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In some countries, reporting on certain topics is prevented or restricted by governments.
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic media, especially published materials, should be considered a right to be exercised freely. Such freedom implies the absence of interference from an overreaching state; its preservation may be sought through constitution or other legal protection and security.
With respect to governmental information, any government may distinguish
which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public.
State materials are protected due to either of 2 reasons: the classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret, or the relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to "sunshine laws" or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest and enable citizens to request access to government-held information.
The United Nations' 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
states: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression;
this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and
to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media
regardless of frontiers".
This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known as scientific freedom), publishing, and press. The depth to which these laws are entrenched in a country's legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to spoken and published expression. Sweden was the first country in the world to adopt freedom of the press into its constitution with the Freedom of the Press Act of 1766.
Relationship to self-publishing
Freedom
of the press is not construed as an absence of interference or outside
entities, such as a government or religious organization, rather as a
right for authors to have their works published by other people. This idea was famously summarized by the 20th century American journalist, A. J. Why, who wrote, "Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one".
Freedom of the press gives the printer or publisher exclusive control
over what the publisher chooses to publish, including the right to
refuse to print anything for any reason. If the author cannot reach a voluntary agreement with a publisher to produce the author's work, then the author must turn to self-publishing.
Status of press freedom worldwide
Beyond legal definitions, several non-governmental organizations
use other criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the
world. Some create subjective lists, while others are based on
quantitative data:
- Reporters Without Borders considers the number of journalists murdered, expelled or harassed, and the existence of a state monopoly on TV and radio, as well as the existence of censorship and self-censorship
in the media, and the overall independence of media as well as the
difficulties that foreign reporters may face to rank countries in levels
of press freedom.
- The Committee to Protect Journalists
(CPJ) systematically tracks the number of journalists killed and
imprisoned in reprisal for their work. It says it uses the tools of journalism
to help journalists by tracking press freedom issues through
independent research, fact-finding missions, and a network of foreign
correspondents, including local working journalists in countries around
the world. CPJ shares information on breaking cases with other press
freedom organizations worldwide through the International Freedom of Expression Exchange,
a global network of more than 119 free expression organizations. CPJ
also tracks impunity in cases of journalist murders. CPJ staff applies
strict criteria for each case; researchers independently investigate and
verify the circumstances behind each death or imprisonment.
- Freedom House
studies the more general political and economic environments of each
nation in order to determine whether relationships of dependence exist
that limit in practice the level of press freedom that might exist in
theory. Panels of experts assess the press freedom score and draft each
country summary according to a weighted scoring system that analyzes the
political, economic, legal and safety situation for journalists based
on a 100-point scale. It then categorizes countries as having a free,
party free, or not free press.
Annual report on journalists killed and Prison Census
Each year, The Committee to Protect Journalists
produces a comprehensive list of all working journalists killed in
relation to their employment, including profiles of each deceased
journalist within an exhaustive database, and annual census of
incarcerated journalists (as of midnight, December 1). The year 2017
reported record findings of jailed journalists, reaching 262. Turkey, China and Egypt account for more than half of all global journalists jailed.
As per a 2019 special report by the Committee to Protect Journalists, approximately 25 journalists were murdered on duty in the year 2019.
The figure is claimed to be the lowest since 2002, a year in which, at
least 21 journalists were killed while they were reporting from the
field. Meanwhile, Reporters Without Borders
(RSF), reported 49 killings, the lowest since 2003 when almost 36
journalists were killed. Leading press watchdogs fear persisting danger
for the life of journalists. The drop in the murder of in-field
journalists came across during the "global attention on the issue of
impunity in journalist murders", focusing on the assassination of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in October 2018 and Daphne Caruana Galizia, a Maltese blogger in October 2017.
2020 Press Freedom Index Good situation
Satisfactory situation
Noticeable problems
Difficult situation
Very serious situation
Not classified / No data
Every year, Reporters Without Borders establish a subjective ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press. Press Freedom Index
list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are
members of partner organizations of the RWB, as well as related
specialists such as researchers, jurists, and human rights activists.
The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the
media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free
press, such as non-governmental groups.
In 2020, the ten countries with the most press freedom are, in order: Norway, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Netherlands, Jamaica, Costa Rica, Switzerland, New Zealand and Portugal. The ten countries with the least press freedom were, in order: North Korea, Turkmenistan, Eritrea, China, Djibouti, Vietnam, Syria, Iran, Laos, Cuba and Saudi Arabia.
Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the Press status 2017.
Freedom of the Press is a yearly report by US-based non-profit organization Freedom House. It is known to subjectively measure the level of freedom and editorial independence
that is enjoyed by the press in every nation and significant disputed
territories around the world. Levels of freedom are scored on a scale
from 1 (most free) to 100 (least free). Depending on the basics, the
nations are then classified as "Free", "Partly Free", or "Not Free".
In 2009 Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden topped the list with North Korea, Turkmenistan, Myanmar (Burma), Libya, Eritrea at the bottom.
Democratic states
A free and independent press has been theorized to be a key mechanism of a functioning, healthy democracy. In the absence of censorship, journalism exists as a watchdog of private and government action, providing information to maintain an informed citizenry of voters.
In this perspective, "government efforts to influence published or
broadcasted news content, either via media control or by inducing self-censorship, represent a threat to the access of important and necessary information to the public and affect the quality of democracy". An independent press "serves to increase political knowledge, participation and voter turnout", acting as an essential driver of civic participation.
Non-democratic states
According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the world's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process.
Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic problem/concept for
most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age,
strict control of access to information
is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and
their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end,
most non-democratic societies employ state-run news organizations to
promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political
power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police,
military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by the
media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government
line" on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on
the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find
themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the
state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers
(firing, professional blacklisting) to death threats, kidnapping, torture, and assassination.
History
Europe
Central, Northern and Western Europe has a long tradition of freedom
of speech, including freedom of the press. After World War II, Hugh Baillie, the president of United Press
wire service based in the U.S., promoted freedom of news dissemination.
In 1944, he called for an open system of news sources and transmission,
and minimum of government regulation of the news. His proposals were
aired at the Geneva Conference on Freedom of Information in 1948, but
were blocked by the Soviets and the French.
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".
United Kingdom
According to the New York Times,
"Britain has a long tradition of a free, inquisitive press", but
"[u]nlike the United States, Britain has no constitutional guarantee of
press freedom." Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger, former editor of The Guardian,
stating: "When people talk about licensing journalists or newspapers
the instinct should be to refer them to history. Read about how
licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how
the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world,
and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect
those freedoms."
Until 1694, Great Britain had an elaborate system of licensing; the most recent was seen in the Licensing of the Press Act 1662. No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government-granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war, John Milton wrote his pamphlet Areopagitica (1644).
In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government
censorship and parodied the idea, writing "when as debtors and
delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but unoffensive books must
not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title." Although at
the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing, it would be
viewed later a significant milestone as one of the most eloquent
defenses of press freedom.
Milton's central argument was that the individual is capable of
using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. In
order to be able to exercise this ration right, the individual must have
unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "a free and open
encounter." From Milton's writings developed the concept of the open marketplace of ideas,
the idea that when people argue against each other, the good arguments
will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in Great
Britain was seditious libel,
and laws were in place that made criticizing the government a crime.
The king was above public criticism and statements critical of the
government were forbidden, according to the English court of the Star Chamber. Truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government.
Locke contributed to the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695,
whereupon the press needed no license. Still, many libels were tried
throughout the 18th century, until "the Society of the Bill of Rights"
led by John Horne Tooke and John Wilkes
organized a campaign to publish Parliamentary Debates. This culminated
in three defeats of the Crown in the 1770 cases of Almon, of Miller and
of Woodfall, who all had published one of the Letters of Junius, and the unsuccessful arrest of John Wheble in 1771. Thereafter the Crown was much more careful in the application of libel; for example, in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre, Burdett was convicted, whereas by contrast the Junius affair was over a satire and sarcasm about the non-lethal conduct and policies of government.
In Britain's American colonies, the first editors discovered
their readers enjoyed it when they criticized the local governor; the
governors discovered they could shut down the newspapers. The most
dramatic confrontation came in New York in 1734, where the governor
brought John Peter Zenger
to trial for criminal libel after the publication of satirical attacks.
The defense lawyers argued that according to English common law, the
truth was a valid defense against libel. The jury acquitted Zenger, who
became the iconic American hero for freedom of the press. The result was
an emerging tension between the media and the government. By the
mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 13 colonies, and the
satirical attack on government became common features in American
newspapers.
John Stuart Mill in 1869 in his book On Liberty approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th-century utilitarian:
The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does
not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which the
greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of
happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of
expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence
the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential
to the well-being of society. Mill wrote:
- If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and one, and only
one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more
justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power,
would be justified in silencing mankind.
The December 1817 Trials of writer and satirist William Hone for publishing three political pamphlets is considered a landmark in the fight for a free press.
Denmark–Norway
Between September 4, 1770 and October 7, 1771 the kingdom of Denmark–Norway had the most unrestricted freedom of press of any country in Europe. This occurred during the regime of Johann Friedrich Struensee,
whose second act was to abolish the old censorship laws. However, due
to the great amount of mostly anonymous pamphlets published that was
critical and often slanderous towards Struensee's own regime, he
reinstated some restrictions regarding the freedom of press a year
later, October 7, 1771.
Italy
The Statute was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, granting freedom of the press.
After the Italian unification in 1861, the Albertine Statute of 1848 was adopted as the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy.
The Statute granted the freedom of the press with some restrictions in
case of abuses and in religious matters, as stated in Article 28:
The press shall be free, but the
law may suppress abuses of this freedom. However, Bibles, catechisms,
liturgical and prayer books shall not be printed without the prior
permission of the Bishop.
After the abolition of the monarchy in 1946 and the abrogation of the Statute in 1948, the Constitution of the Republic of Italy guarantees the freedom of the press, as stated in Article 21, Paragraphs 2 and 3:
The press may not be subjected to
any authorisation or censorship. Seizure may be permitted only by
judicial order stating the reason and only for offences expressly
determined by the law on the press or in case of violation of the
obligation to identify the persons responsible for such offences.
The Constitution allows the warrantless confiscation of periodicals in cases of absolute urgency, when the Judiciary cannot timely intervene, on the condition that a judicial validation must be obtained within 24 hours. Article 21 also gives restrictions against those publications considered offensive by public morality, as stated in Paragraph 6:
Publications, performances, and
other exhibits offensive to public morality shall be prohibited.
Measures of preventive and repressive measure against such violations
shall be established by law.
Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
In 1933 freedom of the press was suppressed in Nazi Germany by the Reichstag Fire Decree of President Paul von Hindenburg, just as Adolf Hitler was coming to power. Hitler suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.
The Ministry acted as a central control point for all media, issuing
orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be
suppressed. Anyone involved in the film industry - from directors to the
lowliest assistant - had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party,
due to opinion-changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have.
(Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single
film made in Nazi Europe.) Journalists who crossed the Propaganda
Ministry were routinely imprisoned.
Sweden and Finland
One of the world's first freedom of the press acts was introduced in Sweden in 1766, mainly due to classical liberal member of parliament, Ostrobothnian priest, Anders Chydenius. Excepted and liable to prosecution was only vocal opposition to the king and the Church of Sweden. The act was largely rolled back after King Gustav's coup d'état in 1772, restored after the overthrowing of his son, Gustav IV of Sweden in 1809, and fully recognized with the abolition of the king's prerogative to cancel licenses in the 1840s.
Russia
The US Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, criticized Russia for limiting the activities of VOA and Radio Free Europe in Russia with a governmental order demanding reviewing the subject by Moscow.
Americas
United States
The First Amendment of the United States Constitution states:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably
to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances.
Canada
Section 2(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
states that everyone has "the freedom of thought, belief, opinion and
expression, including freedom of the press and other media of
communication."
The open court principle ensures the freedom of the press by requiring that court proceedings presumptively be open and accessible to the public and to the media.
Asia
China
Critics argue that the Communist Party in China has failed to live up to its promises about the freedom of the mainland Chinese media. Freedom House consistently ranks China as 'Not Free' in its annual press freedom survey, including the 2014 report. PRC journalist He Qinglian
says that the PRC's media are controlled by directives from the
Communist Party's propaganda department, and are subjected to intense
monitoring which threatens punishment for violators, rather than to
pre-publication censorship.
In 2008, ITV News reporter John Ray was arrested while covering a 'Free Tibet' protest.
International media coverage of Tibetan protests only a few months
before the Beijing Olympics in 2008 triggered a strong reaction inside
China. Chinese media practitioners took the opportunity to argue with
propaganda authorities for more media freedom: one journalist asked, 'If
not even Chinese journalists are allowed to report about the problems
in Tibet, how can foreign journalists know about the Chinese perspective
about the events?' Foreign journalists also reported that their access
to certain websites, including those of human rights organization, was
restricted. International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge
stated at the end of the 2008 Olympic Games that "The regulations
[governing foreign media freedom during the Olympics] might not be
perfect but they are a sea-change compared to the situation before. We
hope that they will continue."
The Foreign Correspondents Club of China (FCCC) issued a statement
during the Olympics that 'despite welcome progress in terms of
accessibility and the number of press conferences within the Olympic
facilities, the FCCC has been alarmed at the use of violence,
intimidation and harassment outside. The club has confirmed more than 30
cases of reporting interference since the formal opening of the Olympic
media centre on 25 July, and is checking at least 20 other reported
incidents.'
Since the Chinese state continues to exert a considerable amount
of control over media, public support for domestic reporting has come as
a surprise to many observers. Not much is known about the extent to
which the Chinese citizenry believe the official statements of the CPC,
nor about which media sources they perceive as credible and why. So far,
research on the media in China has focused on the changing relationship
between media outlets and the state during the reform era. Nor is much
known about how China's changing media environment has affected the
government's ability to persuade media audiences. Research on political
trust reveals that exposure to the media correlates positively with
support for the government in some instances, and negatively in others.
The research has been cited as evidence that the Chinese public believes
propaganda transmitted to them through the news media, but also that
they disbelieve it. These contradictory results can be explained by
realising that ordinary citizens consider media sources to be credible
to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the extent to which media
outlets have undergone reform.
In 2012 the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights urged the
Chinese government to lift restrictions on media access to the region
and allow independent and impartial monitors to visit and assess
conditions in Tibet. The Chinese government did not change its position.
Pakistan
Article 19 of the Pakistani constitution states: "Every citizen shall
have the right to freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be
freedom of the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by
law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security or
defence of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign
States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt
of court, commission of or incitement to an offence." Ironically, press freedom in Pakistan flourished for the first time during Musharraf's reign, a military dictatorship.
To a large extent the media enjoys freedom of expression in spite of
political pressure and direct bans sometimes administered by political
stake holders. Political pressure on media is mostly done indirectly.
One tool widely used by the government is to cut off 'unfriendly' media
from governmental advertising. Using draconian laws the government has
also banned or officially silenced popular television channels. The Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority
(PEMRA) has been used to silence the broadcast media by either
suspending licenses or by simply threatening to do so. In addition,
media is also threatened by non-state actors involved in the current
conflict. Security situation of the journalist has improved and the
number of journalist killed in Pakistan has also declined considerably.
However, the press freedom in Pakistan along with India continues to
decline.
In its 2018 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Pakistan number 139 out of 180 countries based on freedom of the press. Recent report from Reporters Without Borders implies considerable improvement in the freedom of press compared to the preceding years.
Singapore
Singapore's media environment is considered to be controlled by the government.
India
The Indian Constitution, while not mentioning the word "press", provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression"
(Article 19(1) a). However this right is subject to restrictions under
sub clause, whereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of "sovereignty
and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations
with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving
morality, in relation to contempt, court, defamation, or incitement to an offense". Laws such as the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act
(PoTA) have been used to limit press freedom. Under PoTA, person could
be detained for up to six months for being in contact with a terrorist
or terrorist group. PoTA was repealed in 2006, but the Official Secrets
Act 1923 continues.
For the first half-century of independence, media control by the state was the major constraint on press freedom.
Indira Gandhi famously stated in 1975 that All India Radio is "a Government organ, it is going to remain a Government organ..."
With the liberalization starting in the 1990s, private control of media
has burgeoned, leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny
of government.
It ranks poorly at 138th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Analytically India's press freedom, as could be deduced by the Press Freedom Index,
has constantly reduced since 2002, when it culminated in terms of
apparent freedom, achieving a rank of 80 among the reported countries.
In 2018, India's freedom of press ranking declined two placed to 138. In
explaining the decline, RWB cited growing intolerance from Hindu nationalist supporters of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and the murders of journalists such as Gauri Lankesh.
Bangladesh
Bangladeshi media
is reportedly following a self-censorship due to a controversial act
named as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Act. Under this
act, 25 journalists and several hundred bloggers and Facebook users are
reportedly prosecuted in Bangladesh in 2017.
Bangladesh ranks poorly at 146th rank out of 180 listed countries in the Press Freedom Index 2018 released by Reporters Without Borders (RWB). Bangladeshi media has faced many problems in 2018. The country's most popular online newspaper bdnews24.com was blocked for a few hours on June 18, 2018 by Bangladesh's regulatory authority. Another newspaper The Daily Star's
website was blocked for 22 hours on June 2, 2018 after it had published
a report about a victim of an extrajudicial execution in the
southeastern city of Cox's Bazar.
During the road-safety protests in 2018, Bangladeshi government switched off 3G and 4G mobile data and also arrested a photographer named Shahidul Alam under ICT act, after he had given an interview with Al Jazeera.
Iran
According to
the reports of the RSF in 2007, the freedom of Press in Iran ranked 166
among 169 states. The report reads the Iranian journalists face the
"extreme harsh behavior of the Iranian regime that prevent them
criticizing authorities or expressing political and social demands.
After shutting down of a Ukrainian airliner, the agents of the
Iranian Intelligent Service raided the houses and offices of many
Iranian journalists seeking for their PCs, cell phones, books, and
documents. These journalists had revealed the lies of the Iranian
regime. Some of the journalists received warnings by the authorities and
forced to shut down their accounts in Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook.[55]
On April 21, 2020 Paris-based Reporters Without Borders (RSF) said in its annual press freedom rankings that the pandemic was "highlighting many crises" already casting a shadow on press freedom, around the world, with authoritarian states including Iran suppressing details of the outbreak.[56]
RSF accused Iran—in 173rd place—of censoring major coronavirus outbreaks.[56]
On May 2, 2020, on the occasion of the 3rd of May, the
International Day of Freedom of Press, in a statement, the Iranian
Writer Association emphasized on the existence of censorships and
violation of freedom of speech and its destructive impacts on the
structure and vital foundation of the society. It reminded that during
the past decades the rulers in our country, have imprisoned more than
890 journalists and reporters, some of whom have been executed. The
Iranian Writer Association expressed its regret when Iran ranked 173
among 180 states due to freedom of speech.[57]
On 7 February 2020, the International Federation of Journalists
in a statement condemned "raiding of Iranian Security Forces upon the
houses of six Iranian journalists, holding the forces of "IRGC's
Intelligence" responsible for recent pressures on the journalists. The
secretary-general of the federation, Anthony Blunker, said that
intimidating and threatening journalists are unpleasant tools to silence
the public opinion of the administration.[58]
On November 26, 2019, the RSF condemned the pressure on families
of reporters by the Iranian regime, saying Iran ranked 170 among 180
states regarding Freedom of Press in 2019.[59]
In its 2019 annual report, the Committee to Protect Journalists
found at least 250 journalists in jail in relation to their work, and
stated that the number of imprisoned journalists in Iran was 11, citing
the crackdown on protests by the Iranian people over rising gasoline
prices. The report named Eritrea, Vietnam and Iran as "the worst prisons
for journalists" after China, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Egypt.[60][61]
On September 8, 2020, Reporters Without Borders expressed concern
about the continuing detention and repression of journalists in Iran,
and warned for the journalists and Reporters who have been arrested for
their activities and subjected to harassment. "The Human Rights Council must take more serious action to protect and defend journalists," said an official.[62]
Africa
Tanzania
As of 2018, online content providers must be licensed and pay an annual fee to the government.[63]
Middle East
Palestine
In October 2019, the Palestinian Authority
blocked 59 websites, claiming that they were critical of the
government. These websites were both Palestinian and Arabic, and were
identified to have been publishing material that "threaten national
security and civil peace." Quds News Network, among the blocked sites,
stated that the move reflected the Palestinian Authority's repression of
the press.[64]
Implications of new technologies
Many
of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly
superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance.
Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination
has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to
journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their freedom of speech. A
few simple examples of such phenomena include:
- Satellite television versus terrestrial television:
Whilst terrestrial television is relatively easy to manage and
manipulate, satellite television is much more difficult to control as
journalistic content can easily be broadcast from other jurisdictions
beyond the control of individual governments. An example of this in the
Middle East is the satellite broadcaster Al Jazeera. This Arabic-language media channel operates out of Qatar,
whose government is relatively liberal compared to many of its
neighboring states. As such, its views and content are often problematic
to a number of governments in the region and beyond. However, because
of the increased affordability and miniaturisation of satellite
technology (e.g. dishes and receivers) it is simply not practicable for
most states to control popular access to the channel.
- Internet-based publishing (e.g., blogging, social media) vs. traditional publishing:
Traditional magazines and newspapers rely on physical resources
(e.g., offices, printing presses) that can easily be targeted and forced
to close down. Internet-based publishing systems can be run using
ubiquitous and inexpensive equipment and can operate from any global
jurisdiction. Nations and organisations are increasingly resorting to
legal measures to take control of online publications, using national
security, anti-terror measures and copyright laws to issue takedown notices and restrict opposition speech.[65]
- Internet, anonymity software and strong cryptography: In addition to Internet-based publishing the Internet in combination with anonymity software such as Tor and cryptography allows for sources to remain anonymous and sustain confidentiality while delivering information to or securely communicating with journalists anywhere in the world in an instant (e.g. SecureDrop, WikiLeaks)
- Voice over Internet protocol (VOIP) vs. conventional telephony:
Although conventional telephony systems are easily tapped and recorded,
modern VOIP technology can employ low-cost strong cryptography to evade
surveillance. As VOIP and similar technologies become more widespread
they are likely to make the effective monitoring of journalists (and
their contacts and activities) a very difficult task for governments.
Naturally, governments are responding to the challenges posed by new
media technologies by deploying increasingly sophisticated technology of
their own (a notable example being China's attempts to impose control
through a state-run internet service provider
that controls access to the Internet) but it seems that this will
become an increasingly difficult task as journalists continue to find
new ways to exploit technology and stay one step ahead of the generally
slower-moving government institutions that attempt to censor them.
In May 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama signed legislation intended to promote a free press around the world, a bipartisan measure inspired by the murder in Pakistan of Daniel Pearl, the Wall Street Journal reporter, shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The legislation, called the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act, requires the United States Department of State to expand its scrutiny of news media restrictions and intimidation as part of its annual review of human rights in each country.[66] In 2012 the Obama Administration collected communication records from 20 separate home and office lines for Associated Press
reporters over a two-month period, possibly in an effort to curtail
government leaks to the press. The surveillance caused widespread
condemnation by First Amendment experts and free press advocates, and
led 50 major media organizations to sign and send a letter of protest to
United States attorney general Eric Holder.
World ranking
World ranking 2015
On February 12, 2015, the Reporters without Borders
(RSF) published its annual report. In this report, 180 states have been
reviewed based on the freedom of press, independent media and also the
situation of reporters and journalists. Iran is at the 173rd of this
list that indicates, despite the Rouhani's
promises, freedom of speeches and journalists has not been improved;
the RSF concerns continue. According to the report, Iran ranked third on
the list on the imprisonment of journalists.
World ranking 2016
On
December 13, 2016, the Reporters without Borders (RSF) published its
annual report. The report reads: 348 journalists have been detained and
52 taken hostage in Iran in 2016. Following Turkey, China, Syria, Egypt, and Iran have almost two-thirds of detained journalists.
World ranking 2017
Based on the 2017 annual report on RSF, Iran along with China, Turkey, Vietnam, and Syria
are the largest prison for reporters and media activists. The report
says during 2017, among professional journalists, 50 have been killed
and 326 detained; 54 reporters have been taken hostage.
World ranking 2018
The
RSF in its annual report in 2018 documented deadly violence and
misbehavior against reporters saying for one year 80 reporters have been
killed, 348 detained, and 60 taken hostage which indicates an
unprecedented hostility against media staff. This organization
recognizes Iran as one of the five states which is called "prison of
reporters" along with China, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Turkey. Based on this report Iran is ranked 144th and is still one of the greatest prisons for journalists.
World ranking 2019
On April 18, the RSF published its annual report, Indication for Free Media in the world. In this report, among 180 states, Norway was the freest and safest country in the world. Finland and Sweden are the next. Meanwhile, Iran
lost its position in the list- compare to 2018- and is among the 11
countries that suppress the freedom of the media. Iran is on the bottom
of the list, ranked as the 170th state.
World ranking 2020
On April 21, the RSF in its 2020 annual report published the latest ranking of Freedom of Media. The Islamic Republic of Iran
is the 173rd in the list, declining three steps compare to 2019. The
three Iranian allied countries, Syria, China, and North Korea are 174th,
177th, and 180th. This organization accuses China and Iran of
censorship of news about an outbreak of coronavirus.
The impact of Coronavirus crisis on the freedom of media
Leaders
and members of the groups of friends of security and protection of
journalists signed a joint statement asking all countries amid the pandemic,
secure the safety, freedom, and independence of journalists and media
staff and guarantee free access to information, online and offline. They
said that with a great concern, we witness that governments are
imposing restrictive measures and disproportionately limiting freedom of speech, preventing the journalists of reporting the COVID-19 crisis.
Arresting, prosecuting, and harassing journalists and media staff
and also running demonizing campaigns to discard journalists as well as
expelling the foreign journalists due to covering the news on Coronavirus may lead to systematically violation of human rights. In democratic communities there is no room for immunity against punishment.
