Sangha is a Sanskrit word used in many Indian languages, including Pali(saṅgha)meaning
"association", "assembly", "company" or "community". It was
historically used in a political context to denote a governing assembly
in a republic or a kingdom. It is used in modern times by groups such
as the political party and social movement Rashtriya Seva Sangh. It has
long been commonly used by religious associations including by
Buddhists,Jains and Sikhs.
In Buddhism, sangha refers to the monastic community of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns). These communities are traditionally referred to as the bhikkhu-sangha or bhikkhuni-sangha. As a separate category, those who have attained any of the four stages of enlightenment, whether or not they are members of the monastic community, are referred to as the āryasaṅgha "noble Sangha".
According to the Theravada school, the term "sangha" does not refer to the community of sāvakas (lay followers) nor the community of Buddhists as a whole.
Definitions
In a glossary of Buddhist terms, Richard Robinson et al. define sangha as:
Sangha. Community. This word has two levels of meaning:
(1) on the ideal (arya) level, it denotes all of the Buddha’s followers, lay or ordained, who have at least attained the level of srotāpanna;
(2) on the conventional (saṃvṛti) level, it denotes the orders of the Bhikṣus and Bhikṣunis.
Mahayana practitioners may use the word "sangha" as a collective term for all Buddhists, but the Theravada Pāli Canon uses the word pariṣā (Sanskrit pariṣad) for the larger Buddhist community—the monks, nuns, lay men, and lay women who have taken the Three Refuges—with a few exceptions reserving "sangha" for a its original use in the Pāli Canon—the ideal (arya) and the conventional.
The two meanings overlap but are
not necessarily identical. Some members of the ideal Sangha are not
ordained; some monastics have yet to acquire the Dharma-eye.
Unlike the present Sangha, the
original Sangha viewed itself as following the mission laid down by the
Master, viz, to go forth "…on tour for the blessing of the manyfolk, for
the happiness of the manyfolk out of compassion for the world, for the
welfare, the blessing, the happiness of deva and men".
Qualities of the Sangha
The Sangha is the third of the Three Refuges in Buddhism. Common over all schools is that the āryasaṅgha
is the foremost form of this third jewel. As for recognizable
current-life forms, the interpretation of what is the Jewel depends on
how a school defines Sangha. E.g. for many schools, monastic life is
considered to provide the safest and most suitable environment for
advancing toward enlightenment and liberation due to the temptations and
vicissitudes of life in the world.
In Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, the Dharma
and the Sangha each are described as having certain characteristics.
These characteristics are chanted either on a daily basis and/or on Uposatha days, depending on the school of Buddhism. In Theravada tradition they are a part of daily chanting:
The Sangha: The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples (sāvakas) is:
practicing the good way (Suppaṭipanno)
practicing the upright way (Ujuppaṭipanno)
practicing the knowledgeable or logical way (Ñāyappaṭipanno)
practicing the proper way (Sāmīcippaṭipanno)
That is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals - This Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is:
worthy of gifts (Āhuneyyo)
worthy of hospitality (Pāhuneyyo)
worthy of offerings (Dakkhiṇeyyo)
worthy of reverential salutation (Añjalikaraṇīyo)
the unsurpassed field of merit for the world (Anuttaraṃ puññakkhettaṃ lokassa).
The Sangha was originally established by Gautama Buddha
in the fifth century BCE in order to provide a means for those who wish
to practice full-time in a direct and highly disciplined way, free from
the restrictions and responsibilities of the household life.
The Sangha also fulfils the function of preserving the Buddha’s
original teachings and of providing spiritual support for the Buddhist
lay-community. The Sangha has historically assumed responsibility for
maintaining the integrity of the doctrine as well as the translation and
propagation of the teachings of the Buddha.
The key feature of Buddhist monasticism is the adherence to the vinaya which contains an elaborate set of 227 main rules of conduct (known as Patimokkha in Pāli) including complete chastity, eating only before noon, and not indulging in malicious or salacious talk. Between midday and the next day, a strict life of scripture study, chanting, meditation, and occasional cleaning forms most of the duties for members of the Sangha. Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the Sangha.
Japanese vinaya
Saichō, the founder of the Japanese school of Tendai, decided to reduce the number of rules down to about 60 based on the Bodhisattva Precepts. In the Kamakura, many Japanese schools that originated in or were influenced by the Tendai such as Zen, Pure Land Buddhism and Nichiren Buddhism abolished traditional ordination in favor of this new model of the vinaya.
Monks and nuns generally own a minimum of possessions due to their samaya
as renunciants, including three robes, an alms bowl, a cloth belt, a
needle and thread, a razor for shaving the head, and a water filter. In
practice, they often have a few additional personal possessions.
Traditionally, Buddhist monks, nuns, and novices eschew ordinary
clothes and wear robes. Originally the robes were sewn together from
rags and stained with earth or other available dyes. The color of modern
robes varies from community to community: saffron is characteristic for Theravada groups; blue, grey or brown for Mahayana Sangha members in Vietnam, maroon in Tibetan Buddhism, grey in Korea, and black in Japan.
Attitudes regarding food and work
Gautama Buddha and his followers, holding begging bowls, receive offerings: from an 18th-century Burmese watercolour
A Buddhist monk is a bhikkhu in Pali, Sanskrit bhikṣu, while a nun is a bhikkhuni, Sanskrit bhikṣuṇī. These words literally mean "beggar" or "one who lives by alms", and it was traditional in early Buddhism
for the Sangha to go on "alms round" for food, walking or standing
quietly in populated areas with alms bowls ready to receive food
offerings each day. Although in the vinaya
laid down by the Gautama Buddha, the Sangha was not allowed to engage
directly in agriculture, this later changed in some Mahayana schools
when Buddhism moved to East Asia, so that in the East Asian cultural sphere,
the monastic community traditionally has engaged in agriculture. An
emphasis on working for food is attributed to additional training
guidelines laid down by a Chan Buddhist master, Baizhang Huaihai, notably the phrase, "A day without work is a day without food" (Chinese: 一日不做一日不食).
The idea that all Buddhists, especially Sangha members, practice vegetarianism is a Western misperception.
In the Pali Canon, the Buddha rejected a suggestion by Devadatta
to impose vegetarianism on the Sangha. According to the Pali Texts, the
Buddha ate meat as long as the animal was not killed specifically for
him. The Pāli Canon
allowed Sangha members to eat whatever food is donated to them by
laypeople, except that they may not eat meat if they know or suspect the
animal was killed specifically for them. Consequently, the Theravada
tradition does not practice strict vegetarianism, although an individual
may do so as his or her personal choice.
On this question, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions vary depending on their interpretation of their scriptures. In some Mahayana sutras,
meat-eating is strongly discouraged and it is stated that the Buddha
did not eat meat. In particular, East Asian Sangha members take on the Bodhisattva Precepts originating in the Brahmajāla Sūtra, which has a vow of vegetarianism as part of the Triple Platform Ordination, where they receive the three sets of vows: śrāmaṇera/śrāmaṇerī (novitiate), monastic, and then the Brahmajāla Sūtra Bodhisattva Precepts, whereas the Tibetan lineages transmit a tradition of Bodhisattva Precepts from Asanga's Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, which do not include a vow of vegetarianism.
According to Mahayana sutras, Gautama Buddha always maintained
that lay persons were capable of great wisdom and of reaching
enlightenment. In some areas there has been a misconception that
Theravada regards enlightenment to be an impossible goal for those
outside the Sangha, but in Theravada suttas it is clearly recorded that
the Buddha's uncle, a lay follower, reached enlightenment by hearing the
Buddha's discourse, and there are many other such instances described
in the Pāli Canon. Accordingly, emphasis on lay persons, as well as
Sangha members, practicing the Buddhist path of morality, meditation,
and wisdom is present in all major Buddhist schools.
Sangha as a general reference to Buddhist community
Some scholars noted that sangha is frequently (and according to them, mistakenly) used in the West to refer to any sort of Buddhist community. The terms parisa and gaṇa are suggested as being more appropriate references to a community of Buddhists. Pariṣā means "following" and it refers to the four groups of the Buddha's followers: monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. The Sanskrit term gaṇa has meanings of "flock, troop, multitude, number, tribe, series, class", and is usable as well in more mundane senses.
The Soka Gakkai, a new religious movement which began as a lay organization previously associated with Nichiren Shōshū, a branch of Nichiren-shū
Buddhism in Japan, disputes the traditional definition of sangha. It
interprets the meaning of the Three Jewels of Buddhism, in particular
the "treasure of the Sangha," to include all people who practice
Buddhism correctly, whether lay or clerical. After its excommunication
in 1991, the organization re-published literature which then revised the
terms such as "Treasure of the Priesthood" to "The Buddhist Order". Some, though not all, Nichiren-shū sects holds this position as do some progressive Mahayana movements as well.
Nichiren Shōshū maintains the traditional definition of the
Sangha as the head temple priesthood collective as sole custodians and
arbiters of Buddhist doctrine.
The four parajikas (defeats) are rules entailing expulsion from the sangha
for life. If a monk breaks any one of the rules he is automatically
"defeated" in the holy life and falls from monkhood immediately. He is
not allowed to become a monk again in his lifetime. Intention is necessary in all these four cases to constitute an offence. The four parajikas for bhikkus are:
Sexual intercourse: engaging in any sexual intercourse.
Stealing: the robbery of anything worth more than 1/24 troy ounce of gold (as determined by local law).
Intentionally bringing about the death of a human being — whether by
killing the person, arranging for an assassin to kill the person,
inciting the person to die, or describing the advantages of death.
Deliberately lying to another person that one has attained a superior human state, such as claiming to be an arahant when one knows one is not, or claiming to have attained one of the jhanas when one knows one has not.
The parajikas are more specific definitions of the first four of the Five Precepts.
Sanghadisesa
The
thirteen sanghadisesas are rules requiring an initial and subsequent
meeting of the sangha (communal meetings). If the monk breaks any rule
here he has to undergo a period of probation or discipline after which,
if he shows himself to be repentant, he may be reinstated by a sangha of
not less than twenty monks. Like the parajikas, the sanghadisesas can
only come about through the monk's own intention and cannot be
accidentally invoked. The thirteen sanghadisesas for bhikkus are:
Discharge of semen or getting someone to discharge your semen, except while dreaming
Lustful bodily contact with a woman, including kissing or holding hands
Making lustful remarks to a woman alluding to her genitals or sexual intercourse
Requesting sexual favors from a woman, or telling her that she would benefit spiritually from having sex with the monk.
Arranging for a date, affair, or marriage between a man and woman
Building a hut without permission from the sangha, or building a hut that exceed 3 x 1.75 meters in size
Having someone else build a hut for you without permission from the sangha, or exceeding 3 x 1.75 meters in size
Making unfounded charges about another bhikkhu in the hopes of having him disrobed
Making deceitfully worded charges about another bhikkhu in the hopes of having him disrobed
Agitating for a schism, even after having been rebuked three times
Supporting an agitator, even after he was rebuked three times (only applies if there are fewer than four supporters)
Rejecting well-grounded criticism, even after having been rebuked three times
Criticizing the justice of one's own banishment, even after having been rebuked three times
Aniyata
The
aniyata are two indefinite rules where a monk is accused of having
committed an offence with a woman in a screened (enclosed) or private
place by a lay person. It is indefinite because the final outcome
depends on whether the monk acknowledges the offence. Benefit of the
doubt is given to the monk unless there is over-riding evidence.
Thus it is not proper for a monk to be alone with a woman, especially in screened or private places.
Sitting in private with a woman on a seat secluded enough for sexual intercourse and the monk acknowledges the offense
Sitting in private with a woman on a seat not sufficiently secluded
for sexual intercourse but sufficiently so to address lewd words and the
monk acknowledges the offense
Nissaggiya pacittiya
The nissaggiya pacittiya are rules entailing "confession with forfeiture."
They are mostly concerned with the possessing of items which are
disallowed or obtained in disallowable ways. The monk must forfeit the
item and then confess his offense to another monk. The thirty nissaggiya
pacittiya for bhikkhu are:
Keeping an extra robe for more than ten days after receiving a new one
Sleeping in a separate place from any of his three robes
Keeping an out-of-season robe for more than thirty days when one has expectation for a new robe
Getting an unrelated bhikkhuni to wash your robes for you
Accepting robes from a bhikkhuni as a gift
Accepting robes from the laity, except when one's own robes have
been destroyed, or one is asking for the sake of another bhikkhu
Accepting too many robes from the laity when one's own robes have been destroyed
Accepting a robe from a lay person after telling them that their robe is too cheap for you
Accepting a robe from the laity after asking two or more of them to pool their funds in order to buy a nicer robe
Accepting a robe after coming to the treasurer to get the robe more than six times (since this indicates an excess of desire)
Owning a blanket or rug made of silk
Making or accepting a blanket or rug made from pure black wool
Making or accepting a blanket or rug made from more than 50% black wool
Making or accepting a blanket or rug fewer than six years after you last made or accepted one
Making or accepting a sitting rug without incorporating at least one
old piece of felt 25 cm. square, for the sake of discoloring it
Carrying raw wool for more than 48 km
Getting a bhikkhuni to wash, dye, or card raw wool
Accepting gold or money, or telling someone how to donate it. If
money is placed in a bhikkhu's presence he may not recognize it as his
nor tell someone else to take care of it for him. Bhikkhus often have
stewards who will take care of donations, but the stewards are always
free to take the money and leave
Buying or selling goods
Trading goods with anyone besides other bhikkhus
Keeping an extra alms bowl for more than ten days after receiving a new one
Asking for a new bowl when your old bowl is not beyond repair
Taking a medicine (healing food) from storage for more than seven days
Using a (rains-)bathing cloth before the last two weeks of the
fourth month of the hot season, or accepting one before the fourth month
Taking back a loaned robe out of anger
Getting thread, and getting people to weave thread for you
Receiving cloth after telling its weavers to increase the quality for you
Keeping robes past the end of the season after accepting them during the last eleven days of the Rains Retreat (Vassa)
Being separated from your robes for more than six nights if you are
living in a dangerously distant village and need to separate yourself
from your robes after the Rains Retreat
Persuading a donor to give gifts to oneself, when they were previously intended for the sangha at large
Pacittiya
92 pacittiya are rules entailing confession. There are ninety two Pacittiya and they are minor violations which do not entail expulsion or any probationary periods.
1. A deliberate lie is to be confessed.
2. An insult is to be confessed.
3. Malicious tale-bearing among bhikkhus is to be confessed.
4. Should any bhikkhu have an unordained person recite Dhamma line by line (with him), it is to be confessed.
5. Should any bhikkhu lie down together (in the same dwelling)
with an unordained person for more than two or three consecutive nights,
it is to be confessed.
6. Should any bhikkhu lie down together (in the same dwelling) with a woman, it is to be confessed.
7. Should any bhikkhu teach more than five or six sentences of Dhamma to a woman, unless a knowledgeable man is present, it is to be confessed.
8. Should any bhikkhu report (his own) superior human state,
when it is factual, to an unordained person, it is to be confessed.
9. Should any bhikkhu report (another) bhikkhu's serious offense
to an unordained person, unless authorized by the bhikkhus, it is to be
confessed.
10. Should any bhikkhu dig soil or have it dug, it is to be confessed.
11. The damaging of a living plant is to be confessed.
12. Evasive speech and causing frustration are to be confessed.
13. Criticizing or complaining (about a Community official) is to be confessed.
14. Should any bhikkhu set a bed, bench, mattress, or stool
belonging to the Community out in the open, or have it set out, and then
on departing neither put it away nor have it put away, or should he go
without taking leave, it is to be confessed.
15. Should any bhikkhu set out bedding in a dwelling belonging
to the Community, or have it set out, and then on departing neither put
it away nor have it put away, or should he go without taking leave, it
is to be confessed.
16. Should any bhikkhu knowingly lie down in a dwelling
belonging to the Community so as to intrude on a bhikkhu who arrived
there first, (thinking), "Whoever finds it confining will go away,"
doing it for just that reason and no other, it is to be confessed.
17. Should any bhikkhu, angered and displeased, evict a bhikkhu
from a dwelling belonging to the Community, or have him evicted, it is
to be confessed.
18. Should any bhikkhu sit or lie down on a bed or bench with
detachable legs on an (unplanked) loft in a dwelling belonging to the
Community, it is to be confessed.
19. When a bhikkhu is having a large dwelling built, he may
supervise two or three layers of facing to plaster the area around the
window frame and reinforce the area around the door frame the width of
the door opening, while standing where there are no crops to speak of.
Should he supervise more than that, even if standing where there are no
crops to speak of, it is to be confessed.
20. Should any bhikkhu knowingly pour water containing living
beings, or have it poured, on grass or on clay, it is to be confessed.
21. Should any bhikkhu, unauthorized, exhort the bhikkhunīs, it is to be confessed.
22. Should any bhikkhu, even if authorized, exhort the bhikkhunīs after sunset, it is to be confessed.
23. Should any bhikkhu, having gone to the bhikkhunīs' quarters,
exhort the bhikkhunīs, except at the proper occasion, it is to be
confessed. Here the proper occasion is this: A bhikkhunī is ill. This is
the proper occasion here.
24. Should any bhikkhu say that the bhikkhus exhort the bhikkhunīs for the sake of worldly gain, it is to be confessed.
25. Should any bhikkhu give robe-cloth to a bhikkhunī unrelated to him, except in exchange, it is to be confessed.
26. Should any bhikkhu sew robe-cloth or have it sewn for a bhikkhunī unrelated to him, it is to be confessed.
27. Should any bhikkhu, by arrangement, travel together with a
bhikkhunī even for the interval between one village and the next, except
at the proper occasion, it is to be confessed. Here the proper occasion
is this: The road is to be traveled by caravan and is considered
dubious and risky. This is the proper occasion here.
28. Should any bhikkhu, by arrangement, get in the same boat
with a bhikkhunī going upstream or downstream, except to cross over to
the other bank, it is to be confessed.
29. Should any bhikkhu knowingly eat almsfood donated through
the prompting of a bhikkhunī, except for food that householders had
already intended for him prior (to her prompting), it is to be
confessed.
30. Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a bhikkhunī, it is to be confessed.
31. A bhikkhu who is not ill may eat one meal at a public alms center. Should he eat more than that, it is to be confessed.
32. A group meal, except on the proper occasions, is to be
confessed. Here the proper occasions are these: a time of illness, a
time of giving cloth, a time of making robes, a time of going on a
journey, a time of embarking on a boat, an extraordinary occasion, a
time when the meal is supplied by contemplatives. These are the proper
occasions here.
33. An out-of-turn meal, except on the proper occasions, is to
be confessed. Here the proper occasions are these: a time of illness, a
time of giving cloth (the robe season), a time of making robes. These
are the proper occasions here.
34. In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is
presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may accept two or three
bowlfuls if he so desires. If he should accept more than that, it is to
be confessed. Having accepted the two-or-three bowlfuls and having taken
them from there, he is to share them among the bhikkhus. This is the
proper course here.
35. Should any bhikkhu, having eaten and turned down an offer
(of further food), chew or consume staple or non-staple food that is not
left over, it is to be confessed.
36. Should any bhikkhu, knowingly and wishing to find fault,
present staple or non-staple food to a bhikkhu who has eaten and turned
down an offer (for further food), saying, "Here, bhikkhu, chew or
consume this" — when it has been eaten, it is to be confessed.
37. Should any bhikkhu chew or consume staple or non-staple food at the wrong time, it is to be confessed.
38. Should any bhikkhu chew or consume stored-up staple or non-staple food, it is to be confessed.
39. There are these finer staple foods, i.e., ghee, fresh
butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses, fish, meat, milk, and curds. Should
any bhikkhu who is not ill, having asked for finer staple foods such as
these for his own sake, then eat them, it is to be confessed.
40. Should any bhikkhu take into his mouth an edible that has
not been given, except for water and tooth-cleaning sticks, it is to be
confessed.
41. Should any bhikkhu give staple or non-staple food with his
own hand to a naked ascetic, a male wanderer, or a female wanderer, it
is to be confessed.
42. Should any bhikkhu say to a bhikkhu, "Come, my friend, let's
enter the village or town for alms," and then — whether or not he has
had (food) given to him — dismiss him, saying, "Go away, my friend. I
don't like sitting or talking with you. I prefer sitting or talking
alone," if doing it for that reason and no other, it is to be confessed.
43. Should a bhikkhu sit intruding on a family "with its meal," it is to be confessed.
44. Should any bhikkhu sit in private on a secluded seat with a woman, it is to be confessed.
45. Should any bhikkhu sit in private, alone with a woman, it is to be confessed.
46. Should any bhikkhu, being invited for a meal and without
taking leave of an available bhikkhu, go calling on families before or
after the meal, except at the proper times, it is to be confessed. Here
the proper times are these: the time of giving cloth, the time of making
robes. These are the proper times here.
47. A bhikkhu who is not ill may accept (make use of) a
four-month invitation to ask for requisites. If he should accept (make
use of) it for longer than that; unless the invitation is renewed or is
permanent; it is to be confessed.
48. Should any bhikkhu go to see an army on active duty, unless there is a suitable reason, it is to be confessed.
49. There being some reason or another for a bhikkhu to go to an
army, he may stay two or three (consecutive) nights with the army. If
he should stay longer than that, it is to be confessed.
50. If a bhikkhu staying two or three nights with an army should
go to a battlefield, a roll call, the troops in battle formation, or to
see a review of the (battle) units, it is to be confessed.
51. The drinking of alcohol or fermented liquor is to be confessed.
52. Tickling with the fingers is to be confessed.
53. The act of playing in the water is to be confessed.
54. Disrespect is to be confessed.
55. Should any bhikkhu try to frighten another bhikkhu, it is to be confessed.
56. Should any bhikkhu who is not ill, seeking to warm himself,
kindle a fire or have one kindled, unless there is a suitable reason, it
is to be confessed.
57. Should any bhikkhu bathe at intervals of less than half a
month, except at the proper occasions, it is to be confessed. Here the
proper occasions are these: the last month and a half of the hot season,
the first month of the rains, these two and a half months being a time
of heat, a time of fever; (also) a time of illness; a time of work; a
time of going on a journey; a time of wind or rain. These are the proper
times here.
58. When a bhikkhu receives a new robe, any one of three means
of discoloring it is to be applied: green, brown, or black. If a bhikkhu
should make use of a new robe without applying any of the three means
of discoloring it, it is to be confessed.
59. Should any bhikkhu, himself having placed robe-cloth under
shared ownership (vikappana) with a bhikkhu, a bhikkhuni, a female
probationer, a male novice, or a female novice, then make use of the
cloth without the shared ownership's being rescinded, it is to be
confessed.
60. Should any bhikkhu hide (another) bhikkhu's bowl, robe,
sitting cloth, needle case, or belt, or have it hidden, even as a joke,
it is to be confessed.
61. Should any bhikkhu knowingly deprive an animal of life, it is to be confessed.
62. Should any bhikkhu knowingly make use of water with living beings in it, it is to be confessed.
63. Should any bhikkhu knowingly agitate for the reviving of an
issue that has been rightfully dealt with, it is to be confessed.
64. Should any bhikkhu knowingly conceal another bhikkhu's serious offense, it is to be confessed.
65. Should any bhikkhu knowingly give full ordination to an
individual less than twenty years of age, the individual is not ordained
and the bhikkhus are blameworthy; and as for him (the preceptor), it is
to be confessed.
66. Should any bhikkhu knowingly and by arrangement travel
together with a caravan of thieves, even for the interval between one
village and the next, it is to be confessed.
67. Should any bhikkhu, by arrangement, travel together with a
woman, even for the interval between one village and the next, it is to
be confessed.
68. Should any bhikkhu say the following: "As I understand the Dhamma
taught by the Blessed One, those acts the Blessed One says are
obstructive, when indulged in are not genuine obstructions," the
bhikkhus should admonish him thus: "Do not say that, venerable sir. Do
not misrepresent the Blessed One, for it is not good to misrepresent the
Blessed One. The Blessed One would not say anything like that. In many
ways, friend, the Blessed One has described obstructive acts, and when
indulged in they are genuine obstructions."
And should the bhikkhu, thus admonished by the bhikkhus, persist
as before, the bhikkhus are to rebuke him up to three times so as to
desist. If while being rebuked up to three times he desists, that is
good. If he does not desist, it is to be confessed.
69. Should any bhikkhu knowingly consort, join in communion, or
lie down in the same lodging with a bhikkhu professing such a view who
has not acted in compliance with the rule, who has not abandoned that
view, it is to be confessed.
70. And if a novice should say the following: "As I understand the Dhamma
taught by the Blessed One, those acts the Blessed One says are
obstructive when indulged in, are not genuine obstructions," the
bhikkhus should admonish him thus: "Do not say that, friend novice. Do
not misrepresent the Blessed One, for it is not good to misrepresent the
Blessed One. The Blessed One would not say anything like that. In many
ways, friend, the Blessed One has described obstructive acts, and when
indulged in they are genuine obstructions."
And should that novice, thus admonished by the bhikkhus, persist
as before, the bhikkhus should admonish him as follows: "From this day
forth, friend novice, you are not to claim the Blessed One as your
teacher, nor are you even to have the opportunity the other novices get —
that of sharing lodgings two or three nights with the bhikkhus. Away
with you! Out of our sight! (literally, 'Get lost!')"
Should any bhikkhu knowingly support, receive services from,
consort with, or lie down in the same lodging with a novice thus
expelled, it is to be confessed.
71. Should any bhikkhu, admonished by the bhikkhus in accordance
with a rule, say, "Friends, I will not train myself under this training
rule until I have put questions about it to another bhikkhu,
experienced and learned in the discipline," it is to be confessed.
Bhikkhus, (a training rule) is to be understood, is to be asked about,
is to be pondered. This is the proper course here.
72. Should any bhikkhu, when the Patimokkha is being repeated,
say, "Why are these lesser and minor training rules repeated when they
lead only to anxiety, bother and confusion?" the criticism of the
training rules is to be confessed.
73. Should any bhikkhu, when the Patimokkha is being recited
every half-month, say, "Just now have I heard that this case, too, is
handed down in the Patimokkha, is included in the Patimokkha, and comes
up for recitation every half-month;" and if other bhikkhus should know,
"That bhikkhu has already sat through two or three recitations of the
Patimokkha, if not more," the bhikkhu is not exempted for being
ignorant. Whatever the offense he has committed, he is to be dealt with
in accordance with the rule; and in addition, his deception is to be
exposed: "It is no gain for you, friend, it is ill-done, that when the
Patimokkha is being recited, you do not pay proper attention and take it
to heart." Here the deception is to be confessed.
74. Should any bhikkhu, angered and displeased, give a blow to (another) bhikkhu, it is to be confessed.
75. Should any bhikkhu, angered and displeased, raise his hand against (another) bhikkhu, it is to be confessed.
76. Should any bhikkhu charge a bhikkhu with an unfounded sanghadisesa (offense), it is to be confessed.
77. Should any bhikkhu purposefully provoke anxiety in (another)
bhikkhu, (thinking,) "This way, even for just a moment, he will have no
peace," if doing it for just this reason and no other, it is to be
confessed.
78. Should any bhikkhu stand eavesdropping on bhikkhus when they
are arguing, quarreling, and disputing, thinking, "I will overhear what
they say" if doing it for just this reason and no other, it is to be
confessed.
79. Should any bhikkhu, having given consent (by proxy) to a
formal act carried out in accordance with the rule, later complain
(about the act), it is to be confessed.
80. Should any bhikkhu, when deliberation is being carried on in
the Community, get up from his seat and leave without having given
consent, it is to be confessed.
81. Should any bhikkhu, (acting as part of) a Community in
concord, give robe-cloth (to an individual bhikkhu) and later complain,
"The bhikkhus apportion the Community's gains according to friendship,"
it is to be confessed.
82. Should any bhikkhu knowingly divert to an individual gains
that had been allocated for the Community, it is to be confessed.
83. Should any bhikkhu, without being previously announced,
cross the threshold of a consecrated noble king's (sleeping chamber)
from which the king has not left, from which the treasure (the queen)
has not withdrawn, it is to be confessed.
84. Should any bhikkhu pick up or have (someone) pick up a
valuable or what is considered a valuable, except within a monastery or
within a dwelling, it is to be confessed. But when a bhikkhu has picked
up or had (someone) pick up a valuable or what is considered a valuable
(left) in a monastery or in a dwelling, he is to keep it, (thinking,)
"Whoever it belongs to will (come and) fetch it." This is the proper
course here.
85. Should any bhikkhu, without taking leave of an available
bhikkhu, enter a village at the wrong time, unless there is a suitable
emergency, it is to be confessed.
86. Should any bhikkhu have a needle case made of bone, ivory, or horn, it is to be broken and confessed.
87. When a bhikkhu is making a new bed or bench, it is to have
legs (at most) eight fingerbreadths long, using Sugata fingerbreadths,
not counting the lower edge of the frame. In excess of that it is to be
cut down and confessed.
88. Should any bhikkhu have a bed or bench upholstered, it (the upholstery) is to be torn off and confessed.
89. When a bhikkhu is making a sitting cloth, it is to be made
to the standard measurement. Here the standard is this: two spans, using
the Sugata span, in length, 1 1/2 in width, the border a span. In
excess of that, it is to be cut down and confessed.
90. When a bhikkhu is making a skin-eruption covering cloth, it
is to be made to the standard measurement. Here the standard is this:
four spans, using the Sugata span, in length, two spans in width. In
excess of that, it is to be cut down and confessed.
91. When a bhikkhu is making a rains-bathing cloth, it is to be
made to the standard measurement. Here the standard is this: six spans,
using the Sugata span, in length, 2 1/2 in width. In excess of that, it
is to be cut down and confessed.
92. Should any bhikkhu have a robe made the size of the Sugata
robe or larger, it is to be cut down and confessed. Here, the size of
the Sugata robe is this: nine spans, using the Sugata span, in length,
six spans in width. This is the size of the Sugata's Sugata robe.
Patidesaniya
Patidesaniya are violations which must be verbally acknowledged.
Accepting and eating food from an unrelated bhikkuni.
Accepting and eating food after a bhikkuni has instructed the donors
on whom to give what food, and none of the bhikkus rebuke the bhikkuni.
Accepting and eating food from a family that the sangha designates as "in training", that is, preparing to becoming arahants, unless if the monk is sick.
Accepting and eating food from a family living in a dangerous location, unless if the monk is sick.
Sekhiyavatta
There are seventy five sekhiya or rules of training, which are mainly about the deportment of a monk. In many countries, it is also standard for novice monks (samanera) to follow the Sekhiyavatta rules in addition to the Ten Precepts.
Sāruppa (proper behavior)
I will wear the under robe properly.
I will wear the upper robe properly.
I will cover my body properly when going in inhabited areas.
I will cover my body properly when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will properly restrain the movements of hands and feet when going in inhabited areas.
I will properly restrain the movements of hands and feet when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will keep my eyes looking down when going in inhabited areas.
I will keep my eyes looking down when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not hitch up my robes when going in inhabited areas.
I will not hitch up my robes when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not laugh loudly when going in inhabited areas.
I will not laugh loudly when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not speak loudly when going in inhabited areas.
I will not speak loudly when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not sway my body about when going in inhabited areas.
I will not sway my body about when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not swing my arms about when going in inhabited areas.
I will not swing my arms about when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not shake my head about when going in inhabited areas.
I will not shake my head about when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not put my arms akimbo when going in inhabited areas.
I will not put my arms akimbo when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not cover my head with a cloth when going in inhabited areas.
I will not cover my head with a cloth when sitting in inhabited areas.
I will not walk on tiptoe when going in inhabited areas.
I will not sit clasping the knees in inhabited areas.
Bhojanapatisamyutta (food)
I will receive pindapāta (alms round) food attentively.
When receiving pindapāta food, I will look only into the bowl.
I will receive curries in the right proportion to the rice.
I will receive pindapāta food only until it reached the rim of the bowl.
I will eat pindapāta food attentively.
When eating pindapāta food, I will look only into the bowl.
I will not dig up the rice making it uneven.
I will eat curries in the right proportion to the rice.
I will not eat rice only working from the top down.
I will not cover up curries – or curry mixed with rice – with white rice because of a desire to get a lot.
When I am not sick, I will not ask for curries or rice for the purpose of eating them myself.
I will not look at another's bowl with the idea of finding fault.
I will not make up a very large mouthful of food.
I will make food up into suitably round mouthfuls.
I will not open my mouth until the portion of food has been brought to it.
When eating, I will not put my fingers into my mouth.
When food is still in my mouth, I will not speak.
I will not throw lumps of food into my mouth.
I will not eat by biting off mouthfuls of rice.
I will not eat stuffing out my cheeks.
I will not eat and shake my hand about at the same time.
I will not eat scattering grains of rice about so that they fall back into the bowl or elsewhere.
I will not eat putting my tongue out.
I will not eat making a champing sound.
I will not eat (or drink) making a sucking sound.
I will not eat licking my hands.
I will not eat scraping the bowl.
I will not eat licking my lips.
I will not take hold of a vessel of water with my hand soiled with food.
I will not throw out bowl-washing water which has grains of rice in it in a place where there are houses.
Dhammadesanāpatisamyutta (teaching dhamma)
A bhikku should train himself thus: I will not teach Dhamma to someone who is not sick and...
who has an umbrella in his hand.
who has a wooden stick (club) in his hand.
who has a sharp-edged weapon in his hand.
who has a weapon in his hand.
who is wearing (wooden-soled) sandals.
who is wearing shoes.
who is in a vehicle.
who is on a bed (or couch).
who is sitting clasping the knees.
who has a head wrapping (turban).
whose head is covered.
who is sitting on a seat while I am sitting on the ground.
who is sitting on a high seat while I am sitting on a low seat.
who is sitting while I am standing.
who is walking in front of me while I am walking behind him.
who is walking on a pathway while I am walking beside the pathway.
Pakinnaka (miscellaneous)
A bhikku should train himself thus: If I am not sick...
I will not defecate or urinate while standing.
I will not defecate, urinate or spit on green vegetation.
I will not defecate, urinate or spit into water.
Adhikarana-samatha are seven rules for settlement of legal processes that concern monks only.
When an issue is settled, the verdict should be in the presence of the sangha, the parties, the Dhamma and the Vinaya.
If the bhikku is innocent, the verdict should be "mindfulness".
If the bhikku was or is insane, the verdict should be "past insanity".
If the bhikku confesses to the exact allegations, the verdict should be "acting in accordance with what was admitted".
If the dispute cannot be unanimously settled, the sangha should take
a vote and the verdict should be "acting in accordance with the
majority".
If the bhikku confesses only after interrogation, the verdict should
be "acting in accordance with the accused's further misconduct".
If both sides agree that they are not acting the way monks ought to, they can call a full assembly of the sima and confess their mistakes, and the verdict should be "covering over as with grass."
Religious law includes ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions.
Different religious systems hold sacred law in a greater or lesser
degree of importance to their belief systems, with some being explicitly
antinomian whereas others are nomistic
or "legalistic" in nature. In particular, religions such as Judaism,
Islam and the Bahá'í Faith teach the need for revealed positive law for
both state and society, whereas other religions such as Christianity
generally reject the idea that this is necessary or desirable
and instead emphasise the eternal moral precepts of divine law over the
civil, ceremonial or judicial aspects, which may have been annulled as in theologies of grace over law.
Examples of religiously derived legal codes include Jewishhalakha, Islamicsharia, Christiancanon law (applicable within a wider theological conception in the church, but distinct from secular state law), and Hindu law.
In both theocracies and some religious jurisdictions, conscientious objectors may cause religious offense. The contrary legal systems are secular states or multicultural
societies in which the government does not formally adopt a particular
religion, but may either repress all religious activity or enforce
tolerance of religious diversity.
Bahá'í Faith
Bahá'í laws are laws and ordinances used in the Bahá'í Faith and are a fundamental part of Bahá'í practice. The laws are based on authenticated texts from Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, subsequent interpretations from `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi and legislation by the Universal House of Justice. Bahá'í law is presented as a set of general principles and guidelines and individuals must apply them as they best seem fit.
While some of the social laws are enforced by Bahá'í institutions, the
emphasis is placed on individuals following the laws based on their
conscience, understanding and reasoning, and Bahá'ís are expected to
follow the laws for the love of Bahá'u'lláh. The laws are seen as the method of the maintenance of order and security in the world.
A few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas which are considered obligatory for Bahá'ís include:
Recite an obligatory prayer each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
Observe a Nineteen Day Fast
from sunrise to sunset from March 2 through March 20. During this time
Bahá'ís in good health between the ages of 15 and 70 abstain from eating
and drinking.
Gossip and backbiting are prohibited and viewed as particularly damaging to the individual and their relationships.
Buddhism
Patimokkha comprises a collection of precepts for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (Buddhist monks and nuns).
Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by or adopted by
ecclesiastical authority for the governance of the Christian
organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a church council (From Greekkanon / κανών, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.
The canon law of the Catholic Church (Latin: jus canonicum) is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities
of the Church to regulate its external organization and government and
to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of
the Church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West, predating the European common law and civil law traditions. What began with rules ("canons") adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the 1st century has blossomed into a highly complex and original legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions spanning thousands of years of human experience. while the unique traditions of Oriental canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholicparticular churchessui iuris.
Positive ecclesiastical laws derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from promulgation by the supreme legislator—the Supreme Pontiff—who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person,
while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a
legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a
delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not
just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human
condition.
It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code for the Latin Church as well as a code for the Eastern Catholic Churches, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties.
It lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. Those who
are versed and skilled in canon law, and professors of canon law, are
called canonists (or colloquially, canon lawyers). Canon law as a sacred science is called canonistics.
The jurisprudence of canon law is the complex of legal principles and traditions within which canon law operates, while the philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of canon law
are the areas of philosophical, theological, and legal scholarship
dedicated to providing a theoretical basis for canon law as a legal
system and as true law.
In the early Church, the first canons were decreed by bishops united in "Ecumenical" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the Bishop of Rome) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with decretals of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim, Roma locuta est, causa finita est ("Rome has spoken, case is closed").
Later, they were gathered together into collections, both unofficial and official. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the Camaldolese monk Gratian in the 11th century, commonly known as the Decretum Gratiani ("Gratian's Decree"). PopeGregory IX is credited with promulgating the first official collection of canons called the Decretalia Gregorii Noni or Liber Extra (1234). This was followed by the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII, the Clementines (1317) of Clement V, the Extravagantes Joannis XXII and the Extravagantes Communes, all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the Decretum Gratiani, are together referred to as the Corpus Juris Canonici. After the completion of the Corpus Juris Canonici, subsequent papal legislation was published in periodic volumes called Bullaria.
By the 19th century, this body of legislation included some
10,000 norms, many difficult to reconcile with one another due to
changes in circumstances and practice. This situation impelled Pope Pius X to order the creation of the first Code of Canon Law, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, who promulgated the Code, effective in 1918. The work having been begun by Pius X,
it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the
1917 Code. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined,
scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much
as possible with opposing canons and even other Codes, from the Codex of Justinian to the Napoleonic Code.
Pope John XXIII initially called for a Synod of the Diocese of Rome, an Ecumenical Council, and an updating to the 1917 Code. After the Second Ecumenical Council
of the Vatican (Vatican II) closed in 1965, it became apparent that the
Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of
Vatican II. After multiple drafts and many years of discussion, Pope John Paul II promulgated the revised Code of Canon Law (CIC) in 1983. Containing 1752 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin (western) Roman Church.
The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had
developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own
process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II.
The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern Civil law and Common law
bear the influences of canon law. Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian
expert in canon law, says that canon law is contained in the genesis of
various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe
and Latin American countries. Sampel explains that canon law has
significant influence in contemporary society.
Currently, all Latin-Rite Catholic seminary students are expected
to take a course in canon law (c. 252.3). Some ecclesiastical officials
are required to have the doctorate (JCD) or at least the licentiate (JCL)
in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: Judicial Vicars (c.
1419.1), Judges (c. 1421.3), Promoters of Justice (c. 1435), Defenders
of the Bond (c. 1435). In addition, Vicars General
and Episcopal Vicars are to be doctors or at least licensed in canon
law or theology (c. 478.1), and canonical advocates must either have the
doctorate or be truly expert in canon law (c. 1483). Ordinarily,
Bishops are to have advanced degrees in sacred scripture, theology, or
canon law (c. 378.1.5). St. Raymond of Penyafort
(1175–1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of
canonists, due to his important contributions to the science of Canon
Law.
Orthodox Churches
The Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pēdálion
(Greek: Πηδάλιον, "Rudder"), so named because it is meant to "steer"
the Church. The Orthodox Christian tradition in general treats its
canons more as guidelines than as laws, the bishops adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the Ecumenical Councils (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them nómoi/νόμοι (laws) rather than kanónes/κανόνες
(rules), but almost all Orthodox conform to them. The dogmatic
decisions of the Councils, though, are to be obeyed rather than to be
treated as guidelines, since they are essential for the Church's unity.
Anglican Communion
In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts
that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to
marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of
certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration
of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate
status dates back to the 11th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation,
ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching
of canon law at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated
by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an LL.D. from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centred at "Doctors Commons", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law
courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil
law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)
Charles I repealed Canon Law in Scotland in 1638 after uprisings of Covenanters confronting the Bishops of Aberdeen following the convention at Muchalls Castle and other revolts across Scotland earlier that year.
In Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, canon law is known as
"practice and procedure" or "church order," and includes the church's
laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship.
Lutheranism
The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century.
However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating
orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or
discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes
its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred
to as "canons".
The United Methodist Church
The Book of Discipline
contains the laws, rules, policies and guidelines for The United
Methodist Church. It is revised every four years by the General
Conference, the law-making body of The United Methodist Church; the last
edition was published in 2012.
Sharia, also known as Islamic law (قانون إسلاميqānūn ʾIslāmī), is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources, the precepts set forth in the Quran and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the sunnah. Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) interprets and extends the application of sharia to questions not directly addressed in the primary sources by including secondary sources. These secondary sources usually include the consensus of the ulama (religious scholars) embodied in ijma and analogy from the Quran and sunnah through qiyas. Shia jurists prefer to apply reasoning ('aql) rather than analogy in order to address difficult questions.
Muslims believe sharia is God's law, but they differ as to what exactly it entails.
Modernists, traditionalists and fundamentalists all hold different
views of sharia, as do adherents to different schools of Islamic thought
and scholarship. Different countries, societies and cultures have
varying interpretations of sharia as well.
Sharia deals with many topics addressed by secular law, including crime, politics and economics, as well as personal matters such as sexual intercourse, hygiene, diet, prayer, and fasting. Where it has official status, sharia is applied by Islamic judges, or qadis. The imam
has varying responsibilities depending on the interpretation of sharia;
while the term is commonly used to refer to the leader of communal
prayers, the imam may also be a scholar, religious leader, or political
leader.
The reintroduction of sharia is a longstanding goal for Islamist movements in Muslim countries. Some Muslim minorities in Asia (e.g., in Israel or in India)
have maintained institutional recognition of sharia to adjudicate their
personal and community affairs. In Western countries, where Muslim
immigration is more recent, Muslim minorities have introduced sharia
family law for use in their own disputes with varying degrees of
success, e.g., Britain's Muslim Arbitration Tribunal.
Attempts by Muslims to impose sharia on non-Muslims in countries with
large Muslim populations have been accompanied by controversy, violence, and even warfare (cf. Second Sudanese Civil War).
Jainism
Jain law
or Jaina law refers to the modern interpretation of ancient Jain Law
that consists of rules for adoption, marriage, succession and death for
the followers of Jainism.
The halakhah has developed gradually through a variety of legal and quasi-legal mechanisms, including judicial decisions, legislative enactments, and customary law. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, are referred to as Responsa.
Over time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law were written based
on Talmudic literature and Responsa. The most influential code, the Shulchan Aruch, guides the religious practice of most Orthodox and some Conservative Jews.
According to rabbinic tradition there are 613 mitzvot in the written Torah. The mitzvot in the Torah (also called the Law of Moses)
pertain to nearly every aspect of human life. Some of these laws are
directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly
groups (the Kohanim and Leviyim) members of the tribe of Levi, some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Some laws are only applicable when there is a Temple in Jerusalem.
Wicca
The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in the neopagan religion of Wicca and certain other related witchcraft-based faiths. A common form of the Rede is "An it harm none, do what ye will".
