that scolding a child too much would "make them worse", and
holds back the child's ability to learn.
For the Chillihuani community in
Peru,
parents bring up children in a manner that allows them to grow maturely
with values like responsibility and respect. These values ultimately
influence how children learn in this community. Parents from the
Chillihuani community offer assessment of their children through praise,
even if the child's contribution is not perfect. Additionally, feedback
can come in the form of responsibility given for a difficult task, with
less supervision. This responsibility is an important aspect of the
learning process for children in Chillihuani because it allows them
advance their skills. At only five years old, children are expected to
herd
sheep,
alpaca and
llamas
with the assistance of an older sibling or adult relative. By age 8,
children take on the responsibility of herding alone even in unfavorable
weather conditions. Children are evaluated in terms of their ability to
handle difficult tasks and then complemented on a job well done by
their parents. This supports the learning development of the child's
skills, and encourages their continued contributions.
Criticisms of the Western educational model
As
mentioned above, there has been a modern-day global shift towards
recognizing the importance of indigenous education. One reason for this
current awareness is the rapid spread of Western educational models
throughout the world. Starting in the 19th century when Native Americans
were forced into U.S. government boarding schools up until today when
volunteers build schools in various remote villages, there is a strong,
and some might say blind, belief that a Western education or schooling
is the only way to provide a "better life" for indigenous children.
Throughout history, Indigenous people have experienced, and continue
many negative interactions Western society (for example, the Canadian
Residential School System), which has lead to the oppression and marginalization of Indigenous people.
The film "Schooling the World: The White Man's Last Burden" addresses
this issue of modern education and its destruction of unique, indigenous
cultures and individuals' identities. Shot in the Buddhist culture of
Ladakh in the northern Indian Himalayas, the film fuses the voices of
the Ladakhi people and commentary from an anthropologist/ethnobotanist, a
National Geographical Explorer-in-Residence, and an architect of
education programs. In essence, the film examines the definitions of
wealth and poverty, in other words, knowledge and ignorance.
Furthermore, it reveals the effects of trying to institute a global
education system or central learning authority, which can ultimately
demolish "traditional sustainable agricultural and ecological knowledge,
in the breakup of extended families and communities, and in the
devaluation of ancient spiritual traditions."
Finally, the film promotes a deeper dialogue between cultures,
suggesting that there is no single way to learn. No two human beings are
alike because they develop under different circumstances, learning, and
education.
The director and editor of the film Carol Black writes, "One of
the most profound changes that occurs when modern schooling is
introduced into traditional societies around the world is a radical
shift in the locus of power and control over learning from children,
families, and communities to ever more centralized systems of
authority."
Black continues by explaining that in many non-modernized societies,
children learn in a variety of ways, including free play or interaction
with multiple children, immersion in nature, and directly helping adults
with work and communal activities.
"They learn by experience, experimentation, trial and error, by
independent observation of nature and human behavior, and through
voluntary community sharing of information, story, song, and ritual."
Most importantly, local elders and traditional knowledge systems are
autonomous in comparison to a strict Western education model. Adults
have little control over children's "moment-to-moment movements and
choices."
Once learning is institutionalized, both the freedom of the individual
and his/her respect for the elder's wisdom are ruined. "Family and
community are sidelined…The teacher has control over the child, the
school district has control over the teacher, the state has control over
the district, and increasingly, systems of national standards and
funding create national control over states."
When indigenous knowledge is seen as inferior to a standard school
curriculum, an emphasis is placed on an individual's success in a
broader consumer culture instead of on an ability to survive in his/her
own environment. Black concludes with a comment, "We assume that this
central authority, because it is associated with something that seems
like an unequivocal good – 'education' – must itself be fundamentally
good, a sort of benevolent dictatorship of the intellect."
From a Western perspective, centralized control over learning is
natural and consistent with the principles of freedom and democracy; and
yet, it is this same centralized system or method of discipline that
does not take into account the individual, which in the end stamps out
local cultures.
Colonialism & Western methods of Learning
The
education system in the Americas reinforces western cultures, prior
knowledge and learning experiences which leads to the marginalization
and oppression of various other cultures.
By teaching students primarily through European perspectives, this
results in non-European students believing they cannot learn or that
their cultures have not contributed to the knowledge of societies.
Often, Indigenous students resist learning because they do not want to
be oppressed or labeled as 'incapable of learning' due to neo-colonial
knowledge and teaching. The act of
Decolonization
would greatly benefit indigenous students and other marginalized
students because it involves the deconstruction of engagement with the
values, beliefs and habits of Europeans.
Benefits
For
indigenous learners and instructors, the inclusion of these methods into
schools often enhances educational effectiveness by providing an
education that adheres to an indigenous person's own inherent
perspectives, experiences, language, and customs, thereby making it
easier for children to transition into the realm of adulthood.
For non-indigenous students and teachers, such an education often has
the effect of raising awareness of individual and collective traditions
surrounding indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting
greater respect for and appreciation of various cultural realities.
In terms of educational content, the inclusion of indigenous
knowledge within curricula, instructional materials, and textbooks has
largely the same effect on preparing students for the greater world as
other educational systems, such as the Western model.
There is value in including Indigenous knowledge and education in
the public school system. Students of all backgrounds can benefit from
being exposed to Indigenous education, as it can contribute to reducing
racism in the classroom and increase the sense of community in a
diverse group of students.
There are a number of sensitive issues about what can be taught (and
by whom) that require responsible consideration by non-Indigenous
teachers who appreciate the importance of interjecting Indigenous
perspectives into standard mainstream schools. Concerns about
misappropriation of Indigenous ways of knowing without recognizing the
plight of Indigenous Peoples and "giving back" to them are legitimate.
Since most educators are non-Indigenous, and because Indigenous
perspectives may offer solutions for current and future social and
ecological problems, it is important to refer to Indigenous educators
and agencies to develop curriculum and teaching strategies while at the
same time encouraging activism on behalf of Indigenous Peoples. One way
to bring authentic Indigenous experiences into the classroom is to work
with community elders. They can help facilitate the incorporation of authentic knowledge and experiences into the classroom.
Teachers must not shy away from bringing controversial subjects into
the classroom. The history of Indigenous people should be delved into
and developed fully.
There are many age appropriate ways to do this, including the use of
children's literature, media, and discussion. Individuals are
recommended to reflect regularly on their teaching practice to become
aware of areas of instruction in need of Indigenous perspectives.
21st Century Skills
Incorporating
Indigenous ways of learning into educational practices has potential to
benefit both Indigenous and non-Indigenous learners. The
21st century skills
needed in modern curriculum include: collaboration, creativity,
innovation, problem-solving, inquiry, multicultural literacy, etc.
Indigenous ways of learning incorporate all these skills through
experiental and holistic methods. Additionally, aboriginal education
styles align with 21st century skills though involving teachers and
students as co-constructors of education, and by valuing the
interconectidness of conent and contex.
Educational gap
Some
indigenous people view education as an important tool to improve their
situation by pursuing economic, social and cultural development; it
provides them with individual empowerment and self-determination.
Education is also a means for employment; it's a way for socially
marginalized people to raise themselves out of poverty. However, some
education systems and curricula lack knowledge about indigenous peoples
ways of learning, causing an Educational Gap for indigenous people. Factors for the Education Gap include lower school enrollments, poor
school performance, low literacy rates, and higher dropout rates.
Some schools teach indigenous children to be "socialized" and to be a
national asset to society by assimilating, "Schooling has been
explicitly and implicitly a site of rejection of indigenous knowledge
and language, it has been used as a means of assimilating and
integrating indigenous peoples into a 'national' society and identity at
the cost of their indigenous identity and social practices".
Intercultural learning is an example of how to build a bridge for the educational gap.
Other factors that contribute to the Education Gap in Indigenous
cultures are socioeconomic disadvantage, which includes access to
healthcare, employment, incarceration rates, and housing. According to
the Australian Government Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet
in their 2015 Closing the Gap Report, the country is not on track to
halve the gap in reading, writing and numeracy achievements for
Indigenous students. The government reported that there had been no
overall improvement in Indigenous reading and numeracy since 2008.
Importance
Indigenous
knowledge is particularly important to modern environmental management
in today's world. Environmental and land management strategies
traditionally used by indigenous peoples have continued relevance.
Indigenous cultures usually live in a particular bioregion for many
generations and have learned how to live there sustainably. In modern
times, this ability often puts truly indigenous cultures in a unique
position of understanding the interrelationships, needs, resources, and
dangers of their bioregion. This is not true of indigenous cultures that
have been eroded through colonialism or genocide or that have been
displaced.
The promotion of indigenous methods of education and the
inclusion of traditional knowledge also enables those in Western and
post-colonial societies to re-evaluate the inherent hierarchy of
knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledge systems were historically
denigrated by Western educators; however, there is a current shift
towards recognizing the value of these traditions. The inclusion of
aspects of indigenous education requires us to acknowledge the existence
of multiple forms of knowledge rather than one, standard, benchmark
system.
A prime example of how indigenous methods and content can be used
to promote the above outcomes is demonstrated within higher education
in Canada. Due to certain jurisdictions' focus on enhancing academic
success for Aboriginal learners and promoting the values of
multiculturalism in society, the inclusion of indigenous methods and
content in education is often seen as an important obligation and duty
of both governmental and educational authorities.
Many scholars in the field assert that indigenous education and
knowledge has a "transformative power" for indigenous communities that
can be used to foster "empowerment and justice."
The shift to recognizing indigenous models of education as legitimate
forms is therefore important in the ongoing effort for indigenous
rights, on a global scale.
Implications for Teachers
Educators
need to fostera respectful learning environment that promotes
confidence and oppennes as well as an authentic dialogue to help
students come to understand content through spirituality and cultural
infusion.
It is also imporant for educators to realize that time is crucial for
students to connect intellect, spirituality and the their understanding
of the physical world.
Many educators have stated that educational programs do not prepare
them with enough support and materials for affectively teaching
Indigenous students.
Therefore, it is important for educators to seek out ongoing teach
development programs directed toward improving teaching so that
marginalized groups do not suffer.
Challenges (as seen with the Na)
There
are numerous practical challenges to the implementation of indigenous
education. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into formal Western
education models can prove difficult. However, the discourse surrounding
indigenous education and knowledge suggests that integrating indigenous
methods into traditional modes of schooling is an "ongoing process of
'cultural negotiation.'"
Indigenous education often takes different forms than a typical
Western model, as the practices of the Na ethnic group of southwest
China illustrate. Because Na children learn through example, traditional
Na education is less formal than the standard Western model. In
contrast to structured hours and a classroom setting, learning takes
places throughout the day, both in the home and in adults' workplaces.
Based on the belief that children are "fragile, soulless beings", Na
education focuses on nurturing children rather than on punishing them.
Children develop an understanding of cultural values, such as speech
taboos and the "reflection" of individual actions "on the entire
household." Playing games teaches children about their natural surroundings and
builds physical and mental acuity. Forms of indigenous knowledge,
including weaving, hunting, carpentry, and the use of medicinal plants,
are passed on from adult to child in the workplace, where children
assist their relatives or serve as apprentices for several years.
However, increasing modernity is a challenge to such modes of
instruction. Some types of indigenous knowledge are dying out because of
decreased need for them and a lack of interest from youth, who
increasingly leave the village for jobs in the cities. Furthermore,
formal Chinese state schooling "interferes with informal traditional
learning."
Children must travel a distance from their villages to attend state
schools, removing them from traditional learning opportunities in the
home and workplace. The curriculum in state schools is standardized
across China and holds little relevance to the lives of the Na. Na
children are required to learn Mandarin Chinese, Chinese and global
history, and Han values, as opposed to their native language, local
history, and indigenous values. Methods of instruction rely on rote
learning rather than experiential learning, as employed in Na villages.
Several individuals and organizations pay for children's school
fees and build new schools in an attempt to increase village children's
access to education. Yet such well-intended actions do not affect the
schools' curriculum, which means there is no improvement in the
sustainability of the children's native cultures. As a result, such actions may actually "be contributing to the demise of the very culture" they are trying to preserve.
Associated organizations
Many
organizations work to promote indigenous methods of education. The
United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples makes
particular reference to the educational rights of indigenous peoples in
Article 14.
It emphasizes the responsibility of states to adequately provide access
to education for indigenous people, particularly children, and when
possible, for education to take place within their own culture and to be
delivered in their own language.
Indigenous peoples have founded and actively run several of these
organizations. On a global scale, many of these organizations engage in
active knowledge transfer in an effort to protect and promote
indigenous knowledge and education modes. One such organization, the
Indigenous Education Institute (IEI), aims to apply indigenous knowledge
and tradition to a contemporary context, with a particular focus on
astronomy and other science disciplines.
Another such organization is the World Indigenous Nations Higher
Education Consortium (WINHEC), which was launched during the World
Indigenous Peoples Conference on Education (WIPCE) at Delta Lodge,
Kananakis Calgary in Alberta, Canada in August 2002.
The founding members were Australia, Hawai'i, Alaska, the American
Indian Higher Education Consortium of the United States, Canada, the
Wänanga of Aotearoa (New Zealand), and Saamiland (North Norway).
The stated aims of WINHEC include the provision of an international
forum for indigenous peoples to pursue common goals through higher
education.
