An aneurysm is an outward bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon, caused by a localized, abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall. Aneurysms may be a result of a hereditary condition or an acquired disease. Aneurysms can also be a nidus (starting point) for clot formation (thrombosis) and embolization. As an aneurysm increases in size, the risk of rupture, which leads to uncontrolled bleeding, increases. Although they may occur in any blood vessel, particularly lethal examples include aneurysms of the circle of Willis in the brain, aortic aneurysms affecting the thoracic aorta, and abdominal aortic aneurysms. Aneurysms can arise in the heart itself following a heart attack, including both ventricular and atrial septal aneurysms. There are congenital atrial septal aneurysms, a rare heart defect.
Etymology
The word is from Greek: ἀνεύρυσμα, aneurysma, "dilation", from ἀνευρύνειν, aneurynein, "to dilate".
Classification
Aneurysms are classified by type, morphology, or location.
True and false aneurysms
A true aneurysm is one that involves all three layers of the wall of an artery (intima, media and adventitia). True aneurysms include atherosclerotic, syphilitic, and congenital aneurysms, as well as ventricular aneurysms that follow transmural myocardial infarctions (aneurysms that involve all layers of the attenuated wall of the heart are also considered true aneurysms).
A false aneurysm, or pseudoaneurysm,
is a collection of blood leaking completely out of an artery or vein
but confined next to the vessel by the surrounding tissue. This
blood-filled cavity will eventually either thrombose (clot) enough to seal the leak or rupture out of the surrounding tissue.
Pseudoaneurysms can be caused by trauma that punctures the artery, such as knife and bullet wounds, as a result of percutaneous surgical procedures such as coronary angiography or arterial grafting, or use of an artery for injection.
Morphology
Cross-section of an arterial aneurysm, showing most of the area consisting of organized mural thrombus (tan-brown area)
Aneurysms can also be classified by their macroscopic shapes and
sizes and are described as either saccular or fusiform. The shape of an
aneurysm is not specific for a specific disease. The size of the base or neck is useful in determining the chance of for example endovascular coiling.
Saccular aneurysms, or "berry" aneurysms, are spherical in shape
and involve only a portion of the vessel wall; they usually range from 5
to 20 cm (2.0 to 7.9 in) in diameter, and are often filled, either
partially or fully, by a thrombus.Saccular
aneurysms have a "neck" that connects the aneurysm to its main
("parent") artery, a larger, rounded area, called the dome.
Fusiform aneurysms ("spindle-shaped" aneurysms) are variable in
both their diameter and length; their diameters can extend up to 20 cm
(7.9 in). They often involve large portions of the ascending and
transverse aortic arch, the abdominal aorta, or, less frequently, the iliac arteries.
Location
Aneurysms can also be classified by their location:
Abdominal aortic aneurysms are commonly divided according to their
size and symptomatology. An aneurysm is usually defined as an outer
aortic diameter over 3 cm (normal diameter of the aorta is around 2 cm), or more than 50% of normal diameter that of a healthy individual of the same sex and age. If the outer diameter exceeds 5.5 cm, the aneurysm is considered to be large.
Aneurysm presentation may range from life-threatening complications of hypovolemic shock to being found incidentally on X-ray. Symptoms will differ by the site of the aneurysm and can include:
Symptoms can occur when the aneurysm pushes on a structure in the
brain. Symptoms will depend on whether an aneurysm has ruptured or not.
There may be no symptoms present at all until the aneurysm ruptures. For an aneurysm that has not ruptured the following symptoms can occur:
Abdominal aortic aneurysm involves a regional dilation of the aorta and is diagnosed using ultrasonography, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging.
A segment of the aorta that is found to be greater than 50% larger than
that of a healthy individual of the same sex and age is considered
aneurysmal. Abdominal aneurysms are usually asymptomatic but in rare cases can cause lower back pain or lower limb ischemia.
Renal (kidney) aneurysm
Flank pain and tenderness
Hypertension
Haematuria
Signs of hypovolemic shock
Risk factors
Risk factors for an aneurysm include diabetes, obesity, hypertension, tobacco use, alcoholism, high cholesterol, copper deficiency, increasing age, and tertiary syphilis infection.
Connective tissue disorders such as Loeys-Dietz syndrome, Marfan
syndrome, and certain forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome are also
associated with aneurysms. Aneurysms, dissections, and ruptures in
individuals under 40 years of age are a major diagnostic criteria of the
vascular form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (vEDS).
Specific infective causes associated with aneurysm include:
Cirsoid aneurysms, secondary to congenital arteriovenous malformations
Pathophysiology
Aneurysms
form for a variety of interacting reasons. Multiple factors, including
factors affecting a blood vessel wall and the blood through the vessel,
contribute.
The pressure of blood within the expanding aneurysm may also injure the blood vessels supplying the artery itself, further weakening the vessel wall. Without treatment, these aneurysms will ultimately progress and rupture.
Infection. A mycotic aneurysm is an aneurysm that results from an infectious process that involves the arterial wall.
A person with a mycotic aneurysm has a bacterial infection in the wall
of an artery, resulting in the formation of an aneurysm. One of the
causes of mycotic aneurysms is infective endocarditis.
The most common locations include arteries in the abdomen, thigh, neck,
and arm. A mycotic aneurysm can result in sepsis, or life-threatening
bleeding if the aneurysm ruptures. Less than 3% of abdominal aortic
aneurysms are mycotic aneurysms.
Copper deficiency. A minority of aneurysms are caused by copper deficiency, which results in a decreased activity of the lysyl oxidaseenzyme, affecting elastin, a key component in vessel walls. Copper deficiency results in vessel wall thinning, and thus has been noted as a cause of death in copper-deficient humans, chickens, and turkeys.
Mechanics
Aneurysmal
blood vessels are prone to rupture under normal blood pressure and flow
due to the special mechanical properties that make them weaker. To
better understand this phenomenon, we can first look at healthy arterial
vessels which exhibit a J-shaped stress-strain curve with high strength and high toughness (for a biomaterial in vivo).
Unlike crystalline materials whose linear elastic region follows
Hooke's Law under uniaxial loading, many biomaterials exhibit a J-shaped
stress-strain curve which is non-linear and concave up.
The blood vessel can be under large strain, or the amount of stretch
the blood vessel can undergo, for a range of low applied stress before
fracture, as shown by the lower part of the curve. The area under the
curve up to a given strain is much lower than that for the equivalent
Hookean curve, which is correlated to toughness. Toughness
is defined as the amount of energy per unit volume material can absorb
before rupturing. Because the amount of energy released is proportional
to the amount of crack propagation, the blood vessel wall can withstand
pressure and is "tough". Thus, healthy blood vessels with the mechanical
properties of the J-shaped stress-strain curve have greater stability
against aneurysms than materials with linear elasticity.
Blood vessels with aneurysms, on the other hand, are under the
influence of an S-shaped stress-strain curve. As a visual aid, aneurysms
can be understood as a long, cylindrical balloon. Because it's a tight
balloon under pressure, it can pop at any time stress beyond a certain
force threshold is applied. In the same vein, an unhealthy blood vessel
has elastic instabilities that lead to rupture.
Initially, for a given radius and pressure, stiffness of the material
increases linearly. At a certain point, the stiffness of the arterial
wall starts to decrease with increasing load. At higher strain values,
the area under the curve increases, thus increasing the impact on the
material that would promote crack propagation. The differences in the
mechanical properties of the aneurysmal blood vessels and the healthy
blood vessels stem from the compositional differences of the vessels.
Compared to normal aortas, aneurysmal aortas have a much higher volume
fraction of collagen and ground substance (54.8% vs. 95.6%) and a much
lower volume fraction of elastin (22.7% vs. 2.4%) and smooth muscles
(22.6% vs. 2.2%), which contribute to higher initial stiffness.
It was also found that the ultimate tensile strength, or the strength
to withstand rupture, of aneurysmal vessel wall is 50% lower than that
of normal aortas. The wall strength of ruptured aneurysmal aortic wall was also found to be 54.2 N/cm2, which is much lower than that of a repaired aorta wall, 82.3 N/cm2.
Due to the change in composition of the arterial wall, aneurysms
overall have much lower strength to resist rupture. Predicting the risk
of rupture is difficult due to the regional anisotropy the hardened
blood vessels exhibit, meaning that the stress and strength values vary
depending on the region and the direction of the vessel they are
measured along.
Diagnosis
Ruptured 7 mm left vertebral artery aneurysm resulting in a subarachnoid hemorrhage as seen on a CT scan with contrast
Diagnosis of a ruptured cerebral aneurysm is commonly made by finding signs of subarachnoid hemorrhage on a computed tomography (CT) scan. If the CT scan is negative but a ruptured aneurysm is still suspected based on clinical findings, a lumbar puncture can be performed to detect blood in the cerebrospinal fluid. Computed tomography angiography
(CTA) is an alternative to traditional angiography and can be performed
without the need for arterial catheterization. This test combines a
regular CT scan with a contrast dye injected into a vein. Once the dye
is injected into a vein, it travels to the cerebral arteries, and images
are created using a CT scan. These images show exactly how blood flows
into the brain arteries.
Treatment
Historically, the treatment of arterial aneurysms has been limited to either surgical intervention or watchful waiting in combination with control of blood pressure. At least, in the case of abdominal aortic aneurysm
(AAA), the decision does not come without significant risk and cost,
hence, there is a great interest in identifying more advanced
decision-making approaches that are not solely based on the AAA diameter, but involve other geometrical and mechanical nuances such as local thickness and wall stress. In recent years,
endovascular or minimally invasive techniques have been developed for
many types of aneurysms. Aneurysm clips are used for surgical procedure
i.e. clipping of aneurysms.
There are currently two treatment options for brain aneurysms:
surgical clipping or endovascular coiling. There is currently debate in
the medical literature about which treatment is most appropriate given
particular situations.
Surgical clipping was introduced by Walter Dandy of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1937. It consists of a craniotomy
to expose the aneurysm and closing the base or neck of the aneurysm
with a clip. The surgical technique has been modified and improved over
the years.
Endovascular coiling was introduced by Italian neurosurgeon Guido Guglielmi at UCLA
in 1989. It consists of passing a catheter into the femoral artery in
the groin, through the aorta, into the brain arteries, and finally into
the aneurysm itself. Platinum coils initiate a clotting reaction within
the aneurysm that, if successful, fills the aneurysm dome and prevents
its rupture. A flow diverter can be used, but risks complications.
Aortic and peripheral
Endovascular stent and endovascular coil
For aneurysms in the aorta, arms, legs, or head, the weakened section
of the vessel may be replaced by a bypass graft that is sutured at the
vascular stumps. Instead of sewing, the graft tube ends, made rigid and
expandable by nitinol wireframe, can be easily inserted in its reduced
diameter into the vascular stumps and then expanded up to the most
appropriate diameter and permanently fixed there by external ligature.New devices were recently developed to substitute the external ligature
by expandable ring allowing use in acute ascending aorta dissection,
providing airtight (i.e. not dependent on the coagulation integrity),
easy and quick anastomosis extended to the arch concavity Less invasive endovascular techniques allow covered metallic stent grafts to be inserted through the arteries of the leg and deployed across the aneurysm.
Renal
Renal aneurysms are very rare consisting of only 0.1–0.09% while rupture is even more rare.Conservative treatment with control of concomitant hypertension being
the primary option with aneurysms smaller than 3 cm. If symptoms occur,
or enlargement of the aneurysm, then endovascular or open repair should
be considered. Pregnant women (due to high rupture risk of up to 80%) should be treated surgically.
Epidemiology
Incidence
rates of cranial aneurysms are estimated at between 0.4% and 3.6%.
Those without risk factors have expected prevalence of 2–3%.
In adults, females are more likely to have aneurysms. They are most
prevalent in people ages 35 – 60 but can occur in children as well.
Aneurysms are rare in children with a reported prevalence of .5% to
4.6%. The most common incidence is among 50-year-olds, and there are
typically no warning signs. Most aneurysms develop after the age of 40.
Pediatric aneurysms
Pediatric aneurysms have different incidences and features than adult aneurysms. Intracranial aneurysms are rare in childhood, with over 95% of all aneurysms occurring in adults.
Risk factors
Incidence
rates are two to three times higher in males, while there are more
large and giant aneurysms and fewer multiple aneurysms.
Intracranial hemorrhages are 1.6 times more likely to be due to
aneurysms than cerebral arteriovenous malformations in whites, but four
times less in certain Asian populations.
Most patients, particularly infants, present with subarachnoid
hemorrhage and corresponding headaches or neurological deficits. The
mortality rate for pediatric aneurysms is lower than in adults.
Modeling
Vortex
formation inside an aneurysm. 1- Blood flow inlet. 2- Vortex formation
inside aneurysm. Velocity at center is near zero. 3- Blood flow exit
Modeling of aneurysms consists of creating a 3D model that mimics a
particular aneurysm. Using patient data for the blood velocity, and
blood pressure, along with the geometry of the aneurysm, researchers can
apply computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) to predict whether an aneurysm is benign or if it is at risk of
complication. One risk is rupture. Analyzing the velocity and pressure
profiles of the blood flow leads to obtaining the resulting wall shear
stress on the vessel and aneurysm wall. The neck of the aneurysm is the
most at risk due to the combination of a small wall thickness and high
wall shear stress. When the wall shear stress reaches its limit, the
aneurysm ruptures, leading to intracranial hemorrhage.
Conversely, another risk of aneurysms is the creation of clots.
Aneurysms create a pocket which diverts blood flow. This diverted blood
flow creates a vortex inside of the aneurysm. This vortex can lead to
areas inside of the aneurysm where the blood flow is stagnant, which
promotes formations of clots. Blood clots can dislodge from the
aneurysm, which can then lead to an embolism when the clot gets stuck
and disrupts blood flow. Model analysis allows these risky aneurysms to
be identified and treated.
In the past, aneurysms were modeled as rigid spheres with linear
inlets and outlets. As technology advances, the ability to detect and
analyze aneurysms becomes easier. Researchers are able to CT scan
a patient's body to create a 3D computer model that possesses the
correct geometry. Aneurysms can now be modeled with their distinctive
"balloon" shape. Nowadays researchers are optimizing the parameters
required to accurately model a patient's aneurysm that will lead to a
successful intervention. Current modeling is not able to take into
account all variables though. For example, blood is considered to be a non-Newtonian fluid.
Some researchers treat blood as a Newtonian fluid instead, as it
sometimes has negligible effects to the analysis in large vessels. When
analyzing small vessels though, such as those present in intracranial
aneurysms. Similarly, sometimes it is difficult to model the varying
wall thickness in small vessels, so researchers treat wall thickness as
constant. Researchers make these assumptions to reduce computational
time. Nonetheless, making erroneous assumptions could lead to a
misdiagnosis that could put a patient's life at risk.
Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, vagina or anus, or through a puncture in the skin.
Hypovolemia is a massive decrease in blood volume, and death by excessive loss of blood is referred to as exsanguination. Typically, a healthy person can endure a loss of 10–15% of the total blood volume without serious medical difficulties (by comparison, blood donation typically takes 8–10% of the donor's blood volume). The stopping or controlling of bleeding is called hemostasis and is an important part of both first aid and surgery.
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) implies the presence of blood within the subarachnoid space
from some pathologic process. The common medical use of the term SAH
refers to the nontraumatic types of hemorrhages, usually from rupture of
a berry aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation (AVM). The scope of this article is limited to these nontraumatic hemorrhages.
Eyes
Subconjunctival hemorrhage — bloody eye arising from a broken blood vessel in the sclera (whites of the eyes). Often the result of strain, including sneezing, coughing, vomiting or other kind of strain
Bleeding arises due to either traumatic injury, underlying medical condition, or a combination.
Traumatic injury
Traumatic bleeding is caused by some type of injury. There are different types of wounds which may cause traumatic bleeding. These include:
Abrasion
— Also called a graze, this is caused by transverse action of a foreign
object against the skin, and usually does not penetrate below the epidermis.
Excoriation
— In common with Abrasion, this is caused by mechanical destruction of
the skin, although it usually has an underlying medical cause.
Hematoma — Caused by damage to a blood vessel that in turn causes blood to collect in an enclosed area.
Laceration
— Irregular wound caused by blunt impact to soft tissue overlying hard
tissue or tearing such as in childbirth. In some instances, this can
also be used to describe an incision.
Incision — A cut into a body tissue or organ, such as by a scalpel, made during surgery.
Puncture Wound — Caused by an object that penetrated the skin and underlying layers, such as a nail, needle or knife.
Contusion — Also known as a bruise, this is a blunt trauma damaging tissue under the surface of the skin.
Crushing
Injuries — Caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a
period of time. The extent of a crushing injury may not immediately
present itself.
Ballistic Trauma
— Caused by a projectile weapon such as a firearm. This may include two
external wounds (entry and exit) and a contiguous wound between the
two.
The pattern of injury, evaluation and treatment will vary with the
mechanism of the injury. Blunt trauma causes injury via a shock effect;
delivering energy over an area. Wounds are often not straight and
unbroken skin may hide significant injury. Penetrating trauma follows
the course of the injurious device. As the energy is applied in a more
focused fashion, it requires less energy to cause significant injury.
Any body organ, including bone and brain, can be injured and bleed.
Bleeding may not be readily apparent; internal organs such as the liver,
kidney and spleen may bleed into the abdominal cavity. The only
apparent signs may come with blood loss. Bleeding from a bodily orifice,
such as the rectum, nose, or ears may signal internal bleeding, but
cannot be relied upon. Bleeding from a medical procedure also falls into this category.
Medical condition
"Medical
bleeding" denotes hemorrhage as a result of an underlying medical
condition (i.e. causes of bleeding that are not directly due to trauma).
Blood can escape from blood vessels as a result of 3 basic patterns of injury:
The underlying scientific basis for blood clotting and hemostasis is discussed in detail in the articles, coagulation, hemostasis
and related articles. The discussion here is limited to the common
practical aspects of blood clot formation which manifest as bleeding.
Some medical conditions can also make patients susceptible to
bleeding. These are conditions that affect the normal hemostatic
(bleeding-control) functions of the body. Such conditions either are, or
cause, bleeding diatheses. Hemostasis involves several components. The main components of the hemostatic system include platelets and the coagulation system.
Platelets
are small blood components that form a plug in the blood vessel wall
that stops bleeding. Platelets also produce a variety of substances that
stimulate the production of a blood clot. One of the most common causes
of increased bleeding risk is exposure to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs). The prototype for these drugs is aspirin, which inhibits the
production of thromboxane. NSAIDs (for example Ibuprofen) inhibit the
activation of platelets,
and thereby increase the risk of bleeding. The effect of aspirin is
irreversible; therefore, the inhibitory effect of aspirin is present
until the platelets have been replaced (about ten days). Other NSAIDs,
such as "ibuprofen" (Motrin) and related drugs, are reversible and
therefore, the effect on platelets is not as long-lived.
There are several named coagulation factors that interact in a complex way to form blood clots, as discussed in the article on coagulation.
Deficiencies of coagulation factors are associated with clinical
bleeding. For instance, deficiency of Factor VIII causes classic hemophilia A while deficiencies of Factor IX cause "Christmas disease"(hemophilia B).
Antibodies to Factor VIII can also inactivate the Factor VII and
precipitate bleeding that is very difficult to control. This is a rare
condition that is most likely to occur in older patients and in those
with autoimmune diseases. Another common bleeding disorder is Von Willebrand disease.
It is caused by a deficiency or abnormal function of the "Von
Willebrand" factor, which is involved in platelet activation.
Deficiencies in other factors, such as factor XIII or factor VII are
occasionally seen, but may not be associated with severe bleeding and
are not as commonly diagnosed.
In addition to NSAID-related bleeding, another common cause of bleeding is that related to the medication, warfarin
("Coumadin" and others). This medication needs to be closely monitored
as the bleeding risk can be markedly increased by interactions with
other medications. Warfarin acts by inhibiting the production of Vitamin K
in the gut. Vitamin K is required for the production of the clotting
factors, II, VII, IX, and X in the liver. One of the most common causes
of warfarin-related bleeding is taking antibiotics. The gut bacteria
make vitamin K and are killed by antibiotics. This decreases vitamin K
levels and therefore the production of these clotting factors.
Deficiencies of platelet function may require platelet
transfusion while deficiencies of clotting factors may require
transfusion of either fresh frozen plasma or specific clotting factors, such as Factor VIII for patients with hemophilia.
Hemorrhaging is broken down into four classes by the American College of Surgeons' advanced trauma life support (ATLS).
Class I Hemorrhage involves up to 15% of blood volume. There is typically no change in vital signs and fluid resuscitation is not usually necessary.
Class II Hemorrhage involves 15–30% of total blood volume. A patient is often tachycardic (rapid heart beat) with a reduction in the difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressures. The body attempts to compensate with peripheral vasoconstriction.
Skin may start to look pale and be cool to the touch. The patient may
exhibit slight changes in behavior. Volume resuscitation with
crystalloids (Saline solution or Lactated Ringer's solution) is all that is typically required. Blood transfusion is not usually required.
Class III Hemorrhage involves loss of 30–40% of circulating blood volume. The patient's blood pressure drops, the heart rate increases, peripheral hypoperfusion (shock) with diminished capillary refill occurs, and the mental status worsens. Fluid resuscitation with crystalloid and blood transfusion are usually necessary.
Class IV Hemorrhage involves loss of >40% of circulating
blood volume. The limit of the body's compensation is reached and
aggressive resuscitation is required to prevent death.
This system is basically the same as used in the staging of hypovolemic shock.
Individuals in excellent physical and cardiovascular
shape may have more effective compensatory mechanisms before
experiencing cardiovascular collapse. These patients may look
deceptively stable, with minimal derangements in vital signs, while
having poor peripheral perfusion. Elderly patients or those with chronic
medical conditions may have less tolerance to blood loss, less ability
to compensate, and may take medications such as betablockers that can
potentially blunt the cardiovascular response. Care must be taken in the
assessment.
Massive hemorrhage
Although
there is no universally accepted definition of massive hemorrhage, the
following can be used to identify the condition: "(i) blood loss
exceeding circulating blood volume within a 24-hour period, (ii) blood
loss of 50% of circulating blood volume within a 3-hour period, (iii)
blood loss exceeding 150 ml/min, or (iv) blood loss that necessitates
plasma and platelet transfusion."
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization made a standardized grading scale to measure the severity of bleeding.
Acute bleeding from an injury to the skin is often treated by the application of direct pressure. For severely injured patients, tourniquets are helpful in preventing complications of shock. Anticoagulant medications may need to be discontinued and possibly reversed in patients with clinically significant bleeding. Patients that have lost excessive amounts of blood may require a blood transfusion.
The use of cyanoacrylate glue to prevent bleeding and seal battle wounds was designed and first used in the Vietnam War.
Skin glue, a medical version of "super glue", is sometimes used
instead of using traditional stitches used for small wounds that need to
be closed at the skin level.
Etymology
The word "Haemorrhage" (or hæmorrhage; using the æ ligature) comes from Latin haemorrhagia, from Ancient Greek αἱμορραγία (haimorrhagía, "a violent bleeding"), from αἱμορραγής (haimorrhagḗs, "bleeding violently"), from αἷμα (haîma, "blood") + -ραγία (-ragía), from ῥηγνύναι (rhēgnúnai, "to break, burst").
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability
to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. People with
high emotional intelligence can recognize their own emotions
and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and
behavior, discern between different feelings and label them
appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments.
Although the term first appeared in 1964, it gained popularity in the 1995 bestselling book Emotional Intelligence by science journalist Daniel Goleman. Goleman defined EI as the array of skills and characteristics that drive leadership performance.
Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and
strengthened, while others claim that it is an innate characteristic.
Various models have been developed to measure EI over the years. In 1987, Keith Beasley used the term Emotional Quotient (EQ) in an article, named after the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The trait model, developed by Konstantinos V. Petrides in 2001, focuses on self reporting of behavioral dispositions and perceived abilities. The ability model (Mayeret al., 2023), focuses on the individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment. Goleman's original model may now be considered a mixed model that combines what has since been modelled separately as ability EI and trait EI.
Recent research has focused on emotion recognition, which refers to the attribution of emotional states based on observations of visual and auditory nonverbal cues. In addition, neurological studies have sought to characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence.
Studies show that there is a correlation between people with high EI and positive workplace performance, although no causal relationships have been shown. EI is typically associated with empathy
because it involves a person relating their personal experiences with
those of others. Since its popularization in recent decades and links to
workplace performance, methods of developing EI have become sought by
people seeking to become more effective leaders.
The concept of Emotional Strength was introduced by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. The term "emotional intelligence" seems first to have appeared in a 1964 paper by Michael Beldoch, and in the 1966 paper by B. Leuner titled Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation which appeared in the psychotherapeutic journal Practice of child psychology and child psychiatry.
In 1983, Howard Gardner's Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea that traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain cognitive ability. He introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations).
The first published use of the term "EQ" (Emotional Quotient) is an article by Keith Beasley in 1987 in the British Mensa magazine.
In 1989, Stanley Greenspan put forward a model to describe EI, followed by another by Peter Salovey and John Mayer the following year.
However, the term became widely known with the publication of Goleman's book: Emotional Intelligence – Why it can matter more than IQ (1995). It is to this book's bestselling status that the term can attribute its popularity. Goleman followed up with several similar publications that reinforce use of the term.
Late in 1998, Goleman's Harvard Business Review article entitled "What Makes a Leader?"
caught the attention of senior management at Johnson & Johnson's
Consumer Companies (JJCC). The article spoke to the importance of
Emotional Intelligence (EI) in leadership success, and cited several
studies that demonstrated that EI is often the distinguishing factor
between great leaders and average leaders. JJCC funded a study which
concluded that there was a strong relationship between superior
performing leaders and emotional competence,
supporting theorists' suggestions that the social, emotional, and
relational competency set referred to as Emotional Intelligence is a
distinguishing factor in leadership performance.
Tests measuring EI have not replaced IQ tests as a standard metric of intelligence, and Emotional Intelligence has received criticism regarding its role in leadership and business success.
Definitions
Emotional
intelligence has been defined by Peter Salovey and John Mayer as "the
ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to
discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately,
and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior". This
definition was later broken down and refined into four proposed,
distinct abilities:
Perceiving
Using
Understanding
Managing emotions
Emotional intelligence also reflects an ability to use intelligence,
empathy, and emotions to enhance understanding of interpersonal
dynamics.
However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of
EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalization. Currently,
there are three main models of EI:
Ability model
Mixed model (usually subsumed under trait EI)
Trait model
Different models of EI have led to the development of various
instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these
measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different
constructs.
Specific ability models address the ways in which emotions
facilitate thought and understanding. For example, emotions may interact
with thinking and allow people to be better decision makers. A person who is more emotionally responsive to crucial issues will attend to the more crucial aspects of their life.
The emotional facilitation factor also involves knowing how to include
or exclude emotions from thought, depending on the context and
situation. This ability is related toemotional reasoning and understanding in response to the people, environment, and circumstances one encounters.
Ability model
Salovey and Mayer's strive to define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence.
Following their continuing research, their initial definition of EI was
revised to "The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to
facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to
promote personal growth." However, after pursuing further research,
their definition of EI evolved into "the capacity to reason about
emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the
abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate
emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional
knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth."
The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of
information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social
environment.
The model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process
information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate
emotional processing to wider cognition. This ability manifests itself
in certain adaptive behaviors. The model claims that EI includes four
types of abilities:
Perceiving emotions
the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures,
voices, and cultural artifacts—including the ability to identify one's
own emotions. Perceiving emotions is a basic aspect of emotional
intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information
possible.
Using emotions
the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive
activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally
intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
Understanding emotions
the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate
complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding
emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations
between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions
evolve over time.
Managing emotions
the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others.
The emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative
ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.
The ability EI model has been criticized for lacking face and predictive validity in the workplace. However, in terms of construct validity,
ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI
because they compare individual maximal performance to standard
performance scales and do not rely on individuals' endorsement of
descriptive statements about themselves.
Measurement
The current measure of Mayer and Salovey's model of EI, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), is based on a series of emotion-based problem-solving items.Consistent with the model's claim of EI as a type of intelligence, the test is modeled on ability-based IQ tests.
By testing a person's abilities on each of the four branches of
emotional intelligence, it generates scores for each of the branches as
well as a total score.
Central to the four-branch model is the idea that EI requires attunement to social norms. Therefore, the MSCEIT is scored in a consensus fashion,
with higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's
answers and those provided by a worldwide sample of respondents. The
MSCEIT can also be expert-scored so that the amount of overlap is
calculated between an individual's answers and those provided by a group
of 21 emotion researchers.
Although promoted as an ability test, the MSCEIT test is unlike
standard IQ tests in that its items do not have objectively correct
responses. Among other challenges, the consensus scoring criterion means
that it is impossible to create items (questions) that only a minority
of respondents can solve, because, by definition, responses are deemed
emotionally "intelligent" only if the majority of the sample has
endorsed them. This and other similar problems have led some cognitive
ability experts to question the definition of EI as a genuine
intelligence.
In a study by Føllesdal,
the MSCEIT test results of 111 business leaders were compared with how
their employees described their leader. It was found that there were no
correlations between a leader's test results and how he or she was rated
by the employees, with regard to empathy,
ability to motivate, and leader effectiveness. Føllesdal also
criticized the Canadian company Multi-Health Systems, which administers
the test. The test contains 141 questions but it was found after
publishing the test that 19 of these did not give the expected answers.
This has led Multi-Health Systems to remove answers to these 19
questions before scoring but without stating this officially.
Other measurements
Various other specific measures also assess ability in emotional intelligence. These include:
Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy (DANVA)
The Adult Facial version includes 24 photographs of equal amount of
happy, sad, angry, and fearful facial expressions of both high and low
intensities which are balanced by gender. The tasks of the participants
is to answer which of the four emotions is present in the given stimuli.
Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)
Participants try to identify 56 faces of Caucasian and Japanese
individuals expressing seven emotions such happiness, contempt, disgust,
sadness, anger, surprise, and fear, which may also trail off for 0.2
seconds to a different emotion.
Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU)
Test-takers complete 42 multiple-choice items assessing whether they
understand which of five emotions a person would be experiencing in a
given situation. There is also a brief version (STEU-B) consisting of 19
items.
Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM)
Test-takers complete 44 multiple-choice items in which they select
which of four possible responses is the most effective action to manage
emotions in a specified situation. There is also a brief version
(STEM-B) consisting of 18 items.
Mixed model
The model introduced by Daniel Goleman
focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive
leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines five main EI
constructs:
Self-awareness
– the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives,
values, and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide decisions
Self-regulation – involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances
Social skill – managing relationships to get along with others
Empathy – considering other people's feelings especially when making decisions
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies
within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate
talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can
be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that
individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that
determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as mere "pop psychology".
Measurement
Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:
The Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI), which was created in
1999, and the Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI), a newer
edition of the ECI, which was developed in 2007. The Emotional and
Social Competence – University Edition (ESCI-U) is also available. These
tools developed by Goleman and Boyatzis provide a behavioral measure of the Emotional and Social Competencies.
Konstantinos V. Petrides proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability-based model and a trait-based model of EI and has been developing the latter over many years in numerous publications. Trait EI is "a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."
In layman's terms, trait EI refers to an individual's self-perceptions
of their emotional abilities. This definition of EI encompasses
behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured by self report,
as opposed to the ability-based model which refers to actual abilities,
which have proven highly resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI
should be investigated within a personality framework. An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy.
The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman model
discussed above. The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait
leads to a construct that lies outside the taxonomy
of human cognitive ability. This is an important distinction in that it
bears directly on the operationalization of the construct and the
theories and hypotheses that are formulated about it.
Measurement
There are many self-report measures of EI,
including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence
Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. None of these assess
intelligence, abilities, or skills (as their authors often claim), but
rather, they are limited measures of trait emotional intelligence.
The most widely used and widely researched measure of self-report or
self-schema (as it is currently referred to) emotional intelligence is
the EQ-i 2.0. Originally known as the BarOn
EQ-i, it was the first self-report measure of emotional intelligence
available, the only measure predating Goleman's bestselling book.
The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) provides
an operationalization for the model of Konstantinos V. Petrides and
colleagues, that conceptualizes EI in terms of personality. The test encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability. The psychometric
properties of the TEIQue were investigated in a study on a
French-speaking population, where it was reported that TEIQue scores
were globally normally distributed and reliable.
The researchers found TEIQue scores were unrelated to nonverbal reasoning (Raven's matrices),
which they interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI
(as opposed to the view that it is a form of intelligence). As expected,
TEIQue scores were positively related to some of the Big Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness) as well as inversely related to others (alexithymia, neuroticism).
A number of quantitative genetic studies have been carried out within
the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects and
heritabilities for all trait EI scores.
Two studies (one a meta-analysis) involving direct comparisons of
multiple EI tests yielded very favorable results for the TEIQue.
The Big Five Personality Traits theory offers a straightforward
framework for understanding and enhancing relationships by uncovering
the motivations behind people's behaviors. This theory is equally
valuable for self-awareness and for improving interpersonal dynamics.
Also referred to as the Five Factor Model, the Big Five Model is the
most widely accepted personality theory. It suggests that personality
can be distilled into five fundamental dimensions, often remembered as
CANOE or OCEAN (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness,
extraversion). In contrast to other trait theories that sort
individuals into binary categories (e.g. introvert or extrovert), the
Big Five Model asserts that each personality trait exists on a spectrum.
Consequently, individuals are positioned along a continuum between two
contrasting poles.
General effects
A review published in the Annual Review of Psychology in 2008 found that higher emotional intelligence is positively correlated with:
Better social relations for children – Among children and teens,
emotional intelligence positively correlates with good social
interactions and relationships, and negatively correlates with deviance
from social norms and anti-social behavior measured both in and out of
school as reported by children themselves, their own family members, and
their teachers.
Better social relations for adults – High emotional intelligence
among adults is correlated with better self-perception of social ability
and more successful interpersonal relationships, with less
interpersonal aggression and problems.
Highly emotionally intelligent people are perceived more positively
by others – Other people perceive those with high EI to be more
pleasant, socially skilled, and empathic.
Better academic achievement
– Emotional intelligence is correlated with greater achievement in
academics as reported by teachers, but generally not higher grades once
the factor of IQ is taken into account.
Better social dynamics at work as well as better negotiating ability.
Better well-being – Emotional intelligence is positively correlated with higher life satisfaction
and self-esteem, and lower levels of insecurity or depression. It is
also negatively correlated with poor health choices and behavior.
Emotionally intelligent people are more likely to have a better
understanding of themselves and to make conscious decisions based on
emotion and rationale combined. Overall, it leads a person to self-actualization.
The relevance and importance of emotional intelligence in
contexts of business leadership, commercial negotiation, and dispute
resolution has been recognized, and professional qualifications and
continuous professional development have incorporated aspects of
understanding emotions and developing greater insight into emotional
interactions.
Especially in the globalized world, the ability to be a world leader is
becoming important. A high EQ allows business leaders to interact with
various different cultures, and they must be comfortable in these
diverse cultural environments, having diverse teams and organization. EQ has become an essential part of leading an organization.
Bullying is an abusivesocial interaction between peers that can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates a significant relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence. It also shows that emotional intelligence is a key factor in cybervictimization.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a set of abilities related to the
understanding, use, and management of emotion as it relates to one's
self and others. Mayer et al. define EI as: "accurately
perceiving emotion, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding
emotion, and managing emotion". The concept combines emotional and intellectual processes.
Lower emotional intelligence appears to be related to involvement in
bullying, as the bully and/or the victim of bullying. EI seems to play
an important role in both bullying behavior and victimization in bullying; given that EI is illustrated to be malleable, EI education could improve bullying prevention and intervention initiatives.
A meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and job performance showed correlations of r=.20 (for job performance & ability EI) and r=.29 (for job performance and mixed EI). Earlier research on EI and job performance
had shown mixed results: a positive relation has been found in some of
the studies, while in others there was no relation or an inconsistent
one. This led researchers Cote and Miners
to offer a compensatory model between EI and IQ, that posits that the
association between EI and job performance becomes more positive as
cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context
of academic performance. The results of the former study
supported the compensatory model: employees with low IQ get higher task
performance and organizational citizenship behavior directed at the
organization, the higher their EI. It has also been observed that there
is no significant link between emotional intelligence and work
attitude-behavior.
Another study suggests that EI is not necessarily a universally positive trait. The study found a negative correlation between EI and managerial work demands;
while under low levels of managerial work demands, they found a
negative relationship between EI and teamwork effectiveness. An
explanation for this may be gender differences in EI, as women tend to score higher levels than men.
This furthers the idea that job context plays a role in the
relationships between EI, teamwork effectiveness, and job performance.
Another study assessed a possible link between EI and entrepreneurial behaviors and success.
Although studies between emotional intelligence (EI) and job
performance have shown mixed results of high and low correlations, EI is
an undeniably better predictor than most of the hiring methods commonly
used in companies, such as letters of reference or cover letters.
By 2008, 147 companies and consulting firms in the U.S. had developed
programmes that involved EI for training and hiring employees. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran
showed that EI correlated significantly with different domains in
performance, ranging from .24 for job performance to .10 for academic
performance. Employees high on EI would be more aware of their own
emotions and others', which in turn, could lead companies to better
profits and less unnecessary expenses.
This is especially important for expatriate managers, who have to deal
with mixed emotions and feelings, while adapting to a new working
culture. Employees high in EI show more confidence in their roles, which allow them to face demanding tasks positively.
According to a science book by the journalist Daniel Goleman, emotional intelligence accounts for more career success than IQ.
Other studies argued that employees high on EI perform substantially
better than employees low in EI. This is measured by self-reports and
different work performance indicators, such as wages, promotions and
salary increase. According to Lopes et al.
EI contributes to developing strong and positive relationships with
co-workers and to performing efficiently in work teams. This benefits
performance of workers by providing emotional support and instrumental
resources needed to succeed in their roles.
Emotionally intelligent employees have better resources to cope with
stressing situations and demanding tasks, which enable them to
outperform in those situations. For instance, Law et al.
found that EI was the best predictor of job performance beyond general
cognitive ability among IT scientists in a computer company in China.
When examining the connection between job performance and
emotional intelligence, it's essential to take into account the impact
of "managing up," which signifies a positive rapport between an employee and their supervisor. Previous research found that the quality of this relationship could influence subjective assessments of job performance.
Employees with strong emotional intelligence tend to dedicate more time
to cultivating their rapport with supervisors. As a result, those with
higher EI are more likely to achieve favorable outcomes in performance
evaluations compared to those with lower EI.
Based on theoretical and methodological approaches, EI measures
are categorized in three main streams: (1) ability-based measures (e.g.
MSCEIT), (2) self-reports of abilities measures (e.g. SREIT, SUEIT and
WLEIS), and (3) mixed-models (e.g. AES, ECI, EI questionnaire, EIS, EQ-I
and GENOS), which include measures of EI and traditional social skills. O'Boyle Jr. et al.
found that the three EI streams together had a positive correlation of
0.28 with job performance. Similarly, each of EI streams independently
obtained a positive correlation of 0.24, 0.30, and 0.28, respectively.
Streams 2 and 3 showed an incremental validity for predicting job
performance over and above personality (Five Factor model) and general cognitive ability. Both streams 2 and 3 were the second most important predictor of job performance, below general cognitive ability.
Stream 2 explained 13.6% of the total variance, whereas stream 3
explained 13.2%. In order to examine the reliability of these findings, a
publication bias analysis was developed. Results indicated that studies
on EI-job performance correlation prior to 2010 do not present
substantial evidence to suggest the presence of publication bias. Noting that O'Boyle Jr. et al. had included self-rated performance and academic performance in their meta-analysis, Joseph, Jin, Newman, & O'Boyle
collaborated to update the meta-analysis to focus specifically on job
performance; using measures of job performance, these authors showed r=.20 (for job performance & ability EI) and r=.29 (for job performance and mixed EI).
The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations argues that there is a business case in favor of emotional intelligence but, despite the validity of previous findings, some researchers still
question whether EI-job performance correlation makes a real impact on
business strategies. Critics argue that the popularity of EI studies is
due to media advertising, rather than objective scientific findings.
Also, the relationship between job performance and EI is not as strong
as suggested. This relationship requires the presence of other
constructs to raise important outcomes. For instance, studies found that
EI is positively associated with teamwork effectiveness under job
contexts of high managerial work demands, which improves job
performance. This is due to the activation of strong emotions during the
performance on this job context. In this scenario, emotionally
intelligent individuals show a better set of resources to succeed in
their roles. However, individuals with high EI show a similar level of
performance than non-emotionally intelligent employees under different
job contexts. Moreover, Joseph and Newman
suggest that emotional perception and emotional regulation components
of EI highly contribute to job performance under job contexts of high
emotional demands. Moon and Hur found that emotional exhaustion
("burn-out") significantly influences the job performance-EI
relationship. Emotional exhaustion showed a negative association with
two components of EI (optimism and social skills). This association impacted negatively to job performance, as well.Hence, the job performance-EI relationship is stronger under contexts
of high emotional exhaustion or burn-out; in other words, employees with
high levels of optimism and social skills possess better resources to
outperform when facing high emotional exhaustion contexts.
Leadership
Several
studies attempt to study the relationship between EI and leadership.
Although EI plays a positive role in leadership effectiveness, what
makes a leader effective is what he/she does with his/her role, rather
than his/her interpersonal skills and abilities. Although in the past a
good or effective leader gave orders and controlled the overall
performance of the organization, almost everything is different
nowadays: leaders are now expected to motivate and create a sense of
belonging that makes employees feel comfortable, thus, making them work
more effectively.
This does not mean that actions are more important than emotional
intelligence. Leaders still need to grow emotionally in order to handle
stress, life balance, and other things.
A proper way to grow emotionally, for instance, is developing a sense
of empathy since empathy is a key factor when it comes to emotional
intelligence. In a study conducted to analyze the relationship between
school counselors' EI and leadership skills, it was concluded
that several participants were good leaders because their emotional
intelligence was developed in counselor preparations, where empathy is
taught.
Health
A 2007 meta-analysis of 44 effect sizes by Schutte et al.
found that emotional intelligence was associated with better mental and
physical health. Particularly, trait EI had the stronger association
with mental and physical health.
This was replicated in 2010 by researcher Alexandra Martins who found
trait EI is a strong predictor for health after conducting a
meta-analysis based on 105 effect sizes and 19,815 participants. This
meta-analysis also indicated that this line of research reached enough
sufficiency and stability to conclude EI is a positive predictor for
health.
An earlier study by Mayer and Salovey argued that high EI can
increase one's well-being because of its role in enhancing
relationships.
Self-esteem and drug dependence
A 2012 study in India cross-examined emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and marijuana dependence.
Out of a sample of 200, 100 of whom were dependent on cannabis and the
other 100 emotionally healthy, the dependent group scored exceptionally
low on EI when compared to the control group. They also found that the
dependent group also scored low on self-esteem when compared to the
control.
Another study in 2010 examined whether or not low levels of EI had a relationship with the degree of drug and alcohol addiction in Australia.
In the assessment of 103 residents in a drug rehabilitation center,
they examined their EI along with other psychosocial factors in a
one-month interval of treatment. They found that participants' EI scores
improved as their levels of addiction lessened as part of their
treatment.
Academic performance
A 2020 meta-analysis showed that students with higher emotional intelligence show higher academic performance at school.
This was a summary of over 1,246 effects from 158 different studies,
with a sample size of 42,529. Students with higher emotional
intelligence had better scores on standardized tests and achieved higher
grades. The effect was significantly larger for humanities than for
science/maths areas of study, and significantly larger for ability
emotional intelligence (measured with objective tasks), than for rating
scales of emotional intelligence. The association of emotional
intelligence with higher academic achievement was still significant even
after considering the effect of students' Big Five personality and
intelligence.
There are three reasons why greater emotional intelligence might predict stronger academic performance. First, emotionally intelligent students are able to regulate their
emotions at school—they are able to control their anxiety surrounding
tests and assessment, and their boredom when the material is not
intrinsically interesting. This means their emotions do not impede their test scores or their ability to learn.
Second, emotionally intelligent students are able to build better
social relationships with other students and with instructors. This means that they have sources of help when needed—other students
and teachers are more willing to help them when they get stuck.
Third, some of the abilities of emotional intelligence (understanding
emotions, for example) overlap with academic content, particularly in
the humanities. That is, analyzing universal themes in literature or the
social forces underpinning historic events require a knowledge of human
emotions.
Criticisms
EI, and Goleman's original 1995 analysis, have been criticized within the scientific community:
Predictive power
Landy
distinguishes between the "commercial" and "academic" discussion of EI,
basing this distinction on the alleged predictive power of EI as seen
by each of the two.
According to Landy, the former makes expansive claims on the applied
value of EI, while the latter is trying to warn users against these
claims. As an example, Goleman (1998)
asserts that "the most effective leaders are alike in one crucial way:
they all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional
intelligence.... emotional intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership." In contrast, Mayer (1999)
cautions that "the popular literature's implication—that highly
emotionally intelligent people possess an unqualified advantage in
life—appears overly enthusiastic at present and unsubstantiated by
reasonable scientific standards." Landy further reinforces this argument
by noting that the data upon which these claims are based are held in
"proprietary databases", which means they are unavailable to independent
researchers for reanalysis, replication, or verification.
It is difficult to create objective measures of emotional
intelligence and demonstrate its influence on leadership as many scales
are self-report measures.
In a 2009 academic exchange, Antonakis
and Ashkanasy/Dasborough mostly agreed that researchers who test
whether EI matters for leadership have not done so using robust research
designs; therefore, currently there is no strong evidence showing that
EI predicts leadership outcomes when accounting for personality and IQ.
Antonakis argued that EI might not be needed for leadership
effectiveness (he referred to this as the "curse of emotion" phenomenon,
because leaders who are too sensitive to their and others' emotional
states might have difficulty making decisions that would result in emotional labor
for the leader or followers). A 2010 meta-analysis seems to support the
Antonakis position: it found that, using data free from problems of
common source and common methods, EI measures correlated only ρ=0.11 with measures of transformational leadership. Barling, Slater, and Kelloway also support this position on transformational leadership.
Ability-measures of EI fared worst (i.e., ρ=0.04); the WLEIS (Wong-Law measure) did a bit better (ρ=0.08), and the Bar-On
measure slightly better (ρ=0.18). However, the validity of these
estimates does not include the effects of IQ or the big five
personality, which correlate both with EI measures and leadership.
A study analyzing the impact of EI on both job performance and
leadership found that the meta-analytic validity estimates for EI
dropped to zero when Big Five traits and IQ were controlled for. A meta-analysis showed the same result for Ability EI.
Self-reported and Trait EI measures retain a fair amount of
predictive validity for job performance after controlling Big Five
traits and IQ.
However the greater predictive validity of Trait EI measures can be
attributed to their inclusion of content related to achievement
motivation, self efficacy, and self-rated performance.
Meta-analytic evidence confirms that self-reported emotional
intelligence predicting job performance is due to mixed-EI and trait-EI
measures tapping into self-efficacy and self-rated performance, in
addition to the domains of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Conscientiousness,
and IQ. As such, the predictive ability of mixed EI to job performance
drops to nil when controlling for these factors.
A study of the predictive ability of EI for job performance
concluded that higher EI was associated with higher leadership
effectiveness regarding achievement of organizational goals.
This study shows that EI may serve an identifying tool in understanding
who is (or is not) likely to deal effectively with colleagues.
Furthermore, one can develop and enhance one's leadership qualities by
advancing one's emotional intelligence. EI can be deliberately
developed, specifically the facets of "facilitating thinking with
emotions" and "monitoring and regulation of emotions" in the workplace.
Correlations with personality
Researchers raised concerns about the extent to which self-report EI measures correlate
with established personality dimensions. Self-report EI measures and
personality measures converge because they both purport to measure
personality traits. Two dimensions of the Big Five stand out as most related to self-report EI: neuroticism and extraversion. Neuroticism relates to negative emotionality and anxiety. People who score high on neuroticism are likely to score low on self-report EI measures.
Studies examined the multivariate effects of personality and
intelligence on EI and attempted to correct estimates for measurement
error. For example, one study showed that general intelligence (measured
with the Wonderlic Personnel Test), agreeableness (measured by the
NEO-PI), as well as gender could reliably predict the measure of EI
ability. They gave a multiple correlation (R) of .81 with the MSCEIT (perfect prediction would be 1). This result was replicated.
The replication found a multiple R of .76 using Cattell's "Culture
Fair" intelligence test and the Big Five Inventory (BFI); significant
covariates were intelligence (standardized beta = .39), agreeableness
(standardized beta = .54), and openness (standardized beta = .46).
A study of the Ability Emotional Intelligence Measure found
similar results (Multiple R = .69), with significant predictors being
intelligence, standardized beta = .69 (using the Swaps Test and a
Wechsler scales subtest, the 40-item General Knowledge Task) and
empathy, standardized beta = .26 (using the Questionnaire Measure of
Empathic Tendency). Antonakis and Dietz (2011b) also show how including or excluding important controls variables can fundamentally change results.
Interpretations of the correlations between EI questionnaires and
personality have been varied, but a prominent view is the Trait EI
view, which re-interprets EI as a collection of personality traits.
A 2011 meta-analysis classified EI studies into three streams:
"(1) ability‐based models that use objective test items; (2) self‐report
or peer‐report measures based on the four‐branch model of EI; and (3)
'mixed models' of emotional competencies." It found that these "three
streams have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job
performance. The three streams correlated differently with cognitive
ability and with neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness. Streams 2 and 3 have the largest incremental
validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model (FFM)." The
meta-analysis concluded that "all three streams of EI exhibited
substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence
when predicting job performance."
A follow-up meta-analysis in 2015 further substantiated these findings,
and addressed concerns about "the questionable construct validity of
mixed EI measures" by arguing that "mixed EI instruments assess a
combination of ability EI and self-perceptions, in addition to
personality and cognitive ability."
A 2017 meta-analysis of 142 data sources found a very large overlap between the general factor of personality and trait EI. The overlap was so large they concluded that "The findings suggest that the general factor of personality is very similar, perhaps even synonymous, to trait EI."
However, the overlap between the general factor of personality and
ability EI was more moderate, with a correlation of about 0.28.
In 2021, two review papers examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and the dark triad of personality traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy).
This research found that emotional intelligence showed negative
associations with all three dark triad domains of personality. Of the
four ability branches of emotional intelligence, the largest effects
were for emotion management (versus emotion perception, use, or
understanding) and for psychopathy (versus narcissism or
Machiavellianism). The two different facets of narcissism showed
different relationships with emotional intelligence. Vulnerable
narcissism (characterized by anxiety and fragile self-esteem) was
associated with lower emotional intelligence. However, grandiose
narcissism (characterized by self-confidence, dominance, and an inflated
sense of ego) related to higher levels of emotional intelligence. This
indicates that not all "dark" personalities lack emotional intelligence.
A 2021 meta-analysis showed that emotional intelligence was
positively associated with secure attachment in adults, but negatively
associated with insecure attachment styles such as anxious attachment
and avoidant attachment.
The associations with anxious attachment and avoidant attachment were
significant for both ability EI and for rating scales of EI. However,
only rating scales of EI showed a significantly positive association
with secure attachment. The authors suggest that the early development
of attachment styles may facilitate (or hinder) the development of
emotional abilities and traits involved in EI.
Socially desirable responding
Socially
desirable responding (SDR), or "faking good", is a response pattern in
which test-takers systematically represent themselves with an excessive
positive bias. This bias has long been known to contaminate responses on personality inventories, acting as a mediator of the relationships between self-report measures.
It has been suggested that responding in a desirable way is a "response set"—a situational and temporary response pattern.
This is contrasted with a "response style", which is a more long-term
trait-like quality. Considering the contexts in which some self-report
EI inventories are used (e.g., employment settings), the problems of
response sets in high-stakes scenarios are clear.
There is evidence that people can ‘‘fake good’’ on emotional
intelligence tests, resulting in inaccurate measurement with several
studies showing people can distort their responses on both self-rated
and informant-rated emotional intelligence measures when instructed to.
There are a few methods to prevent socially desirable responding
on behavior inventories. Some researchers believe it is necessary to
warn test-takers not to fake good before taking a personality test. Some inventories use validity scales in order to determine the likelihood or consistency of the responses across all items.
EI as behavior rather than intelligence
Goleman's early work has been criticized for assuming that EI is a type of intelligence or cognitive ability.
Eysenck writes that Goleman's description of EI contains
unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general and that it
even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect when studying
types of intelligence:
"[Goleman] exemplifies more clearly
than most the fundamental absurdity of the tendency to class almost any
type of behavior as an 'intelligence'... If these five 'abilities'
define 'emotional intelligence', we would expect some evidence that they
are highly correlated; Goleman admits that they might be quite
uncorrelated, and in any case, if we cannot measure them, how do we know
they are related? So the whole theory is built on quicksand: there is
no sound scientific basis."
Similarly, Locke claims that the concept of EI is a misinterpretation
of the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative
interpretation: it is not another form or type of intelligence, but
intelligence—the ability to grasp abstractions—applied to a particular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.
The essence of these criticisms is that scientific inquiry
depends on valid and consistent construct utilization and that before
the introduction of the term EI, psychologists had established
theoretical distinctions between factors such as abilities and
achievements, skills and habits, attitudes and values, and personality
traits and emotional states. Some scholars believe that the term EI merges and conflates such accepted concepts and definitions.
EI as skill rather than moral quality
Adam Grant warned of the common but mistaken perception of EI as a desirable moral quality rather than a skill.
Grant asserted that a well-developed EI is not only an instrumental
tool for accomplishing goals, but can function as a weapon for
manipulating others by robbing them of their capacity to reason.
One
criticism of the works of Mayer and Salovey comes from a study that
suggests that the EI, as measured by the MSCEIT, may only be measuring
conformity.
This argument is rooted in the MSCEIT's use of consensus-based
assessment, and in the fact that scores on the MSCEIT are negatively
distributed (meaning that its scores differentiate between people with
low EI better than people with high EI).
EI as a form of knowledge
Another
criticism says that in contrast with tests of cognitive ability, the
MSCEIT "tests knowledge of emotions but not necessarily the ability to
perform tasks that are related to the knowledge that is assessed".
If someone knows how they should behave in an emotionally laden
situation, it does not necessarily follow that they could actually carry
out the reported behavior.
NICHD pushes for consensus
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
recognized that because there are divisions about the topic of EI, the
mental health community needs to agree on some guidelines to describe
good mental health and positive mental living conditions. In their
section, "Positive Psychology and the Concept of Health", they explain:
"Currently there are six competing models of positive health, which are
based on concepts such as being above normal, character strengths and
core virtues, developmental maturity, social-emotional intelligence,
subjective well-being, and resilience.
But these concepts define health in philosophical rather than empirical
terms. Dr. [Lawrence] Becker suggested the need for a consensus on the
concept of positive psychological health...".
