Share of children born alive that die before the age of 5 (2017)Breakdown of child mortality by cause, OWID
Child mortality is the death of children under the age of five.
The child mortality rate (also under-five mortality rate) refers to the
probability of dying between birth and exactly five years of age
expressed per 1,000 live births.
Reduction of child mortality is reflected in several of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.
Target 3.2 states that "by 2030, the goal is to end preventable deaths
of newborns and children under 5 years of age with all countries aiming
to reduce under‑5 mortality to as low as 25 per 1,000 live births."
Child mortality rates have decreased in the last 40 years. Rapid
progress has resulted in a significant decline in preventable child
deaths since 1990 with the global under-5 mortality rate declining by
over half between 1990 and 2016.
While in 1990, 12.6 million children under age five died and in 2016,
that number fell to 5.6 million children and then in 2020, the global
number fell again to 5 million. However, despite advances, there are still 15,000 under-five deaths per day from largely preventable causes.
About 80 percent of these occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia
and just 6 countries account for half of all under-five deaths: China,
India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo. 45% of these children died during the first 28 days of life. Death rates were highest among children under age 1, followed by children ages 15 to 19, 1 to 4 and 5 to 14.
Types of Child Mortality
Child mortality refers to number of child deaths under the age of 5 per 1,000 live births. More specific terms include:
Perinatal mortality rate: Number of child deaths within the first week of birth divided by total number of births.
Neonatal mortality rate: Number of child deaths within the first 28 days of life divided by total number of births.
Infant mortality rate: Number of child deaths within the first 12 months of life divided by total number of births.
Under 5 mortality rates: Number of child deaths within the 5th birthday divided by total number of births.
Child Mortality refers to the premature deaths of any child under
the age of 5 years old. However, within those 5 years, there are 5
smaller groups. Perinatal refers to a fetus, a living organism, but not yet born. Typically, perineonate deaths are due to premature birth or birth defects. Neonatal
refers to child death within one month or 28 days of birth. Neonate
deaths are reflected in the type of care the hospital is providing as
well as birth defects and complications. Infantdeath
refers to the death of a child before their first birthday or within 12
months of life. Some of the main causes include premature birth, SIDS,
low birth weight, malnutrition and infectious diseases. And lastly, the under-5mortalityrate refers to children who die under the age of 5 years old or within the first 5 years of life.
There is variation of child mortality around the world. Countries that are in the second or third stage of the DemographicTransitionMode (DTM) have higher rates of child mortality than countries in the fourth or fifth stage. Chad infant mortality is about 96 per 1,000 live births compared to only 2.2 per 1,000 live births in Japan. In 2010, there was a global estimate of 7.6 million child deaths especially in less developed countries and among those, 4.7 million died from infection and disorder.
Child mortality is not only caused by infection and disorder, it is
also caused by premature birth, birth defect, new born infection, birth
complication and diseases like malaria, sepsis, and diarrhea. In less developed countries, malnutrition is the main cause of child mortality.
Pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria together are the cause of one out of
every three deaths before the age of 5 while nearly half of under-five
deaths globally are attributable to under-nutrition.
Child survival is a field of public health concerned with reducing child mortality. Child survival
interventions are designed to address the most common causes of child deaths that occur, which include diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria,
and neonatal conditions. Out of the number of children under the age
of 5 alone, an estimated 5.6 million children die each year mostly from
such preventable causes.
The child survival strategies and interventions are in line with the fourth Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) which focused on reducing child mortality by 2/3 of children
under five before the year 2015. In 2015, the MDGs were replaced with
the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) which aim to end these deaths by 2030. In order to achieve SDG
targets, progress must be accelerated in more than 1/4 of all countries
(most of which are in sub-Saharan Africa) in order to achieve targets
for under-5 mortality and in 60 countries (many in sub-Saharan Africa
and South Asia) to achieve targets for neonatal mortality.
Without accelerated progress, 60 million children under age five will
die between 2017 and 2030, about half of which would be newborns. China
achieved its target of reduction in under-5 mortality rates well ahead
of schedule.
Low-cost interventions
Child sits with a doctor to receive medical care
Two-thirds of child deaths are preventable. Most of the children who die each year could be saved by low-tech, evidence-based, cost-effective measures such as vaccines, antibiotics, micronutrient supplementation, insecticide-treated bed nets, improved family care and breastfeeding practices, and oral rehydration therapy.
Empowering women, removing financial and social barriers to accessing
basic services, developing innovations that make the supply of critical
services more available to the poor and increasing local accountability
of health systems are policy interventions that have allowed health
systems to improve equity and reduce mortality.
In developing countries, child mortality rates related to respiratory and diarrheal diseases can be reduced by introducing simple behavioral changes such as handwashing with soap. This simple action can reduce the rate of mortality from these diseases by almost 50 per cent.
Proven cost-effective interventions can save the lives of
millions of children per year. The UN Vaccine division as of 2014
supported 36% of the world's children in order to best improve their
survival chances, yet still, low-cost immunization interventions do not
reach 30 million children despite success in reducing polio, tetanus, and measles.
Measles and tetanus still kill more than 1 million children under 5
each year. Vitamin A supplementation costs only $0.02 for each capsule
and given 2–3 times a year will prevent blindness and death. Although
vitamin A supplementation has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality
by 12 to 24 per cent but only 70 per cent of targeted children were
reached in 2015. Between 250,000 and 500,000 children become blind every year with 70 percent of them dying within 12 months. Oral rehydration therapy
(ORT) is an effective treatment for lost liquids through diarrhea; yet
only 4 in 10 (44 per cent) of children diagnosed with diarrhea are
treated with ORT.
Essential newborn care - including immunizing mothers against
tetanus, ensuring clean delivery practices in a hygienic birthing
environment, drying and wrapping the baby immediately after birth,
providing necessary warmth and promoting immediate and continued
breastfeeding, immunization, and treatment of infections with
antibiotics - could save the lives of 3 million newborns annually. Improved sanitation and access to clean drinking water can reduce childhood infections and diarrhea. As of 2017, approximately 26% of the world's population do not have access to basic sanitation and 785 million people use unsafe sources of drinking water.
Substantial global progress has been made in reducing child
deaths since 1990. The total number of under-5 deaths worldwide has
declined from 12.6 million in 1990 to approximately 5.5 million in 2020.
Since 1990, the global under-5 mortality rate has dropped by 59%, from
93 deaths per 1000 live births in 1990 to 36 in 2020. This is equivalent
to 1 in 11 children dying before reaching age 5 in 1990 compared to 1
in 27 in 2019.
The Sustainable Development Goals has set 2 new goals to reduce under-5
and newborn mortality. The goals set newborn mortality for 12 per 1,000
live births in every country and for under 5 mortality 25 per 1,000
livebirths in every country. In 2019, 122 countries met this and every 10 years, 20 more are expected to follow.
World Health Organization (WHO) states they support health equity and
universal health care so that all countries may have proper health care
with no finances involved.
Epidemiology
Mortality in the first five years of life from 1960 to 2017.
Child mortality has been dropping as each country reaches a high
stage of DTM. From 2000 to 2010, child mortality has dropped from 9.6
million to 7.6 million. In order to reduce child mortality rates, there
need to be better education, higher standards of healthcare and more
caution in childbearing. Child mortality could be reduced by attendance
of professionals at birth and by breastfeeding and through access to
clean water, sanitation, and immunization. In 2016, the world average was 41 (4.1%), down from 93 (9.3%) in 1990. This is equivalent to 5.6 million children less than five years old dying in 2016.
Global child mortality over time
Child mortality is high in countries where women have many children (high fertility rates). Wealthy countries have lower child mortality rates than poor ones.
Variation
Huge
disparities in under-5 mortality rates exist. Globally, the risk of a
child dying in the country with the highest under-5 mortality rate is
about 60 times higher than in the country with the lowest under-5
mortality rate.
Sub-Saharan Africa remains the region with the highest under-5
mortality rates in the world: All six countries with rates above 100
deaths per 1,000 live births are in sub-Saharan Africa, with Somalia having the highest under-5 mortality rates.
Furthermore, approximately 80% of under-5 deaths occur in only two regions: sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. 6 countries account for half of the global under-5 deaths, namely, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia and China. India and Nigeria alone account for almost a third (32 per cent) of the global under-five deaths. Within low- and middle-income countries, there is also substantial variation in child mortality rates across administrative divisions.
Likewise, there are disparities between wealthy and poor households in developing countries. According to a Save the Children paper, children from the poorest households in India are three times more likely to die before their fifth birthday than those from the richest households.
A systematic study reports for all the low- and middle-income countries
(not including China), the children among the poorest households are
twice as likely to die before the age of 5 years old compare to those in
the richest household.
A large team of researchers published a major study on the global distribution of child mortality in Nature in October 2019.
It was the first global study that mapped child death on the level of
subnational district (17,554 units). The study was described as an
important step to make action possible that further reduces child
mortality.
The child survival rate of nations varies with factors such as fertility rate and income distribution;
the change in distribution shows a strong correlation between child
survival and income distribution as well as fertility rate where
increasing child survival allows the average income to increase as well
as the average fertility rate to decrease.
COVID-19 and child mortality
Child mortality unlike mortality throughout other ages actually dropped in 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic
hit the world. Children were among the lowest group of deaths in the
world due to COVID-19. About 3.7 million deaths occurred and only 0.4%
of them occurred in adolescents under 20 years of age making about
13,400 deaths in adolescents. Out of that small proportion, 42% occurred
in children under the age of 9 years old.
Natural resources, often non-renewable or limited, can be taken advantage of in an unethical manner ('exploited') for economic growth or development. Environmental degradation, human insecurity, and social conflict frequently accompany natural resource exploitation. The impacts of the depletion of natural resources include the decline of economic growth
in local areas; however, the abundance of natural resources does not
always correlate with a country's material prosperity. Many
resource-rich countries, especially in the Global South, face distributional conflicts, where local bureaucracies
mismanage or disagree on how resources should be used. Foreign
industries also contribute to resource exploitation, where raw materials
are outsourced from developing countries,
with the local communities receiving little profit from the exchange.
This is often accompanied by negative effects of economic growth around
the affected areas such as inequality and pollution
The exploitation of natural resources started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials (such as in mining, steam power, and machinery) expanded much further than it had in pre-industrial areas. During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the world's energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil, coal and natural gas.
Revenue
from mineral exports makes up a large portion of the Democratic
Republic of Congo's economy. While Congo is rich in mineral resources,
these deposits require extensive manual labor to extract, often under
life-threatening conditions. Mining of cobalt is leading to human rights
being abused in ways such as unsafe worksites, child labor, and forced
Congolese labor, in addition to environmental degradation.
Causes
Advancing technology: Increasing technology
sophistication enables faster rates of natural resource extraction. For
example, in the past, it could take a long time to log a small amount
of trees using only saws. Due to better technology, the rates of deforestation have greatly increased.
Overconsumption has created a high demand for natural resources, further exacerbating natural resource exploitation
Development of new technologies, such as electric vehicles and
portable technologies, i.e, Smartphones, also heavily rely on cobalt
mining, often leading to loss of green cover and detrimental health
impacts for surrounding communities, often in developing countries like
the D.R. of Congo where mining occurs.
Consumerism:
Unsustainable consumption, driven by both population growth and
materialistic ideologies, increases the demand for production and,
thereby, the extraction of the natural resources needed to supply this
demand. For instance, the consumption of fine jewelry leads to increased mining of gold and diamonds.
The extraction of precious metals like gold has degradation effects on
the environment, such as loss of forestry during construction of the
mining facilities, increased exposure to toxic materials, and
disturbance of the nearby ecosystem.
Management thinking: In relation to the previous point,
companies have adopted the idea according to which the rarer the
resource, the more it contributes to the company's competitive
advantage. When it comes to natural resources, such an idea leads to
natural resource exhaustion.
A general lack of respect for native land rights leads to increased exploitation of natural resources on and around native land.
Consequences of exploitation of resources
A
deforestation in Nigeria team patrolling the deforestation site.
Nigeria has experienced an increase in deforestation in part due to
expansion of agriculture, lumbering, and urban growth. These land-use
changes are driven by population increase and poverty.
Natural resources are not limitless, and the following consequences
can arise from the careless and excessive consumption of these
resources:
Deforestation:
Removal of trees for use as resources, such as in agriculture or
industry, can lead to large-scale destruction of forests. Around 40% of
the Earth's original forest cover has been lost in the last 8000 years.
Desertification:
Human-led changes in land management practices lead to changes in the
ecological characteristics of a region. Land mismanagement and climate change can lead to a loss of ecosystem services, such as through degradation of soil. Together, these losses can result in desertification seen in arid and dry areas.
Decrease in natural resources: When resources are exploited faster
than they can be replenished, it results in an overall decrease in
natural resources in an area.
Extinction of species: Processes involved in resource exploitation can directly or indirectly lead to the extinction of species.
Animals used for resources can be directly hunted, while destruction of
environments, such as through harvesting timber, can also cause
extinctions.
Indigenous groups have limited ways to relate to the environment and survive on traditional food and water sources
Economic consequences
Natural
resources are vital for human survival, however, if their consumption
surpasses their natural replenishment rate, the resources can become
depleted. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,
around 33% of the Earth's soils are presently classified as moderately
to highly degraded, with projections indicating that more than 90% could
face degradation by the year 2050 and thus cause significant economic
consequences. With such rate of erosion of fertile soil, agricultural
commodity prices tend to increase significantly.
The connection between the consumption rate and the supply rate of
resources holds significant implications for long-term economic growth,
as sustained high consumption rates of certain resources ultimately
jeopardize economic sustainability.
For instance, in the case of extracting soil minerals, supply rate is
exceedingly slow over geological time spans, inevitably leading to a
consumption rate surpassing the supply rate. Such a scenario is
evidently unsustainable in the long run. To ensure sustainability, the
consumption rate must remain equal to or less than the supply rate.
There has been an ongoing debate among scholars and researchers
on the economic implications of dependence on natural resources. Natural
resources yield economic rents
that can be allocated towards public welfare initiatives and other
projects beneficial to local communities. However, in the long term,
uncertainties linked to potentially unstable terms of trade for
commodities might lead to decline in public finances and deter
investment.
For instance, if oil prices decline, it may lead to fiscal unease in
significant petroleum-producing countries such as Russia, Qatar, and
Saudi Arabia. Resource abundance challenges the progress of political
and governance institutions by nurturing a culture of rentierism.
For instance, revenues obtained from resources can be used for
political manipulation. Additionally, extra capital from resources can
dilute government accountability to both citizens and businesses by
abandoning taxation completely, which leads to lack of government
incentive to support economic growth through innovation. At the same
time, citizens may lack the motives to advocate for better governance
and transparency.
Because of environmental pollution, cities whose economies rely on natural resources face difficulties in attracting technology-driven businesses and skilled labor, posing significant challenges to their economic transformation and advancement. These resource-centric cities face disadvantages in the competition among local governments striving for environmental quality.
Analyzing panel data spanning from 2005 to 2017 for 30 coal-mining
cities, it's been discovered that environmental regulations offer a new
approach to potentially reversing the adverse effects of resource
dependence, and thus fueling greener sustainable development in
coal-mining regions.
Despite the inevitability of environmental contamination
associated with resource extraction because of current mining
technologies, this pollution delays residents' engagement in
agricultural and aqua cultural activities, which are negatively
influenced by environmental conditions. As a result, these cities tend
to rely heavily on a singular economic development model centered around
resource exploitation, making them ill-equipped to address
environmental crises effectively.
Economic gains from natural resources are mostly beneficial when
directed towards initiatives such as job creation, skill enhancement,
capacity building, and pursuit of long-term developmental objectives.
Thus, reliance on one or more natural resources holds financial risk
when aiming for a stable economic growth.
Impacts of settler colonialism
Multiple
scholars have explained how Settler colonialism has had profound
influence on the dynamics of resource exploitation throughout history,
especially in regions where settler populations have previously asserted
dominance over indigenous peoples and their territories. Among these
scholars Dina Gilio-Whitaker, an expert in Native American Studies from
California State University explains that, “Indigenous peoples fighting
for political autonomy from the hegemony of the State are fighting the
forces of colonialism while simultaneously fighting capitalism—all aimed
at control of land and resources"
This encompasses the establishment of permanent settler communities,
typically accompanied by the displacement, marginalization, or even
extermination of indigenous populations. Settler Colonial exploration is
most often driven by the pursuit of land and resources which has
historically created the exploitation of natural wealth to fuel economic
growth, infrastructure development, and territorial expansion.
One of the key way which settler colonialism drives resource
exploitation is through the appropriation of indigenous lands and
natural resources. Kyle Powys Whyte, an expert in natural resources and
the environment highlights how the continued legacy of settler
colonialism continues to harm indigenous communities. In his piece “The
Dakota Access Pipeline, Environmental Injustice, and US Settler
Colonialism” he writes, “as climate change becomes more apparent in its
homelands, the shifting plant and animal habitats tied to agriculture,
wildlife, and ceremonial species, as well as the loss of territory and
resources as a result of US settler colonialism, will make it harder to
adjust.”
Settler societies often view the land as a commodity to be
exploited for economic gain, leading to the establishment of extractive
industries such as mining, logging, and agriculture on indigenous
territories. This exploitation is facilitated by legal frameworks that
prioritize settler property rights over indigenous land tenure systems,
resulting in the dispossession and displacement of indigenous
communities from their ancestral lands. Moreover, settler colonialism
often entails the imposition of Western concepts of land ownership and
resource management that marginalize indigenous knowledge and practices,
further exacerbating environmental degradation and social injustice.
Dakota Access Pipeline protest
Impacts of industrialization and globalization
Industrialization,
the large scale growth of industry, has had profound impacts on natural
resource exploitation. As societies undergo industrialization, there is
an increased demand for raw materials to fuel manufacturing,
construction, and energy production. As outlined by Farhan Ahmed,
professor of economics and finance, industrialization can bring a myriad
of challenges for natural resources. In his piece “The environmental
impact of industrialization and foreign direct investment: empirical
evidence from Asia-Pacific region” Ahmed writes “In addition to the many
benefits of foreign direct investment and industrialization that have
affected economic growth, both have significant potential for
environmental degradation because most of their activities are related
to the production and exploitation of natural resources."
This demand often leads to intensified extraction activities, such as
mining, logging, and drilling, which can result in extensive habitat
destruction, deforestation, and ecosystem degradation. Additionally,
industrial processes often generate pollution and waste, further
exacerbating environmental impacts and threatening ecosystems and
biodiversity. industrialization has been associated with the
commodification of natural resources, where resources are valued
primarily for their economic potential rather than their intrinsic
ecological or cultural value. This commodification mindset often leads
to unsustainable exploitation practices, as resources are overexploited
for short-term economic gain without consideration for long-term
environmental sustainability.
Globalization has significantly impacted resource exploitation by
reshaping patterns of production, consumption, and trade on a global
scale. The interconnectedness of economies and the proliferation of
multinational corporations have led to increased competition for access
to natural resources, such as minerals, fossil fuels, timber, and
agricultural products, in diverse regions around the world. This
heightened demand for resources has driven intensified extraction
activities, often in environmentally sensitive areas, and has
contributed to the overexploitation and depletion of finite resources.
Haiying Liu, professor of economics, explains how globalization results
in more environmental stress in her piece “Impact of governance and
globalization on natural resources volatility”. In this piece she
writes, “In addition to natural resources exported from the region, the
technical capability required to explore natural resources is also
dependent on economic globalization. Environmental pressure increases as
a result of globalization.”
Globalization has spurred the development of complex supply chains and
trade networks that connect resource-rich regions with centers of
production and consumption across the globe. While this
interconnectedness has fueled economic growth and development in some
regions, it has also led to the commodification and commercialization of
natural resources, where resources are valued primarily for their
economic potential rather than their intrinsic ecological or cultural
value. Globalization has contributed to the unequal distribution of
benefits and burdens associated with resource exploitation, with
marginalized communities often bearing the environmental and social
costs of resource extraction while multinational corporations and rich
nations reap the profits
When a mining company enters a developing country in the global south
to extract raw materials, advocating the advantages of the industry's
presence and minimizing the potential negative effects gain the
cooperation of the local people. Advantageous factors are primarily in economic development establishments, such as health centers, police departments, and schools, that the government may not provide.
However, these advantages are not always distributed evenly among local
populations, and the income generated from extracting natural resources
can result in internal conflict within the developing country. In addition to unequal distribution, the adaption of consumerist values also results in conflict over resources within local communities.
Despite being rich in natural resources, the Democratic Republic of Congo is one country in the global south suffering from the effects of the resource curse.
Its valuable copper and cobalt mineral deposits make Congo vulnerable
to local and international conflict over the distribution of resources.
These conflicts, along with the environmental degradation effects of
mining, exacerbate high poverty rates, which approximately 64% of the
Congolese population live under. Natural resource extraction and climate change are intertwined in Congo, as mining for copper and cobalt creates a biodiversity loss as green covers are cleared for constructing artisanal mines and roadways.
Conflict over resources, poverty, and environmental degradation leaves a
large number of the Congolese population vulnerable to internal displacement,
lacking resources to adapt to climate change. Beyond climate impacts,
mineral mining has also been linked with adverse health impacts, such as
high levels of cobalt in urine and blood samples in populations located
on or near industrial mines. Mining ores pose health risks long after
mining has ceased, as wastelands generate toxic metal-rich dust.
The injustice perpetrated by unsafe mining ores is not exclusive to the
adult and child laborers. Instead, it impacts the whole country as low
wages for high-risk mining worsen poverty rates, exacerbating negative
social impacts such as conflict, higher crime rates, and child mortality.
The effects of the exploitation of natural resources in the local community of a developing country are also exhibited in the impacts from the Ok Tedi Mine. After BHP entered into Papua New Guinea to exploit copper and gold, the economy of the indigenous peoples boomed. Although their quality of life has improved, initially disputes were common among the locals in terms of land rights and who should be getting the benefits from the mining project. The consequences of the Ok Tedi environmental disaster
illustrate the potential negative effects from the exploitation of
natural resources. The resulting mining pollution includes toxic
contamination of the natural water supply for communities along the Ok Tedi River,
causing widespread killing of aquatic life. When a mining company ends a
project after extracting the raw materials from an area of a developing country,
the local people are left to manage with the environmental damage done
to their community and the long run sustainability of the economic
benefits stimulated by the mining company's presence becomes a concern.
Responses and solutions
Responses
and solutions to natural resource exploitation have emerged across the
globe as communities and stakeholders grapple with the environmental,
social, and economic impacts of unsustainable practices. These movements
often employ a variety of tactics, including protests, legal
challenges, boycotts, and direct actions, to challenge destructive
practices and promote alternatives that prioritize environmental
sustainability, social justice, and community well-being. Additionally,
there has been growing recognition of the importance of indigenous
knowledge, traditional ecological practices, and community-based
approaches in addressing the root causes of resource exploitation and
advancing sustainable development goals.
Resistance to mining in Peru
Resistance
to natural resource exploitation in the developing countries is often
intertwined with broader social and economic struggles. Many communities
facing exploitation are marginalized and economically disadvantaged
which exacerbates the unequal power dynamics at play. Resistance
movements often demand not only environmental justice
but also fair compensation, employment opportunities, and community
development initiatives. Solidarity networks, both within countries and
internationally, have been crucial in amplifying the voices of affected
communities and exerting pressure on governments and corporations to
adopt more sustainable and equitable practices. Despite facing
significant challenges, these movements continue to inspire hope for a
more just and sustainable future in the Global South and beyond.
Anti-mining protests in Peru have emerged as a significant
expression of resistance against large-scale mining projects that pose
environmental and social threats to local communities. One notable
instance is the resistance against the Conga mining project in the
Cajamarca region. José Manuyama Ahuit, a native Peruvian activist
working against local mining, was quoted saying, “The river forms part
of our spirit and culture. If the river dies, so does our human dignity,
now this river is doomed. The colour of the water is changing, and the
same devastation in other mining areas is beginning to be reproduced
here in the Nanay.
Local communities, including farmers and indigenous groups, have
vehemently opposed the project due to concerns of water contamination
and depletion. The proposed mining operation, led by multinational
corporations, has been met with widespread demonstrations, blockades,
and legal challenges. These protests underscore broader issues of
environmental protection and indigenous rights, as communities seek to
safeguard their lands and livelihoods from the detrimental impacts of
resource extraction.
In response to the anti-mining protests, Peruvian authorities
have often deployed security forces to quell dissent, leading to clashes
and instances of violence. These clashes have resulted in injuries and
fatalities on both sides, escalating tensions between mining companies,
local communities, and the government. Efforts to find a peaceful
resolution to the conflict have been disrupted by deep-seated mistrust
and differing interests among the stakeholders involved.
Resistance in Native American communities
Resistance
to natural resource exploitation in native communities has been a
recurring theme throughout history, as indigenous people have sought to
protect their lands, cultures, and ways of life from the adverse
impacts of extractive industries. In many cases, indigenous resistance
movements have emerged as powerful forces advocating for environmental
justice, indigenous rights, and sovereignty over ancestral territories.
These movements often mobilize around issues such as land rights,
resource extraction, and environmental protection, employing a variety
of tactics, including protests, legal challenges, direct actions, and
advocacy campaigns to assert indigenous control over natural resources
and resist exploitative practices.
The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance, also known as the Standing
Rock movement, emerged as a significant indigenous-led protest against
the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline in the United States. The
pipeline, proposed by Energy Transfer Partners, was intended to
transport crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois, traversing ancestral
lands and sacred sites of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, as well as
posing potential threats to water sources, including the Missouri River,
which serves as a vital water supply for the tribe and millions of
others downstream. The resistance movement, which began in 2016, brought
together indigenous activists, environmentalists, and allies from
across the country and around the world in a unified effort to oppose
the pipeline's construction.
Nick Estes, a scholar of American Indian studies who has followed the
Dakota Access Pipeline protests closely, points out that the tactics
being used in protest of the Dakota Access Pipeline have been used for
generations. In his piece “Our History is The Future” he writes, “Our
history and long traditions of Indigenous resistance provide
possibilities for futures premised on justice. After all, Indigenous
resistance is animated by our ancestors' refusal to be forgotten, and it
is our resolute refusal to forget our ancestors and our history that
animates our visions for liberation.
The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance garnered widespread
attention and support, drawing thousands of people to the Standing Rock
Indian Reservation in North Dakota to stand in solidarity with the
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and protect their lands and water. Among the
supporters was activist and performing artists Dallas Goldtooth of the
Dakota tribe. Goldtooth highlighted the importance of social media in
modern protests saying, “social media allowed immediate direct
one-on-one access and kind of this perception of unfiltered access –
unfiltered access to what was happening on the ground"
The movement was characterized by nonviolent protests, prayer
ceremonies, and acts of civil disobedience, as well as legal challenges
aimed at halting the pipeline's construction and holding the government
and energy companies accountable for violating indigenous rights and
environmental regulations. The resistance movement also sparked a
broader conversation about indigenous sovereignty, environmental
justice, and the impacts of fossil fuel infrastructure on indigenous
communities and the environment.
Prenatal development (from Latin natalis'relating to birth') involves the development of the embryo and of the fetus during a viviparous animal's gestation. Prenatal development starts with fertilization, in the germinal stage of embryonic development, and continues in fetal development until birth. The term "prenate" is used to describe an unborn offspring at any stage of gestation.
In humanpregnancy, prenatal development is also called antenatal development. The development of the human embryo follows fertilization, and continues as fetal development. By the end of the tenth week of gestational age, the embryo has acquired its basic form and is referred to as a fetus.
The next period is that of fetal development where many organs become
fully developed. This fetal period is described both topically (by
organ) and chronologically (by time) with major occurrences being listed
by gestational age.
The very early stages of embryonic development are the same in all mammals, but later stages of development, and the length of gestation varies.
Terminology
In the human:
Stages during pregnancy. Embryonic development is marked in green. Weeks and months are numbered by gestation.
Different terms are used to describe prenatal development, meaning development before birth. A term with the same meaning is the "antepartum" (from Latin ante "before" and parere "to give birth") Sometimes "antepartum" is however used to denote the period between the 24th/26th week of gestational age until birth, for example in antepartum hemorrhage.
The perinatal period (from Greek peri, "about, around" and Latin nasci "to be born") is "around the time of birth". In developed countries
and at facilities where expert neonatal care is available, it is
considered from 22 completed weeks (usually about 154 days) of gestation (the time when birth weight is normally 500 g) to 7 completed days after birth. In many of the developing countries the starting point of this period is considered 28 completed weeks of gestation (or weight more than 1000 g).
The zygote will develop into a male if the egg is fertilized by a sperm that carries a Y chromosome, or a female if the sperm carries an X chromosome. The Y chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which will switch on androgen production at a later stage leading to the development of a male body type. In contrast, the mitochondrial DNA of the zygote comes entirely from the egg cell.
Following fertilization, the embryonic stage of development continues until the end of the 10th week (gestational age)
(8th week fertilization age). The first two weeks from fertilization is
also referred to as the germinal stage or preembryonic stage.
The zygote spends the next few days traveling down the fallopian tube dividing several times to form a ball of cells called a morula. Further cellular division is accompanied by the formation of a small cavity between the cells. This stage is called a blastocyst.
Up to this point there is no growth in the overall size of the embryo,
as it is confined within a glycoprotein shell, known as the zona pellucida. Instead, each division produces successively smaller cells.
The blastocyst reaches the uterus at roughly the fifth day after fertilization. The blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida allowing the blastocyst's outer cell layer of trophoblasts to come into contact with, and adhere to, the endometrial cells of the uterus. The trophoblasts will eventually give rise to extra-embryonic structures, such as the placenta and the membranes. The embryo becomes embedded in the endometrium in a process called implantation. In most successful pregnancies, the embryo implants 8 to 10 days after ovulation.
The embryo, the extra-embryonic membranes, and the placenta are
collectively referred to as a conceptus, or the "products of
conception".
Rapid growth occurs and the embryo's main features begin to take form. This process is called differentiation, which produces the varied cell types (such as blood cells, kidney cells, and nerve cells). A spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, in the first trimester of pregnancy is usually
due to major genetic mistakes or abnormalities in the developing
embryo. During this critical period the developing embryo is also
susceptible to toxic exposures, such as:
The embryo passes through 3 phases of acquisition of nutrition from the mother:
Absorption phase: Zygote is nourished by cellular cytoplasm and secretions in fallopian tubes and uterine cavity.
Histoplasmic transfer: After nidation and before establishment of uteroplacental circulation, embryonic nutrition is derived from decidual cells and maternal blood pools that open up as a result of eroding activity of trophoblasts.
Hematotrophic phase: After third week of gestation, substances are transported passively via intervillous space.
The first ten weeks of gestational age is the period of embryogenesis and together with the first three weeks of prenatal development make up the first trimester of pregnancy.
From the 10th week of gestation (8th week of development), the
developing embryo is called a fetus. All major structures are formed by
this time, but they continue to grow and develop. Because the precursors
of the organs are now formed, the fetus is not as sensitive to damage
from environmental exposure as the embryo was. Instead, toxic exposure
often causes physiological abnormalities or minor congenital
malformation.
Development of organ systems
Development continues throughout the life of the fetus and through
into life after birth. Significant changes occur to many systems in the
period after birth as they adapt to life outside the uterus.
Fetal blood
Hematopoiesis first takes place in the yolk sac. The function is transferred to the liver by the 10th week of gestation and to the spleen and bone marrow beyond that. The total blood volume is about 125 ml/kg of fetal body weight near term.
Red blood cells
Megaloblastic
red blood cells are produced early in development, which become
normoblastic near term. Life span of prenatal RBCs is 80 days. Rh
antigen appears at about 40 days of gestation.
White blood cells
The fetus starts producing leukocytes at 2 months gestational age, mainly from the thymus and the spleen. Lymphocytes derived from the thymus are called T lymphocytes (T cells), whereas those derived from bone marrow are called B lymphocytes
(B cells). Both of these populations of lymphocytes have short-lived
and long-lived groups. Short-lived T cells usually reside in thymus,
bone marrow and spleen; whereas long-lived T cells reside in the blood
stream. Plasma cells are derived from B cells and their life in fetal blood is 0.5 to 2 days.
The thyroid is the first gland to develop in the embryo at the 4th week of gestation. Insulin secretion in the fetus starts around the 12th week of gestation.
Cognitive development
Electrical brain activity is first detected at the end of week 5 of gestation. Synapses do not begin to form until week 17. Neural connections between the sensory cortex and thalamus
develop as early as 24 weeks' gestational age, but the first evidence
of their function does not occur until around 30 weeks, when minimal consciousness, dreaming, and the ability to feel pain emerges.
Initial knowledge of the effects of prenatal experience on later
neuropsychological development originates from the Dutch Famine Study,
which researched the cognitive development of individuals born after the
Dutch famine of 1944–45.
The first studies focused on the consequences of the famine to
cognitive development, including the prevalence of intellectual
disability. Such studies predate David Barker's hypothesis about the association between the prenatal environment and the development of chronic conditions later in life. The initial studies found no association between malnourishment and cognitive development, but later studies found associations between malnourishment and increased risk for schizophrenia, antisocial disorders, and affective disorders.
There is evidence that the acquisition of language begins in the prenatal stage. After 26 weeks of gestation, the peripheral auditory system is already fully formed. Also, most low-frequency sounds (less than 300 Hz) can reach the fetal inner ear in the womb of mammals. Those low-frequency sounds include pitch, rhythm, and phonetic information related to language. Studies have indicated that fetuses react to and recognize differences between sounds. Such ideas are further reinforced by the fact that newborns present a preference for their mother's voice, present behavioral recognition of stories only heard during gestation, and (in monolingual mothers) present preference for their native language. A more recent study with EEG
demonstrated different brain activation in newborns hearing their
native language compared to when they were presented with a different
language, further supporting the idea that language learning starts
while in gestation.
The growth rate of a fetus is linear up to 37 weeks of gestation, after which it plateaus. The growth rate of an embryo and infant can be reflected as the weight per gestational age,
and is often given as the weight put in relation to what would be
expected by the gestational age. A baby born within the normal range of
weight for that gestational age is known as appropriate for gestational age (AGA). An abnormally slow growth rate results in the infant being small for gestational age, while an abnormally large growth rate results in the infant being large for gestational age. A slow growth rate and preterm birth are the two factors that can cause a low birth weight. Low birth weight (below 2000 grams) can slightly increase the likelihood of schizophrenia.
The growth rate can be roughly correlated with the fundal height of the uterus which can be estimated by abdominal palpation. More exact measurements can be performed with obstetric ultrasonography.
Poverty
has been linked to poor prenatal care and has been an influence on
prenatal development. Women in poverty are more likely to have children
at a younger age, which results in low birth weight. Many of these
expecting mothers have little education and are therefore less aware of
the risks of smoking, drinking alcohol, and drug use – other factors that influence the growth rate of a fetus.
Mother's age
The term Advanced maternal age is used to describe women who are over 35 during pregnancy. Women who give birth over the age of 35 are more likely to experience complications ranging from preterm birth and delivery by Caesarean section, to an increased risk of giving birth to a child with chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome. The chances of stillbirth and miscarriage also increase with maternal age as do the chances of the mother suffering from Gestational diabetes or high blood pressure during pregnancy.
Some sources suggest that health problems are also associated with
teenage pregnancy. These may include high blood pressure, low birth
weight and premature birth. Some studies note that adolescent pregnancy is often associated with poverty, low education, and inadequate family support. Stigma and social context tend to create and exacerbate some of the challenges of adolescent pregnancy.
An estimated 5 percent of fetuses in the United States are exposed to illicit drug use during pregnancy.
Maternal drug use occurs when drugs ingested by the pregnant woman are
metabolized in the placenta and then transmitted to the fetus. Recent
research displays that there is a correlation between fine motor skills
and prenatal risk factors such as the use of psychoactive substances and
signs of abortion during pregnancy. As well as perinatal risk factors
such as gestation time, duration of delivery, birth weight and postnatal
risk factors such as constant falls.
When using cannabis, there is a greater risk of birth defects, low birth weight, and a higher rate of death in infants or stillbirths. Drug use will influence extreme irritability, crying, and risk for SIDS once the fetus is born.
Marijuana will slow the fetal growth rate and can result in premature
delivery. It can also lead to low birth weight, a shortened gestational
period and complications in delivery.
Cannabis use during pregnancy was unrelated to risk of perinatal death
or need for special care, but, the babies of women who used cannabis at
least once per week before and throughout pregnancy were 216g lighter
than those of non‐users, had significantly shorter birth lengths and
smaller head circumferences.
Opioids
Opioids including heroin
will cause interrupted fetal development, stillbirths, and can lead to
numerous birth defects. Heroin can also result in premature delivery,
creates a higher risk of miscarriages, result in facial abnormalities
and head size, and create gastrointestinal abnormalities in the fetus.
There is an increased risk for SIDS, dysfunction in the central nervous
system, and neurological dysfunctions including tremors, sleep problems,
and seizures. The fetus is also put at a great risk for low birth
weight and respiratory problems.
Cocaine use results in a smaller brain, which results in learning
disabilities for the fetus. Cocaine puts the fetus at a higher risk of
being stillborn or premature. Cocaine use also results in low
birthweight, damage to the central nervous system, and motor
dysfunction. The vasoconstriction of the effects of cocaine lead to a
decrease in placental blood flow to the fetus that results in fetal
hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) and decreased fetal nutrition; these
vasoconstrictive effects on the placenta have been linked to the number
of complications in malformations that are evident in the newborn.
Methamphetamine
Prenatal
methamphetamine exposure has shown to negatively impact brain
development and behavioral functioning. A 2019 study further
investigated neurocognitive and neurodevelopmental effects of prenatal
methamphetamine exposure. This study had two groups, one containing
children who were prenatally exposed to methamphetamine but no other
illicit drugs and one containing children who met diagnosis criteria for
ADHD but were not prenatally exposed to any illicit substance. Both
groups of children completed intelligence measures to compute an IQ.
Study results showed that the prenatally exposed children performed
lower on the intelligence measures than their non-exposed peers with
ADHD. The study results also suggest that prenatal exposure to
methamphetamine may negatively impact processing speed as children
develop.
Maternal alcohol use leads to disruptions of the fetus' brain
development, interferes with the fetus' cell development and
organization, and affects the maturation of the central nervous system.
Even small amounts of alcohol use can cause lower height, weight and
head size at birth and higher aggressiveness and lower intelligence
during childhood. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
is a developmental disorder that is a consequence of heavy alcohol
intake by the mother during pregnancy. Children with FASD have a variety
of distinctive facial features, heart problems, and cognitive problems
such as developmental disabilities, attention difficulties, and memory
deficits.
Tobacco smoking during pregnancy exposes the fetus to nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide.
Nicotine results in less blood flow to the fetus because it constricts
the blood vessels. Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen flow to the fetus.
The reduction of blood and oxygen flow may result in miscarriage,
stillbirth, low birth weight, and premature births. Exposure to secondhand smoke leads to higher risks of low birth weight and childhood cancer.
Adequate
nutrition is needed for a healthy fetus. Mothers who gain less than 20
pounds during pregnancy are at increased risk for having a preterm or
low birth weight infant.
Iron and iodine are especially important during prenatal development.
Mothers who are deficient in iron are at risk for having a preterm or
low birth weight infant. Iodine deficiencies increase the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, and fetal brain abnormalities. Adequate prenatal care gives an improved result in the newborn.
Low birth weight
Low birth weight
increases an infants risk of long-term growth and cognitive and
language deficits. It also results in a shortened gestational period and
can lead to prenatal complications.
Stress
Stress during pregnancy
can have an impact the development of the embryo. Reilly (2017) states
that stress can come from many forms of life events such as community,
family, financial issues, and natural causes. While a woman is
pregnant, stress from outside sources can take a toll on the growth in
the womb that may affect the child's learning and relationships when
born. For instance, they may have behavioral problems and might be
antisocial. The stress that the mother experiences affects the fetus and
the fetus' growth which can include the fetus' nervous system (Reilly,
2017). Stress can also lead to low birth weight. Even after avoiding
other factors like alcohol, drugs, and being healthy, stress can have
its impacts whether families know it or not. Many women who deal with
maternal stress do not seek treatment.
Similar to stress, Reilly stated that in recent studies, researchers
have found that pregnant women who show depressive symptoms are not as
attached and bonded to their child while it is in the womb (2017).
Exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy
lead to higher rates of miscarriage, sterility, and birth defects.
Toxins include fetal exposure to lead, mercury, and ethanol or hazardous
environments. Prenatal exposure to mercury may lead to physical
deformation, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, and poor motoric
coordination.
Exposure to high levels of lead prenatally is related to prematurity,
low birth weight, brain damage, and a variety of physical defects. Exposure to persistent air pollution from traffic and smog
may lead to reduced infant head size, low birth weight, increased
infant death rates, impaired lung and immune system development.
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Global child mortality over time
Child mortality is high in countries where women have many children (high fertility rates). Wealthy countries have lower child mortality rates than poor ones.
