Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender.
Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done
from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.
Gender issues can be broken down into many different categories
and can be rather controversial. They can include the way people
identify their gender (for example: male, female, genderqueer; transgender or cisgender)
and how they have been affected by societal structures relating to
gender (gender hierarchy), the role of gender in the individual's life
(such as stereotypical gender roles) and any other gender related issues.
The main objective behind this field of study is to understand
the individual within the larger social and political aspects of
society. Feminist psychology places a strong emphasis on women's rights. Psychoanalysis took shape as a clinical or therapeutic method, feminism as a political strategy.
History
Feminist psychoanalysis
The term feminist psychology was originally coined by Karen Horney. In her book, Feminine Psychology, which is a collection of articles Horney wrote on the subject
from 1922–1937, she addresses previously held beliefs about women,
relationships, and the effect of society on female psychology.
Functionalism, Darwinism and the psychology of women
The
beginning of psychology research presents very little information in
the way of female psychology. Many women did not fight against
oppression because they did not realize they were oppressed in the first
place. Once the functionalist movement came about in the United States, academic psychology's study of sex difference and a prototypical psychology of woman were developed.
https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/30/7/739.pdf
Anti-feminism after WWII
In 1942 Edward Strecker made "mom-ism" an official pathological syndrome under the APA.
Strecker believed that the country was under threat because mothers
were not emotionally disconnecting from their children at a young enough
age, and the matriarchy was making young men weak and losing their "man power". This fueled that anti-feminist movement; women were in need of psychotherapy to aid their mental illness and further prevent the spread of maternalism.
The psychological damage on the family would be severe if a woman chose
a career to satisfy her needs as opposed to her feminine domestic role
assigned by society. A woman's happiness was not important, she must
follow her role. The effect of women having independent thoughts and a
thirst for exploring her options was a huge threat to gender, as it
resulted in masculine women and feminized men, apparently confounding
the nation's youth and dooming their future. Constantinople and Bem both
agreed that men and women possess masculinity and femininity, and that
having both is being psychologically androgynous and a cause to be psychologically fixed or evaluated.
Gender research in the 1960s and 1970s
Esther
Greenglass states that in 1972, the field of psychology was still
male-dominated, women were totally excluded. The use of the word women
in conjunction with psychology was forbidden, men refused to be excluded
from the narrative. In her experience of teaching class, or being
assistant professors, they had to phrase it in the interest of human
beings or gender. Unger's paper "Toward a Redefinition of Sex and
Gender" said that the use of gender showed the separation of biological
and psychological sex. Psychology of women is feminist because it says
women are different from men and that women's behavior cannot be
understood outside of context. Feminists in turn compelled
psychoanalysts to consider the implications of one of Freud's own, most
uncompromising propositions: "that human beings consist of men and women
and that this distinction is the most significant one that exists."
In Liberating Minds: Consciousness-Raising as a Bridge Between Feminism and Psychology in 1970s Canada,
Nora Ruck leads with, "U.S. radical feminist Irene Peslikis warned that
equating women's liberating with individual therapy prevented women
from truly understanding and fighting the roots of their oppression." Canada was one of the few countries with an academic category within psychology for feminism. They relied on CR (consciousness raising)
groups to build their movement. Ruck describes the process of these CR
groups by "bridging the tensions" between the personal and political.
The development of CR as a political method in its own right is widely
attributed to the New York-based radical feminist collective
"Redstockings" (Echols, 1989). CR is also closely tied with radical feminism, which aims to weed out discrimination and segregation based on sex, and through a grassroots movement like socialist feminism, maintains that women's oppression is not a by-product of capitalist oppression but a "primary cause" (Koedt, 1968).
Joining the workforce
Women
were excluded from Freud's definition of mental health (the ability to
love and to work) because women wanting jobs was attributed to a
masculinity complex or envy of men. Between 1970 and 1980 the percentage
of women working outside the home had risen from 43 to 51, in the
United States. Although women reported having difficulty juggling the
roles of mother and provider, they found a way to be fulfilled void of
childbearing.
Women continue to be a large percentage of the workforce in
psychological positions. In 2013, 68.3 percent of the psychological
positions in the United States of America were held by women, and as of
2019 it was 70 percent.
This resulted in 2.1 women in the workforce for every 1 man, a drastic
shift from Freud's previous school of thought on women in the workforce
(APA, 2013). The workforce does consider semi-retired psychologists as
well; however, women still overtake men when comparing active
psychologists, and have less percentage than men for semi-retired and
retired psychologists (APA, 2013).
The Committee on Women in Psychology (CWP), was founded in 1973. It was
founded with the mission " 'to advance psychology as a science and a
profession...' — by ensuring that women in all their diversity achieve
equality within the psychological community and in the larger
society..." (APA, 2017). There are also journals that focus on women in
psychology, such as SAGE, which is recognized by the APA (SAGE, 2017).
SAGE journal publishes articles about the mental health of women in the
workforce, and what it is like for single mothers in the country, all of
which are common topics in feminism as it is (SAGE, 2017). These
movements that have occurred over time show a clear shift in culture
from Freud's original philosophy on mental health, where women are not
only included, but are also part of every aspect of the workforce of
psychology. The APA Leadership Institute for Women in Psychology emerged
to support and empower women in psychological fields. Women such as
Cynthia de las Fuentes are not only pushing for feminist psychology to
be a more popular topic, but also do research in why some might be
moving away from feminism, and by extension, feminism psychology (APA,
2006).
Organizations
Association for Women in Psychology (AWP)
The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was created in 1969 in response to the American Psychological Association's apparent lack of involvement in the Women's Liberation Movement.
The organization formed with the purpose of fighting for and raising
awareness of feminist issues within the field of psychology. The
association focused its efforts toward feminist representation in the
APA and finally succeeded in 1973 with the establishment of APA Division
35 (the Society for the Psychology of Women).
Society for the Psychology of Women
APA Division 35, the Society for the Psychology of Women, was established in 1973.
It was created to provide a place for all people interested in the
psychology of women to access information and resources in the field.
The society for the Psychology of Women works to incorporate feminist
concerns into the teaching and practice of psychology. Division 35 also
runs a number of committees, projects, and programs.
Section on Women and Psychology (SWAP)
The Canadian Psychological Association
(CPA) has a section on Women and Psychology (SWAP), which is meant "to
advance the status of women in psychology, promote quity for women in
general, and to educate psychologists and the public on topics relevant
to women and girls." SWAP supports projects such as Psychology's Feminist Voices.
The Journal of Diversity in Higher Education
expresses that female psychologists are often considered to be
inefficient due to their low contribution in scientific productivity.
Hence, women tend to dominate in low level positions than their male
counterparts even if they acquire their doctoral degrees.
"They did not show any acknowledgement or appreciation that there was a
difference and that there was a need for it, and that was around the
time that we were giving a course here interdisciplinary, not in
psychology. I still didn't have a course here because they wouldn't let
me do it. And the men pretty well called the shots when they told you,
you can't do it, you just, you don't do it." (Greenglass, 2005).
The Psychology of Women Section (BPS)
The Psychology of Women Section (BPS), of the British Psychological Society
was created in 1988 to draw together everyone with an interest in the
psychology of women, to provide a forum to support research, teaching
and professional practice, and to raise an awareness of gender issues
and gender inequality in psychology as profession and as practice. POWS
is open to all members of the British Psychological Society.
Current research
Emotion
A major topic of study within feminist psychology is that of gender
differences in emotion. In general, feminist psychologists view emotion
as culturally controlled and state that the differences lie in the
expression of emotion rather than the actual experience. The way a person shows his or her emotions is defined by socially enforced display rules which guide the acceptable forms of expression for particular people and feelings.
Stereotypes of emotion view women as the more emotional sex.
However, feminist psychologists point out that women are only viewed as
experiencing passive emotions such as sadness, happiness, fear, and
surprise more strongly. Conversely, men are viewed to most likely to
express emotions of a more dominant nature, such as anger.
Feminist psychologists believe that men and women are socialized
throughout their lifetimes to view and express emotions differently.
From infancy mothers use more facial expression when speaking to female
babies and use more emotion words in conversation with them as they get
older.
Girls and boys are further socialized by peers where as girls are
rewarded for being sensitive and emotional and boys are rewarded for
dominance and lack of most emotional expression. Psychologists have also found that women, overall, are more skilled at decoding emotion using non-verbal cues. These signals include facial expression, tone of voice, and posture. Studies have shown gender differences in decoding ability beginning as early as age 3+1⁄2. The book Man and Woman, Boy and Girl looks at intersex patients in explaining why social factors are more important than biological factors in gender identity and gender roles and brought nature vs nurture issues back into the spotlight (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972).
Leadership
Social scientists in many disciplines study aspects of the "glass ceiling
effect", the invisible yet powerful barriers that prevent many women
from moving beyond a certain level in the workplace and other public
institutions. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, women in the United States comprised 47% of the workforce in 2010. However, there are only a small number of women with high held positions in corporations. Women constitute only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs (in 2014) and 19% of board members of S&P500 companies (in 2014), and 26% of college presidents.
In 2017 U.S. government bodies, women comprise 19.1% of U.S.
Representatives, 21% of U.S. Senators, 8% of state governors, and
similarly low percentages of state elected officials. Women of color have lower representation than white women. The U.S. lags behind other countries in gender parity in government representation; according to the Global Gender Gap Report of 2014, the U.S. ranked 33 out of 49 so-called "high-income" countries, and 83rd out of the 137 countries surveyed.
"Women affiliated with the American Academy of Psychoanalysis were
among the first to pursue such subjects as women's fear of success and
inclinations toward neurotic dependency. They acknowledged the cultural
forces inhibiting women's progress in non-domestic realms, particularly
the pressures inherent in a male-dominated society."
Much scholarship focuses on structural features inhibiting women's
progress in public spheres, rather than locating the source of the issue
on women themselves.
In addition, women experience a "sticky floor effect". The sticky
floor effect happens when women have no job path or ladder to higher
positions. When women have children, they experience a roadblock called
the maternal wall, which is when women receive fewer desirable
assignments and fewer opportunities for advancement after they have a
child. The patriarchy labels women as "nourishing facilitators" making
them not mentally strong enough to take part in the aggressive
male-dominated workforce without taking psychological and emotional
hits.
When women begin working at a company, their advancement can be limited
by not having a senior level employee taking an active role in the
development and career planning of junior employees. There are a lack of
female mentors to assist new female employees because there are fewer
women than men in higher level company positions. A woman with a male
mentor could experience difficulty in gaining bonding and advice from
out of work experiences. This is because men play basketball or golf and
typically exclude women from these endeavors. Other factors limiting
leadership for women are cultural differences, stereotypes, and
perceived threats. If women show a small amount of sensitivity, they are
stereotyped as being overly emotional. Generally, employers do not
accept sensitive, soft people as being able to tackle tough decisions or
handle leadership roles. However, if a woman displays male traits she
is portrayed as mean, butch, and aggressive. Women are viewed as less
competent when they showcase "non-feminine" traits and are not taken
seriously. These women don't brag about their accomplishments and feel
guilty for being able to go beyond stereotypes of feminine emotion and
thought in order to become masculine in their jobs, just to be
successful or try and be equal to men. Career women, whose professional
status depends on the appropriation of masculine traits, frequently
suffer from depression.
Recent research has connected the concept of stereotype threat with
girls' motivations to avoid success as an individual difference, girls
might avoid participation in certain male-dominated fields due to real
and perceived obstacles to success in those fields, although there is
little that can be proven (e.g., Spencer et al. 1999).
Another factor leading to discrimination and stress are cultural
differences between managers and workers. For example, if a manager is
white and has an employee of color, stress may be created if they do not
understand or respect each other. Without trust and respect,
advancement is unlikely. Our depiction of gender identity is white and
middle class. White women are described as intelligent, manipulative,
and privileged by Black women, who are described as strong, determined,
and having attitude (Burack, 2002). "There it is, White fear of Black
anger", was written in Ladies Home Journal (Edwards 1998: 77).
Regarding perceived threats at work, it is not a matter of sexual
harassment or harassment in general. The threat is the fact that women
could possibly take over. The more women working in a place of
employment, the increased threat a man feels over job security. In a
study of 126 male managers, when asked to estimate the number of women
working at their place of employment and whether or not they felt men
were disadvantaged. Men who believed there were many women felt
threatened about the security of their job (Beaton et al., 1996). Alice
Eagly and Blair Johnson (1990) discovered that men and women have
different small differences in their styles of leadership. Women in power were seen as interpersonal and more democratic, whereas men were seen as task-oriented and more autocratic.
In reality, men and women are equally effective in their styles of
leadership. A study by Alice Eagly (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995)
found no overall differences in the effectiveness of male and female
leaders in facilitating accomplishment of their group goals.
Violence
Feminists argue that gender-based violence occurs frequently in the forms of domestic violence, sexual harassment, childhood sexual abuse, sexual assault, and rape. Violence towards women
can be physical or psychological and is not limited by race, economic
status, age, ethnicity, or location. Women can be abused by strangers
but most often the abuser is someone the woman knows. Violence can have
both short- and long-term effects on women, and they react to the abuse
in various ways. Some women express emotions such as fear, anxiety, and
anger. Others choose to deny it occurred and conceal their feelings.
Often, women blame themselves for what happened and try to justify that
they somehow deserved it. Among victims of violence, psychological
disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder and depression
are common. In addition to the psychological ramifications, many women
also sustain physical injuries from the violence that require medical
attention.
Relational-cultural theory
Relational-cultural theory is based on the work of Jean Baker Miller, whose book Toward a New Psychology of Women
proposes that "growth-fostering relationships are a central human
necessity and that disconnections are the source of psychological
problems." Inspired by Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique,
and other feminist classics from the 1960s, relational-cultural theory
proposes that "isolation is one of the most damaging human experiences
and is best treated by reconnecting with other people", and that
therapists should "foster an atmosphere of empathy and acceptance for
the patient, even at the cost of the therapist's neutrality".
The theory is based on clinical observations and sought to prove that
"there was nothing wrong with women, but rather with the way modern
culture viewed them".
Transnational Feminist Psychology
In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American
Psychological Association journals were about US populations when U.S.
citizens are only 5% of the world's population. He complained that
psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be
universal and generalizing research findings to the rest of the global
population.
In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan reported a systemic bias in
conducting psychology studies with participants from WEIRD ("western,
educated, industrialized, rich and democratic") societies.
Although only 1/8 people worldwide live in regions that fall into the
WEIRD classification, the researchers claimed that 60–90% of psychology
studies are performed on participants from these areas. Arnett (2008),
Altmaier and Hall (2008), and Morgan-Consoli et al. (2018) saw the
Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering
psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles
developed in W.E.I.R.D. regions in their research, clinical work, and
consultation with populations around the world.
Kurtis, Adams, Grabe, and Else-Quest coined the term transnational feminist psychology (also called transnational psychology). The term refers to an approach that applies the principles of transnational feminism,
developed through interdisciplinary work in postcolonial and feminist
studies, to the field of psychology to study, understand, and address
the impact of colonization, imperialism, migration, and globalization on
women around the world.
Kurtis and Adams proposed using these principles and a
context-sensitive cultural psychology lens to reconsider, de-naturalize,
and de-universalize psychological science. Grabe and Else-Quest also proposed the concept of "transnational intersectionality" that expands current conceptions of intersectionality, adding global forces to the analysis of how oppressive institutions are interconnected.
Kurtis and Adams emphasized that people in the non-Western, "Majority
World" (areas where the majority of the world's population lives) are
important resources who can help counter Western biases and revise
current theory to develop a more pluralistic psychological science. In
2015 a Summit was organized by Machizawa, Collins, and Rice to further
develop "transnational psychology."
Participants applied transnational psychological perspectives to
research, assessment, interventions, migration, domestic violence,
education, career, human trafficking, sexuality, pedagogy, and other
topics in psychology.
Feminist therapy
Feminist therapy
is a type of therapy based on viewing individuals within their
sociocultural context. The main idea behind this therapy is that the
psychological problems of women and minorities are often a symptom of
larger problems in the social structure in which they live. There is a
general agreement that women are more frequently diagnosed with
internalizing disorders such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorders than men.
Feminist therapists dispute earlier theories that this is a result of
psychological weakness in women and instead view it as a result of
encountering more stress because of sexist practices in our culture.
A common misconception is that feminist therapists are only concerned
with the mental health of women. While this is certainly a central
component of feminist theory, feminist therapists are also sensitive to
the impact of gender roles on individuals regardless of sex.
Goldman found the connection between psychoanalysis and feminism as the
recognition of sexuality as preeminent in the makeup of women as well as
men. Freud found that men's ideology was forced onto women in order to
sexually repress them, connecting the public and private spheres for the
subjugation of women.
The goal of feminist therapy is the empowerment of the client.
Generally, therapists avoid giving specific diagnoses or labels and
instead focus on problems within the context of living in a sexist
culture. Clients are sometimes trained to be more assertive and
encouraged to understand their problems with the intent of changing or
challenging their circumstances.
Feminist therapists view lack of power as a major issue in the
psychology of women and minorities. Accordingly, the client-therapist
relationship is meant to be as egalitarian as possible with both sides communicating on equal ground and sharing experiences.
Feminist therapy is different from other types of therapy in that
it goes beyond the idea that men and women should be treated equally in
the therapeutic relationship. Feminist therapy incorporates political
values to a greater extent than many other types of therapy. Also,
feminist therapy encourages social change as well as personal change in
order to improve the psychological state of the client and society.
Issues with traditional therapies
Gender biases
Many
traditional therapies assume that women should follow sex-roles in
order to be mentally healthy. They believe gender differences are
biologically based and encourage female clients to be submissive,
expressive, and nurturant in order to achieve fulfillment
Psychotherapy is a male-dominated practice and supports women's
adjustment to stereotypical gender roles instead of women's liberation.
This may be done unconsciously by the therapist – for example, they may
encourage a female to be a nurse, when they would have encouraged a
male client of the same abilities to be a doctor, but there is the risk
that the goals and outcomes of therapy will be evaluated differently in
accordance with the therapist's beliefs and values. Inequality between
the sexes and restrictions on sex roles are perpetuated by evolutionary
psychology, but we could understand the role of gender in scientific
communities by using feminist research strategies and admitting to
gender bias (Fehr, 2012).
Androcentrism
Traditional
therapies are based on the assumption that being male is the norm. Male
traits are seen as the default, and stereotypical male traits are seen
as more highly valued.
Men are considered the standard of comparison when comparing gender
differences, with feminine traits viewed as a deviation from the norm
and a deficiency on the part of women.
Psychological theories of female development were written by men who
are completely uninformed by women's actual experiences and the
conditions under which they lived.
Intrapsychic assumptions
Traditional
therapies place little emphasis on sociopolitical influences, focusing
instead on the client's internal functioning. This can lead therapists
to blame clients for their symptoms, even if the client may in fact be
coping admirably in a difficult and oppressive situation. Another possible issue can arise if therapists pathologize normal responses to oppressive environments.
Principles of empowerment
The personal is political
This
principle stems from the belief that psychological symptoms are caused
by the environment. The goal of the therapist is to separate the
external from the internal so the client can become aware of the
socialization and oppression they have experienced, and attribute their
problems to the appropriate causes.
Feminist stance is largely marginalized and seen as standing outside of
mainstream psychiatry, and there is the power-based distribution of
knowledge, which gives therapists the ability to label women's disorders
without knowing their lived experiences.
Therapists do not view their client's cognition or behaviors as
maladaptive – indeed, symptoms of depression or post traumatic stress
disorder are often considered to be the normal, rational response to
oppression and discrimination.
Traditional therapies place little emphasis on sociopolitical
influences, focusing instead on the client's internal functioning. This
can lead therapists to blame clients for their symptoms, even if the
client may in fact be coping admirably in a difficult and oppressive
situation. Another possible issue can arise if therapists pathologize normal responses to oppressive environments.
Egalitarian relationships
Feminist
therapists consider power inequalities to be a major contributing
factor to the struggles of women, and as such criticize the traditional
therapist role as an authority figure. Feminist therapists believe
interpersonal relationships should be based in equality, and view the
client as the "expert" in their own experiences. Therapists emphasize
collaboration, and use techniques such as self-disclosure to reduce the
power differential.
Value the female perspective
The
goal of feminist therapy is to re-value feminine characteristics and
perspectives. Often, women are criticized for breaking gender norms
while simultaneously being devalued for acting feminine. In order to
break this double bind, therapists encourage women to value the female
perspective and self-define themselves and their roles. In doing so,
clients can value their own characteristics, bond with other women, and
embrace traits that had previously been discouraged.
Techniques
Sex role analysis
One
component of feminist therapy involves a critique of cultural
conditioning that produces and maintains socially biased structures.
From birth, women are taught which behaviors are appropriate, and face
sanctions if they fail to conform to these standards. These gender
stereotypes are taught explicitly or implicitly by the family, media,
school, and the workplace, and lead to gender-related belief systems and
self-imposed expectations.
Before women can be free of these expectations, they need to gain
an understanding of the social systems that molded and encouraged these
gender stereotypes, and how this system impacted their mental health.
First, women work to identify the gendered messages they've received, as
well as the consequences. Then, women explore how these messages have
been internalized, and decide which rules they would like to follow and
which behaviors they would prefer to change.
Power analysis
Power
systems are organized groups that have legitimized status, that are
sanctioned by custom or law, that have the power to set the standards
for society. In Western society, women are expected to conform to the
power systems that place them as submissive and inferior to men.
Types of power include the legal, physical, financial, and
institutional ability to exert change. Often, men control direct power
via concrete resources, while women are left to use indirect means and
interpersonal resources. Also, sex-roles and institutionalized sexism
play a role in limiting the power women have.
Power analysis is the technique used to examine the power
differential between women and men, and to empower women to challenge
the interpersonal and institutional inequalities they face.
Assertiveness training
Assertiveness
has traditionally been associated with masculinity, which may have
influenced women feeling the need to be more passive in their
interactions with others. Feminist therapists work to help women
distinguish assertive behaviors from passive or aggressive ones,
overcome beliefs that tell women they cannot be assertive, and help
women rehearse assertiveness skills through role play.
Studies on the effects of assertiveness training on women have shown
increases in self-esteem and confidence after training was complete.
Application to other theories
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
The biggest feminist critique of cognitive-behavioral therapy
is that the theory fails to focus on how behaviors are learned from
society (NetCE, 2014). Often, the focus is on encouraging women to
change their "maladaptive" responses and conform to normative standards.
By putting the onus on the woman to change her thoughts and behaviors,
instead of changing the environmental factors that give rise to the
problems, the theory fails to question the social norms that condone the
oppression of women.
Despite this, feminist therapists do use cognitive-behavioral techniques
to help women change their beliefs and behaviors, in particular using
techniques such as sex-role analysis or assertiveness training (NetCE,
2014).
Psychoanalytic therapy
Many
psychoanalytic concepts are considered by feminist therapists to be
sexist and culturally-bound (NetCE, 2014). However, feminist
psychoanalysis adapts many of the ideas of traditional psychotherapy,
including the focus on early childhood experiences and the idea of
transference. Specifically, therapists serve as a mother figure and help
clients connect emotionally with others while maintaining an
individuated sense of self (NetCE, 2014).
Family systems therapy
The main critique of family systems therapy
is the endorsement of power imbalances and traditional gender roles.
For example, family systems therapists often respond to men and women
differently, for example placing more importance on the man's career or
placing the responsibility for childcare and housework on the mother
(Braverman, 1988).
Feminist therapists strive to make the discussion of gender roles
explicit in therapy, as well as focusing on the needs of and empowering
the woman in her relationship (Braverman, 1988). Therapists help
couples examine how gender role beliefs and power dynamics lead to
conflict. The focus is on encouraging more egalitarian relationships and
affirming the women's experiences (NetCE, 2014).
Core issues covered in therapy
Rape/domestic violence
A feminist approach to dealing with rape
or domestic abuse is focused on empowerment. Therapists help clients
analyze societal messages about rape or domestic abuse that encourage a victim-blaming
attitude, and try to help clients get past shame, guilt, and
self-blame. Often, women do not know the true definitions of abuse or
rape, and don't immediately identify themselves as victims.
Survivors often face negative reactions from others that lead to
re-victimization when trying to seek help, so therapists can help the
woman navigate the medical and legal services if she wishes. At all
times, although safety is the main concern, the therapist empowers the
woman to explore her options and make her own decisions (for example, to
leave the relationship or stay following an attack).
It is emphasized that any symptoms are in fact normal responses
to the traumatic effect, and the women is not pathologized. Both rape
and domestic violence are not viewed as something one can recover from,
but are instead viewed as experiences that one can integrate into one's
life story as one restructures one's self-esteem and self-confidence.
Career counseling
Occupational
choice is a main theme in feminist counseling. Women are more likely to
earn less than men, and are overrepresented in lower-status
occupations.
Several factors influence this career trajectory, including gender-role
stereotyping of which jobs are appropriate for men and women. Women are
often pointed towards nurturing jobs, while leadership jobs are
reserved for men.
Institutionalized sexism in the educational system often
encourages girls to study traditionally feminine subjects while
discouraging them from studying math and science. Discriminatory hiring
practices also reflect the attitude that men should be the breadwinner
and women are a riskier choice because their work will be disrupted once
they have children.
These societal messages often lead to internalized
negative messages, including lower self-confidence and self-esteem,
lower levels of assertiveness and willingness to negotiate, and the impostor syndrome, where women believe they do not deserve success and are merely lucky.
When women do seek nontraditional employment, they are placed in a
double bind, where they are expected to be competent at their job while
simultaneously being feminine. Especially for women in male-dominated
fields, trying to be competent and successful as a woman is difficult.
Feminist therapists
Feminist therapists work with women in search of
counseling, as well as men, for help in alleviating a variety of mental health concerns. Feminist
therapists have an interest in
gender
and how multiple social identities can impact an individual's
functioning. Psychologists or therapists who identify with the feminism,
the belief that women and men are equals, and/or feminist psychological
theory may call themselves feminist therapists. Currently, there are
not many postdoctoral training programs in feminist psychology, but
models for this training are being developed and modified for
institutions to start offering them. Most of this training is modeled around gender-fair counseling techniques.
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