Counter-jihad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-jihad

Counter-jihad, also spelled counterjihad and known as the counter-jihad movement, is a self-titled political current loosely consisting of authors, bloggers, think tanks, street movements and campaign organisations all linked by a common belief that the Western world is being subjected to invasion and takeover by Muslims. Several academic accounts have presented conspiracy theory as a key component of the counter-jihad movement. On a day-to-day level, it seeks to generate outrage at perceived Muslim crimes.

While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s, it did not gain significant momentum until after the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the 7 July 2005 London bombings. As far back as 2006, online commentators such as Fjordman were identified as playing a key role in forwarding the nascent counter-jihad ideology. The movement received considerable attention following the lone wolf attacks by right-wing extremist Anders Behring Breivik whose manifesto extensively reproduced the writings of prominent counter-jihad bloggers, and following the emergence of prominent street movements such as the English Defence League (EDL). The movement has been variously described as pro-Israel, anti-Islamic, Islamophobic, inciting hatred against Muslims, and far-right.

The movement has adherents both in Europe and in North America. The European wing is more focused on the alleged cultural threat to European traditions stemming from immigrant Muslim populations, while the American wing emphasizes an alleged external threat, essentially terrorist in nature.

Overview

Counter-jihad is a transatlantic "radical right" wing movement that, via "the sharing of ideas between Europeans and Americans and daily linking between blogs and websites on both sides of the Atlantic", "calls for a counterjihad against the supposed Islamisation of Europe". While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s, it did not gain significant momentum until after the September 11 attacks in 2001.

The authors of Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse describe the movement as heavily relying on two key tactics. "The first is arguing that the most radical Muslims – men like Osama bin Laden – are properly interpreting the Quran, while peaceful moderate Muslims either do not understand their own holy book or are strategically faking their moderation. The second key tactic is to relentlessly attack individuals and organizations that purport to represent moderate Islam...painting them as secret operatives in a grand Muslim scheme to destroy the West."

Benjamin Lee describes the "counter-jihad scene" as one where "Europe and the United States are under threat from an aggressive and politicized Islamic world that is attempting to take over Europe through a process of "Islamification" with the eventual aim of imposing Sharia law. In this process, the threat is characterized by the perceived removal of Christian or Jewish symbols, the imposition of Islamic traditions, and the creation of no-go areas for non-Muslims. The construction of mosques in particular is seen as continued reinforcement of the separation of the Muslim population from the wider populous. As strong as the threatening practices of Muslims in descriptions of the counter jihad are images of a powerless Europe in decline and sliding into decadence, unable to resist Islamic takeover. The idea that European culture in particular is in a state of decline, while a spiritually vigorous East represented by Islam is in the ascendancy in civil society, is a common sentiment in some circles."

Two central counter-jihad themes have been identified:

• the notion that Islam poses a threat to "Western civilisation", with a particular focus on "Muslims living in Europe", that is, within the European Counterjihad Movement (ECJM), "seen predominantly in terms of immigration", particularly Muslim immigration.
• a lack of trust in regional, political and economic "elites", with a particular focus against the European Union (EU).
  

Counter-jihad movement

Paul Beliën, member of the board of directors of the International Free Press Society (IFPS) and the editor of Counterjihad blog The Brussels Journal

 

One of the first organizations of the Counter-jihad movement [CJM], the 910 Group was founded in 2006 and announced on Gates of Vienna, "a principal blog of the CJM since 2004." Its stated purpose was to defend "liberties, human rights, and religious and political freedoms [that] are under assault from extremist groups who believe in Islamist supremacy." By April 2007, the counter-jihad current became visible as a movement operating in northwestern Europe after a "counter-jihad summit", organised by a transatlantic network of anti-Islam bloggers, was held in Copenhagen, Denmark.

In October 2007 a second summit Counterjihad Brussels 2007, was hosted by the Belgian, Flemish-nationalist party Vlaams Belang in the European Parliament building in Brussels, Belgium. This conference has been regarded as a crucial event in the movement's history and featured "keynote speakers" Bat Ye'or and David Littman followed by "country reports" from "delegates" Paul Beliën and Filip Dewinter (Vlaams Belang, Belgium), Stefan Herre (PI blog, Germany), Nidra Poller (Pajamas Media blog, France), Gerard Batten (UK Independence Party, UK), Ted Ekeroth (Swedish Democrats, Sweden), Lars Hedegaard (International Free Press Society, Denmark), Jens Tomas Anfindsen (HonestThinking blog, Norway), Kenneth Sikorski (Tundra Tabloids blog, Finland), Johannes Jansen (Holland), Adriana Bolchini Gaigher (Lisistrata blog, Italy), Traian Ungureanu (Romania), Elisabeth Sabaditsch-Wolff (Austria), Matyas Zmo (Czech Republic), with further speeches by Arieh Eldad (Moledet, Israel). Patrick Sookhdeo (Institute for the Study of Islam and Christianity, Barnabas Fund, UK), Dr Marc Cogen (Professor of International Law, Vesalius College, Belgium), Sam Solomon (Islamic Affairs Consultant, Christian Concern), Robert Spencer (Jihad Watch, David Horowitz Freedom Center), Andrew Bostom, and Laurent Artur du Plessis.

A March 2012 counter-jihad conference in Denmark drew 200–300 supporters from throughout Europe. Ten times the number of left-wing protesters staged a counter-demonstration. The 2012 conference in Denmark, was alleged by its organisers, the English Defence League to mark the starting point of a pan-European movement. There have been no CJM conferences since 2013, pointing to a decline in the movement.

Organization

Blogs such as Gates of Vienna, Jihad Watch, Atlas Shrugs, Politically Incorrect, The Brussels Journal are central to the transatlantic Counter-jihad movement (TCJM). Notable figures include: the editors of these blogs, respectively Edward 'Ned' May (pseudonym Baron Bodissey), Robert Spencer; Pamela Geller; Stefan Herre; and Paul Beliën. Notable writers in the Counter-jihad movement are Bat Ye'or, David Horowitz and Fjordman.

Think tanks such as the International Free Press Society and the David Horowitz Freedom Center have had an important role in providing funds and establishing international links. In time, a network of formal organisations has been established, with its main centres in Europe and the United States. A transatlantic umbrella organisation SION was established in 2012.

The International Free Press Society lists representatives from many parts of the counter-jihad spectrum on its board of advisors. Eurabia theorist Bat Ye'Or is on the board of advisors, while owner of the blog Gates of Vienna, Edward S. May, serves as outreach co-ordinator on its board of directors.

American Counter-jihad movement

Robert Spencer, joint leader of Stop Islamization of America and editor of counter-jihad blog Jihad Watch

 

The U.S.-based Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) is led by Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer, as a programme under their American Freedom Defense Initiative (AFDI). According to the AFDI website, the initiative aims, among other activities, to:

• Create state organizations that work towards the initiative's aims at a local level
• Organize grass root small groups at the local level to fight what it labels "specific Islamic supremacist initiatives" in American cities
• Build strategic alliances with activist groups in Europe and Israel to engage in open and stealthy counter jihad measures
• Promote candidates who "fight against the march of Islamic supremacists"
• Host conferences "that educate Americans about Leftist indoctrination and Islam’s quest for domination"

SIOA has been accused by the Anti-Defamation League of

promot[ing] a conspiratorial anti-Muslim agenda under the guise of fighting radical Islam. The group seeks to rouse public fears by consistently vilifying the Islamic faith and asserting the existence of an Islamic conspiracy to destroy "American" values.

In 2010, a group dubbed "Team B II", patterned after the anti-communist 1970s Team B, published a report titled "Shariah: The Threat to America" which has been cited as influencing the movement's discourse and the public's perception.

With the election of Donald Trump to the United States presidency in 2017, some have claimed that the American wing has achieved some influence in the US administration.

European Counter-Jihad Movement

The umbrella organization, Stop Islamisation of Europe, was founded by Anders Gravers Pedersen, who also sits on the board of the Stop Islamisation of Nations. There are numerous affiliated "Stop the islamisation of..." and "Defense Leagues" in several European countries, among them Stop Islamisation of Denmark, Stop Islamisation of Norway, and the English Defence League. 

Counter-jihad ideology

In the words of Toby Archer, a scholar of political extremism and terrorism,

"Counter-jihad discourse mixes valid concerns about jihad-inspired terrorism with far more complex political issues about immigration to Europe from predominantly Muslim countries. It suggests that there is a threat not just from terrorism carried out by Islamic extremists but from Islam itself. Therefore, by extension, all European Muslims are a threat."

Arun Kundnani, in a report published by the International Centre for Counter-terrorism, writes that the counter-jihad movement has evolved from earlier European far-right movements through a shift from race to values as identity markers: "In moving from neo‐Nazism to counter‐jihadism, the underlying structure of the narrative remains the same." Continuing on this note, he writes that comparing the counter-jihadist worldview to the older, neo-nazi one, "Muslims have taken the place of blacks and multiculturalists are the new Jews." According to prominent counter-jihadist Edward S. May, writing under the pseudonym Baron Bodissey, the counter-jihadist movement is based on the belief that

"Islam is above all a totalitarian political ideology, sugar-coated with the trappings of a primitive desert religion to help veil its true nature. The publicly stated goal of Islamic theology and political ideology is to impose the rule of Islam over the entire world, and make it part of Dar al-Islam, the 'House of Submission'."

Cas Mudde argues that various conspiracy theories with roots in Bat Ye'Or's Eurabia are important to the movement. The main theme of these theories is an allegation that European leaders allow a Muslim dominance of Europe, whether by intention or not, through multicultural policies and lax immigration laws. According to Hope not Hate, counter-jihad discourse has replaced the racist discourse of rightwing, populist and nationalist politics in America and Europe "with the language of cultural and identity wars".

English Defence League rally in Newcastle, UK, 2010

 

Toby Archer detects a difference between the European and American wings of the movement. The American wing emphasizes an external threat, essentially terrorist in nature. The European wing sees a cultural threat to European traditions stemming from immigrant Muslim populations. While Archer notes that the perceived failure of multi-culturalism is shared across much of the political spectrum, he argues the counter-jihad movement is a particular conservative manifestation of this trend. He acknowledges the movement’s conservative defense of human rights and the rule of law but he believes by rejecting progressive policy it rejects much of what Europe is today.

The views of the counter-jihad movement have been criticized as a source of support for the anti-Muslim views of individuals inspired to take violent direct action. Anders Behring Breivik, responsible for the 2011 Norway attacks, published a manifesto explaining his views which drew heavily on the work of counter-jihad bloggers such as Fjordman. Daniel Pipes argues that a “close reading of his manifesto suggests” that Breivik wanted to discredit and undermine the movement's dedication to democratic change to further Breivik’s “dreamed-for revolution” as the only alternative. Bruce Bawer argues that the association of criticism of Islam with violence implies that "to be opposed to jihad is, by definition, not only a bad but a downright dangerous thing." Breivik has later identified himself as a fascist and voiced support for neo-Nazis, stating that he had exploited counter-jihad rhetoric in order to protect "ethno-nationalists", and instead start a media drive against what he deemed "anti-nationalist counterjihad"-supporters.

Executive director of the Institute of Race Relations, Liz Fekete, has argued that although most of the counter-jihad movement "stops short of advocating violence to achieve their goals", the most extreme parts share much of Breivik's discursive frameworks and vocabulary. She counterposits this with more mainstream counter-jihadists, that warn of Islamisation as a result of naïvety or indecisiveness, whom she identifies as a source of legitimacy for the former.

Theologist and philosopher Marius Timmann Mjaaland has described the role given to Christianity in some parts of the counter-jihad movement and has identified some aspects of the movement's ideology that he says links it to fascism-like conspiracy theories:

1. The establishment of an allegedly continuous and coherent connection between the present-day conflict between the Christian West and Muslims, whereas analyses based on established historical science will dismiss any such claim as unfounded.
2. A claim that mainstream politicians and media in Western countries have in effect become internal enemies or "traitors", by respectively allowing the creation of multicultural societies and advocating "marxism" and "political correctness".
3. This, in turn, has allowed Muslims to settle in Western lands, and thereby allegedly opened them to attack from within.
4. And, lastly, a Nietzschean, post-Christian worldview where the distinction between good and evil is given little attention, to the point where Christianity's ideal of "loving one's neighbour" is entirely omitted. Christianity is reduced from a system of belief to an identity marker, and a political mythology is built, that draws heavily on the Crusades.

Counter-jihad has sought to portray Western Muslims as a "fifth column", collectively seeking to destabilize Western nations' identity and values for the benefit of an international Islamic movement intent on the establishment of a caliphate in Western countries. Much of the Eurabia literature and Counter Jihad forums describe taqiyya as a manipulative strategy used by moderate Muslims to infiltrate and eventually overthrow society.

Supporters are often fiercely pro-Israel.

Comparison with anti-communism

The movement has been compared to the anti-communism of the Cold War. Geert Wilders, Dutch politician and speaker at counter-jihad events, argues that Islam is a political ideology that, like communism, is a totalitarian threat to a liberal social order. The Southern Poverty Law Center compares both as similar exaggerated threats. “Like the communists that an earlier generation believed to be hiding behind every rock, infiltrated “Islamist” operatives today are said to be diabolically preparing for a forcible takeover.”

The Cold War parallel is taken further by social commentator Bruce Bawer, who not only compares counter-jihad with anti-communism, but also compares those who criticize the counter-jihad movement with anti-anti-communists. The latter damned anti-Communists as “fanatical, paranoid conspiracy theorists” while “remaining all but silent about the evils of Communism itself.” Today it is fashionable to hold that “the good guys are the counter-counterjihadists – the journalists, activists, and others who make a career of slamming” counter-jihadists. Author Roger Kimball agrees.

Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS

Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS or serophobia is the prejudice, fear, rejection and discrimination against people afflicted with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV; people living with HIV/AIDS). Discrimination is one manifestation of stigma, and stigmatizing attitudes and behaviors may fall under the rubric of discrimination depending on the legislation of a particular country. HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. If left untreated, HIV can lead to the disease AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). HIV/AIDS is a sexually transmitted disease and cannot be cured, but with proper treatment, the individual can live just as long as without the disease.

HIV/AIDS discrimination exists around the world, including ostracism, rejection, discrimination, and avoidance. Consequences of stigma and discrimination against PLHIV may result in low turn-out for HIV counselling and testing, identity crises, isolation, loneliness, low self-esteem and lack of interest in containing the disease.

Much HIV/AIDS stigma or discrimination involves homosexuality, bisexuality, promiscuity, sex workers, and intravenous drug use.

In many developed countries, a strong correlation exists between HIV/AIDS and male homosexuality or bisexuality (the CDC states, "Gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) represent approximately 2% of the United States population, yet are the population most severely affected by HIV"), and association is correlated with higher levels of sexual prejudice such as homophobic attitudes. An early name for AIDS was gay-related immune deficiency or GRID. During the early 1980s, HIV/AIDS was "a disorder that appears to affect primarily male homosexuals".

Some forms of serious discrimination can include: being excluded from consideration for a job, being prohibited from buying a house, needing to pay extra money when renting housing, compulsory HIV testing without prior consent or protection of confidentiality; the quarantine of HIV infected individuals and, in some cases, the loss of property rights when a spouse dies. HIV testing without permission or security may also be considered as wrongdoings against those with HIV. The United States' disability laws prohibit HIV/AIDS discrimination in housing, employment, education, and access to health and social services. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity enforces laws prohibiting housing discrimination based on actual or perceived HIV/AIDS status.

Structural violence

Structural violence is an important factor in the treatment of people afflicted with AIDS. Paul Farmer argues that social determinants affecting the lives of certain cultural groups alter their risk of infections and their ability to access treatment. For example, access to prophylaxis, access to antiretroviral therapy, and susceptibility to illness and malnutrition are all factors which change people's overall risk of illness due to HIV/AIDS. This causes large difference in the rate of illness due to HIV/AIDS in various social/cultural groups. Farmer also argues that social intervention may be key in altering the gap in treatment between these groups of people. Educating doctors on the interactions between social life and healthcare would help level out the injustices in healthcare. 

Research

Current research has found that discrimination against people afflicted with HIV is a contributing factor for delayed initiation of HIV treatment. As many as 20–40% of Americans who are HIV positive do not begin a care regimen within the first six months after diagnosis. When individuals begin treatment late in the progression of HIV (when CD4+ T cell counts are below 500 cells/µL), they have 1.94 times the risk of mortality compared to those whose treatment is initiated when CD4+ T cells are still about 500 cells/µL. In a 2011 study published in AIDS Patient Care and STDs (sample size 215), most of the barriers to care described involve stigma and shame. The most common reasons of not seeking treatment are "I didn't want to tell anyone I was HIV-positive", "I didn't want to think about being HIV-positive", and "I was too embarrassed/ashamed to go". The presence and perpetuation of HIV stigma prevents many who are able to obtain treatment from feeling comfortable about addressing their health statue.

Additional research has found that education decreases HIV/AIDS discrimination and stigma in communities. A 2015 research study by the University of Malaya found that in Nigerian populations, "Educating the population with factual information on HIV/AIDS is needed to reduce stigma and discrimination towards PLHIV in the community." Surveys from 56,307 men and women from various educational and socio-economic levels and ages ranging from 15 to 49 years old, found that wealthier individuals with secondary and post-secondary were nonpartisan towards PLHIV. On the contrary, young adults, the poor, and men were more likely to be biased towards PLHIV. Many people also believe that AIDS is related to homosexuality.

Even so, research has found that societal structure and beliefs influence the prevalence stigma and discrimination. "The two concepts of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation have proven to be strong and reliable predictors of different types of prejudice." Similar to sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination, the raised and taught belief to view PLHIV as deviants and outcasts as children who become adults with warped view of PLHIV. "In order to cope with threat, people may adhere to a submissive authoritarian ideology, which will lead them to reject other groups that are perceived as deviant and may threaten their worldview and their system of values."

There are challenges for medical volunteers and nurses involved in caring for people with HIV/AIDS. In third-world countries and some communities in the Americas, low resource funding can make it detrimental to the success of providing proper care to PLHIV that cannot otherwise afford healthcare or don't possess medical insurance or other forms of payments. The nurses or medical volunteers may lack the proper knowledge of how to treat the individuals too, if they lack resources and funding. In Province, South Africa, 223 nurses were surveyed on their qualification and knowledge of AIDS. The nurses scored on Maslach Burnout Inventory; AIDS Impact Scale and Beck's Depression Inventory. The total knowledge score obtained by all the participants ranged from 2 to 16, with an average of 12.93 (SD = 1.92) on HIV/AIDS knowledge. The rise of PLWH impacts on the already burdened health-care workforce and predisposes nurses to workplace stress as they carry out their duties of caring for PLWH. The discriminatory behaviors of healthcare workers who are expected to be more knowledgeable about epidemiology and control of HIV including its social aspects are not helping matters. They often take extreme precaution against HIV positive clients for fear of transmission, and at times may refuse HIV positive clients some aspects of care. This is supported by another study in which health staff was said to be worried about occupational exposure, with high levels of anxiety and fear when dealing with HIV-positive persons.

In some countries, to prevent the knowledge of PLHIV, medical reports do not reveal HIV/AIDS study. In Africa, a person's cause of death may be concealed in order for policies to pay out. This distortion of information does not help in the fight against the spread of HIV and AIDS. Medical volunteers, nurses, and doctors, especially in low-income areas, will disclose their status without fear of rejection, isolation and discriminated against.

The psychological support for PLHIV in certain countries around the world scarce. In some places like China and Africa, PLHIV have been noted to have high level of stress due to discrimination and family members contributes to stress level among PLHIV. Research is still being done to see if therapy and other psychological services will be a buffer between the discrimination and stress. The study highlights the importance to reduce discrimination toward PLHIV and the difficulty to alleviate its negative consequences. In China, It is warranted to improve mental health among PLHIV in China and it is still important to provide in PLHIV as it has direct effects on perceived stress. PLHIV choose to not tell their HIV status to others, they tend to seek help from the health care professionals and programs and have considerable trust towards outside support. Health service providers are hence promising sources of social support for PLHIV.

Violence

Discrimination that is violent or threatening violence stops a lot of individuals for getting tested for HIV, which does not aid in curing the virus.

Violence is an important factor against the treatment of people afflicted with AIDS. A study done on PLHIV in South Africa shows that out of a study population of 500, 16.1% of participants reported being physically assaulted, with 57.7% of those resulting from one's intimate partners; such as husbands and wives. The available data show high rates of participants socially isolating themselves from both friends and family, in addition to avoiding the seeking of treatment at hospitals or clinics, due to increasing internalized fears. Any violence against HIV infected individuals or people who are perceived to be infected with HIV can severely shut down the advancement of treatment in response to the progression of the disease.

Paul Farmer argues that social determinants affecting the lives of certain cultural groups alter their risk of infections and their ability to access treatment. For example, access to prophylaxis, access to antiretroviral therapy, and susceptibility to illness and malnutrition are all factors which change people's overall risk of illness due to HIV/AIDS. This causes large difference in the rate of illness due to HIV/AIDS in various social/cultural groups. Farmer also argues that social intervention may be key in altering the gap in treatment between these groups of people. Educating doctors on the interactions between social life and healthcare would help level out the injustices in healthcare. 

Influence on society

Stigma

HIV/AIDS stigma has been further divided into the following three categories:

• Instrumental AIDS stigma—a reflection of the fear and apprehension that are likely to be associated with any deadly and transmissible illness.
• Symbolic AIDS stigma—the use of HIV/AIDS to express attitudes toward the social groups or lifestyles perceived to be associated with the disease.
• Courtesy AIDS stigma—stigmatization of people connected to the issue of HIV/AIDS or HIV- positive people.

HIV-related stigma is very common worldwide. People who are infected with HIV may be either deliberately or inadvertently engaged in selective avoidance, ostracism or denigration of their behaviour. Research done in South Africa, about the stigma and discrimination in communities, has found that PLHIV not only experience high levels of stigma that negatively impact all spheres of their lives, also interferes psychologically. Internalized stigma and discrimination ran rampant in the study, but also throughout the PLHIV community. Many PLHIV in South Africa blamed themselves for their current situation. Globally, nearly half of all people infected with HIV are women.

Stigma, according to Merriam-Webster dictionary, is "a set of negative and often unfair beliefs that a society or group of people have about something". Stigma is often enforced by discrimination, callous actions, and bigotry. In response, PLHIV have developed self-depreciating mindsets and coping skills to deal with the social repercussions versus accepting of their current status and seeking help. 

People who are HIV positive often deal with stigma, even though with the proper medication this can be manageable lifelong disease.And the existence of AIDS stigma will make AIDS patients under psychological pressure, which is detrimental to their AIDS treatment. According to the survey, women with AIDS undertook higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress than women without AIDS. It is now possible for a person who HIV+ to have intimate relationship with someone who is HIV- and not pass the disease to them. It is also possible for a mother who is HIV+ to not pass it to her child. In developing countries, people who are HIV+ are discriminated against at work, school, their community, and even in healthcare facilities. Discrimination may also increase the spread of HIV because fewer people will want to get tested. In addition, because of the stigma of AIDS, people living with AIDS tend to keep their HIV status confidential. They are reluctant to disclose their HIV status to others, including their family, friends and general practitioners. Because AIDS patients choose not to disclose AIDS, which is also likely to increase the spread of AIDS. 

Societal relationships

Accordingly, in countries such as Nigeria, PLHIV are less likely to disclose their HIV status, due to the repercussion of exclusion of their community. "In most situations, in order to prevent social rejection, PLHIV will not disclose their HIV status to avoid being isolated from participating in the socio-cultural events." This leads to very high-risk behaviors of passing the illness along to others or delaying the proper treatment. PLHIV, when shut off from their community. can feel isolated, lonely, afraid, a lack of motivation, and identity problems. Stigma enhances the spread and denies the medical research of HIV/AIDS because the social and medical support are gone. Those individuals can no longer feel like part of society, which, as humans, we need communities to feel understood and wanted. 

Family and other intimate relationships play a role in the death rate of PLHIV. Due to the fear of isolation, ignorance, denial, and discrimination, people will allow HIV to develop into AIDS, further decreasing life expectancy, since the body's immune system function will have been significantly lowered. Research done in at Mvelaphanda Primary School children, in Tembisa, Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng, South Africa. Many of the children were orphans due to the death of parents, had sibling deaths, and even some themselves, who were born with HIV. It was found through survey that if there is no behavioral change towards HIV/AIDS than no change to fight the epidemic will occur. At Mvelaphanda Primary school, their mortality rate is increasing in their children, especially young women. These women are more at risk than their male counterparts due to many being involved with older men who have various partners and do not participate in safe sex practices. Some of these students are themselves parents of students at the school. The problem is that even when family members are informed of the cause of death, which is likely to be AIDS, they choose to inform people that the cause of death was "witchcraft". Children and other family members tend to deny the truth and are raised with the belief that HIV and/or AIDS does not exist and they fear to be bewitched than being infected by the virus.

Along with family bonds and intimate relationships, a spiritual relationship is strained for PLHIV. In a research study done in the western region of Saudi Arabia. The stigma is profound in Saudi Arabia as Islam prohibits behaviours associated with risk factors related to transmission of HIV, such as non-marital sex, homosexuality and intravenous drug use. Fear and vulnerability included fear of punishment from God, fear of being discovered as HIV/ AIDS-positive and fear of the future and death. PLHIV experienced isolation and lack of psycho-social and emotional support. In response to their experiences many participants accepted their diagnoses as destiny and became more religious, using spirituality as their main coping strategy.

Heterosexism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosexism

 

Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships. It can include the presumption that other people are heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.

Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary as anti-gay discrimination or prejudice "by heterosexual people" and "by heterosexuals", respectively, people of any sexual orientation can hold such attitudes and bias, and can form a part of internalised hatred of one's sexual orientation.

Heterosexism as discrimination ranks gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and other sexual minorities as second-class citizens with regard to various legal and civil rights, economic opportunities, and social equality in many of the world's jurisdictions and societies. It is often related to homophobia.

Background

While the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary notes first use of the term heterosexism as having occurred in 1972, the term was first published in 1971 by gay rights activist, Craig Rodwell.

Etymology and usage

Similar terms include "heterocentrism" and "heterosexualism". Although the well-established term heterosexism is often explained as a coinage modeled on sexism, the derivation of its meaning points more to (1.) heterosex(ual) + -ism than (2.) hetero- + sexism. In fact, the word heterosexualism has been used as an equivalent to sexism and racism.

Given this lack of semantic transparency, researchers, outreach workers, critical theorists and LGBT activists have proposed and use terms such as institutionalized homophobia, state(-sponsored) homophobia, sexual prejudice, anti-gay bigotry, straight privilege, The Straight Mind (a collection of essays by French writer Monique Wittig), heterosexual bias, compulsory heterosexuality or the much lesser known terms heterocentrism, homonegativity, and from gender theory and queer theory, heteronormativity. However, not all of these descriptors are synonymous to heterosexism.

Contrast to homophobia

Homophobia, a form of heterosexism, refers both to "unreasoning fear of or antipathy towards homosexuals and homosexuality" and to "behavior based on such a feeling". Heterosexism, however, more broadly denotes the "system of ideological thought that makes heterosexuality the sole norm to follow for sexual practices". As a bias favoring heterosexuals and heterosexuality, heterosexism has been described as being "encoded into and characteristic of the major social, cultural, and economic institutions of our society" and stems from the essentialist cultural notion that maleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity are complementary. 

Researcher, author, and psychology professor Gregory M. Herek states that "[Heterosexism] operates through a dual process of invisibility and attack. Homosexuality usually remains culturally invisible; when people who engage in homosexual behavior or who are identified as homosexual become visible, they are subject to attack by society." Furthermore, in interviews with perpetrators of anti-gay violence, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin points out that "heterosexism is not just a personal value system, [rather] it is a tool in the maintenance of gender dichotomy." She continues by saying that "assaults on homosexuals and other individuals who deviate from sex role norms are viewed as a learned form of social control of deviance rather than a defensive response to personal threat."

Parallels and intersections

“	Using the term heterosexism highlights the parallels between antigay sentiment and other forms of prejudice, such as racism, antisemitism, and sexism.	”
— Gregory M. Herek, researcher, author, and professor of psychology at UC Davis.

It has been argued that the concept of heterosexism is similar to the concept of racism in that both ideas promote privilege for dominant groups within a given society. For example, borrowing from the racial concept of white privilege, the concept of heterosexual privilege has been applied to benefits of (presumed) heterosexuality within society that heterosexuals take for granted. The analogy is that just as racism against non-white people places white people as superior to people of color, heterosexism places heterosexual people or relationships as superior to non-heterosexual ones. In trying to rebut this premise, some commentators point to differences between the categories of race and sexual orientation, claiming they are too complex to support any generalizations. For example, "trainer on diversity" and consultant Jamie Washington has commented, although heterosexism and racism are "woven from the same fabric" they are "not the same thing". Some American Conservative leaders such as Rev. Irene Monroe comment that those who suggest or state "gay is the new black", as in a cover story of The Advocate magazine, exploit black people's suffering and experiences to legitimize their own. Nonetheless, a study presented at the British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology 2009 Conference shows that heterosexist prejudice is more pervasive than racism.

Heterosexism can also intersect with racism by further emphasizing differences among arbitrary groups of people. For example, heterosexism can compound the effects of racism by:

• promoting injustices towards a person already facing injustices because of their race
• establishing social hierarchies that allow one group more privilege than other groups.

Likewise, racism can allow LGBT people to be subjected to additional discrimination or violence if they belong to or are considered a part of a socially devalued racial category. Some of the privileges afforded to people falling into the categories of white people and (perceived) heterosexuals include, but are not limited to, social acceptance, prestige, freedom from negative stereotypes, and the comfort of being within the social norm and thereby not being marginalized or viewed as different.

As a set of beliefs and attitudes

Individual and group level

Heterosexism as a set of beliefs and attitudes relies on a core tenet according to which homosexuality and bisexuality do not normally exist and, as such, constitute mental illnesses or deviant behaviors. Within a heterosexist ideology or mindset, the concept of sexual orientation is rejected or deemed irrelevant. A set of more nuanced heterosexist views, which some may consider faith, dogma, universal truths, natural law, appeals to authority, or popular beliefs, but others consider to be conventional wisdom or sociobiological knowledge can include, among others, the following: 

Brochure used by Save Our Children in 1977

• Non-heterosexual persons should keep their sexual orientations private (i.e., they should remain "closeted").
• The attitude that gay men aren't "real" men or lesbians aren't "real" women because of the socially pervasive view that heterosexual attractions or activities are the "norm" and therefore superior.
• "God created Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steve (or Madame and Eve)" and similar essentialist cultural notions that maleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity are complementary;
• Homosexuality being wrong, ungodly, and against nature, it is therefore a sin, evil or subhuman.
• Views identical or akin to Anita Bryant's statement during her Save Our Children campaign in the U.S. (See campaign brochure image at right):

"As a mother, I know that homosexuals cannot biologically reproduce children; therefore, they must recruit our children."

• Because of their lifestyle, homosexuals do not have families with children, so they undermine the survival of the human race (natalism).
• Homosexuality is an affectional or mental disorder or simply a social ill, therefore, it can be cured or stamped out. If it is not eradicated, it will lead to social disintegration and societal collapse.
• Homosexuals can be converted to heterosexuality.

In an attempt to bring awareness to people who exhibit heterosexist views but are possibly not aware of it, Mark Rochlin constructed a set of questions in 1977 which are questions that non-heterosexual people are often exposed to, but not heterosexuals, such as "What do you think caused your sexuality?" This heterosexuality questionnaire is often distributed around college campuses to bring awareness of heterosexist sexual prejudice against LGBT persons.

Institutional level

As well as comprising attitudes held by an individual or a social group, heterosexism can also exist as the expression of attitudes within an institution. As a result, schools, hospitals, and correctional facilities can act as a showcase for heterosexist attitudes in various ways. First, schools may implement these attitudes and ideas through unequal and inconsistent disciplinary actions. One such example is meting out harsher punishment to a same-sex couple violating the school ground rules while allowing a heterosexual couple to pass with an easier and more subtle disciplinary action for an equal or identical violation. Also, hospitals may limit patient visiting only to immediate family, i.e., relatives, and exclude same sex partners.

Heterosexism affects the family in several ways. For example, in many countries around the world, same-sex marriage is not allowed, so non-heterosexual persons must remain unmarried or enter into heterosexual marriage. Many countries also deny rights and benefits to same-sex couples, including custodial and adoption rights for children, Social Security benefits, and automatic durable power of attorney and hospital spousal rights.

Research and measurements

Measurements

Psychologists have aimed to measure heterosexism using various methods. One particular method involves the use of a Likert scale. However, since heterosexism is perceived as something that is unseen it is difficult to determine if someone is heterosexist based on a self-report method. Researchers, thus, have constructed implicit measurements of heterosexism. An example of this would be an Implicit Association Test. A popular implicit association test measuring heterosexism that is open to the public is a virtual laboratory called Project Implicit. 

One limitation present in research on heterosexism is that there often isn’t a distinction between homophobia and heterosexism. Individuals are more likely to be aware of homophobic tendencies rather than heterosexist views, thus, researchers often measure homophobia instead of heterosexism.

Research

Research on heterosexism has focused on variables that may affect views of heterosexism. For instance, in a study by psychologist, Gregory M. Herek, it was found that there was a gender difference between heterosexual attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Specifically, the study reveals that heterosexual individuals all seem to have some heterosexist tendency, however, heterosexual males have a greater tendency than heterosexual females to exhibit negative attitudes towards non-heterosexual individuals (this includes gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals). Another notable finding of Herek's study was that heterosexual males showed a greater tendency to demonstrate hostility towards gay men rather than lesbians. Other factors that Herek acknowledges to contribute to heterosexism include individual differences, religiosity, conforming to social norms, right-wing authoritarianism, customs and beliefs regarding cultural tradition, and personal experience with non-heterosexual individuals. Research has also recognized the effects of level of education on views of heterosexism. Wright et al. revealed that higher levels of education, or having more years of education, is related to less homophobic tendencies.

As discrimination

Explicit or open

This type of heterosexism includes anti-gay laws, policies, and institutional practices, harassment based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation; stereotyping, discriminatory language and discourse, and other forms of discrimination against LGBT persons such as:

• Hate speech, terms of disparagement, hate mail, death threats, "murder music"
• Scapegoating, mobbing, witch-hunts, moral panic; using gay men and homosexuality as a folk devil for the AIDS pandemic.
• Negative portrayals or stereotypes of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals solely as villains, suicide or murder victims
• Using the gay panic defense in assault or murder cases.
• Sodomy laws when enforced almost exclusively against consenting, adult, same-sex partners.
• In some countries where homosexuality is criminalized, such as Sudan, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, offenders may receive the maximum sentence of capital punishment.
• Discrepancies in age of consent laws in which legal sexual activity between members of the same sex is set at a higher age than that for opposite-sex partners. Most such laws apply explicitly (or have historically applied) only to male homosexual sexual activity.
• Prohibiting youth from bringing a same-sex date to high school prom.
• Adoption bans against either same-sex couples or gay, lesbian, or bisexual individuals.
  
• Legislation that prevents legal and social equality, i.e., laws that prohibit protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation, particularly with regard to health care, housing, and employment.
• The institution of opposite-sex marriage and reserving the right to marry strictly for opposite-sex couples via explicit definitions or through bans on same-sex marriage such as "marriage protection acts" (such as DOMA in the United States);^{[1] pp. 145–151}
• Also, the above restriction even when same-sex couples have access to civil unions that are either analogous to or not on a par with marriage;
• Reserving civil unions strictly for opposite-sex couples;
• Barring gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals from serving in the armed forces or from working in the education field; this can include policies such as the American military's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy or Lech Kaczyński and other conservative Polish politicians’ stance to exclude gay men and lesbians from entering the teaching profession. See also: LGBT rights in Poland
• Organized opposition to gay rights; labeling such rights and privileges as "special rights" or the "Gay Agenda";
• Referring to a suspected criminal's homosexuality or bisexuality when in analogous situations there is no mention of a suspect's heterosexuality.
  

Implicit or hidden

This form of heterosexism operates through invisibility, under-representation, and erasure. It includes:

• Lack or under-representation of homosexual or bisexual people in advertising to the general public;
• Censorship of homosexual or bisexual characters, themes, and issues in works of art, literature, entertainment;
• Exclusion of historical and political figures’ and celebrities’ homosexuality or bisexuality; their portrayal as heterosexuals;
• Complete avoidance of mentioning these people and their positive contributions particularly in news media;
• In the context of sex education or professional advice, referring only to opposite-sex partners when discussing female or male sexual attraction and activity;
• Silence on issues affecting homosexual and bisexual people at school or work or absence of their discussion in a positive light;
• Implementation and use of content-control software (censorware) to filter out information and websites that focus on homosexuality or bisexuality;
• Postal censorship and border control or customs seizure of publications deemed obscene solely on the basis of them containing material related to homosexuality even when they contain no erotic or pornographic material.
• Work environments that tacitly require gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals not to reveal their sexual orientation via discussion of their relationship status while heterosexuals can discuss their relationships and marital status freely;
• At public libraries or bookstores: rejection, removal or destruction of books (e.g. Jenny lives with Eric and Martin), films, and posters with homosexual themes;
• Refusal to include families headed by same-sex parents at school events or to represent such family diversity in school curricula.
• Coercive or forced sex reassignment surgery on gay men, lesbian women, and bisexuals – an issue addressed in Tanaz Eshaghian's 2008 documentary, Be Like Others.
• Forced disappearance, damnatio memoriae, ostracism, shunning, and other forms of social rejection geared towards making homosexual or bisexual people personae non gratae.
  

Effects

Heterosexism causes a range of effects on people of any sexual orientation. However, the main effects of heterosexism are marginalization, and anti-LGBT violence and abuse.

Marginalization

The main effect of heterosexism is the marginalization of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals within society. Heterosexism has led to stigmatization and persecution of not only these people but also those of other sexual diversity such as transgender, and transsexual people. Along with homophobia, lesbophobia, and internalized homophobia, heterosexism continues to be a significant social reality that compels people to conceal their homosexual or bisexual orientation, or metaphorically, to remain in the closet in an effort to pass for heterosexual. 

Marginalization also occurs when marriage rights are heterosexist. More specifically, when marriage rights are exclusive to opposite-sex couples, all same-sex couples, be they gay, lesbian, straight or mixed, are prevented from enjoying marriage’s corresponding legal privileges, especially those regarding property rights, health benefits, and child custody. Moreover, such limitation prevents same-sex couples from receiving the inherent social respect of marriage and its cultural symbolism.

Anti-LGBT violence and abuse

Yolanda Dreyer, professor of practical theology at University of Pretoria, has stated that "Heterosexism leads to prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and violence. It is driven by fear and hatred (Dreyer 5)." Along the same lines, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin explains violence caused by heterosexism toward both men and women, regardless of their sexual orientations:

[T]hrough heterosexism, any male who refuses to accept the dominant culture's assignment of appropriate masculine behavior is labeled early on as a "sissy" or "fag" and then subjected to bullying. Similarly, any woman who opposes male dominance and control can be labeled a lesbian and attacked. The potential of being ostracized as homosexual, regardless of actual sexual attractions and behaviors, puts pressure on all people to conform to a narrow standard of appropriate gender behavior, thereby maintaining and reinforcing our society's hierarchical gender structure.

Another form of heterosexist violence as social control that most often targets lesbian women is corrective rape: a gang rape of a lesbian to "cure" her of her same-sex attractions. A notorious example from South Africa is the corrective rape and murder of Eudy Simelane, LGBT-rights activist and member of the women's national football team.

According to a Frontline article titled Inside the Mind of People Who Hate Gays, bias-related violence against homosexuals is believed to be widespread in the United States, with perpetrators typically described by victims as young men in groups who assault targets of convenience. Victims accounts suggest that assailants possess tremendous rage and hatred; indeed, documentation of horrific levels of brutality has led gay activists to characterize the violence as political terrorism aimed at all gay men and lesbians. Other motives for antigay violence suggested in the literature include male bonding, proving heterosexuality, and purging secret homosexual desires.

Responses

According to an article in the Howard Journal of Communications, some LGBT individuals have responded to heterosexism through direct confrontation and communication, or through the removal of self from the hostile environment.