Transdisciplinarity connotes a research strategy that crosses disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic
approach. It applies to research efforts focused on problems that cross
the boundaries of two or more disciplines, such as research on
effective information systems for biomedical research (see bioinformatics),
and can refer to concepts or methods that were originally developed by
one discipline, but are now used by several others, such as ethnography, a field research method originally developed in anthropology but now widely used by other disciplines.
The Belmont Forum
elaborated that a transdisciplinary approach is enabling inputs and
scoping across scientific and non-scientific stakeholder communities and
facilitating a systemic way of addressing a challenge. This includes
initiatives that support the capacity building required for the
successful transdisciplinary formulation and implementation of research
actions.
Usage
Transdisciplinarity has two common meanings:
German usage
In German-speaking countries, Transdisziplinarität
refers to the integration of diverse forms of research, and includes
specific methods for relating knowledge in problem-solving. A 2003 conference held at the University of Göttingen
showcased the diverse meanings of multi-, inter- and
transdisciplinarity and made suggestions for converging them without
eliminating present usages.
When the very nature of a problem is under dispute,
transdisciplinarity can help determine the most relevant problems and
research questions involved.
A first type of question concerns the cause of the present problems and
their future development (system knowledge). Another concerns which
values and norms can be used to form goals of the problem-solving
process (target knowledge). A third relates to how a problematic
situation can be transformed and improved (transformation knowledge).
Transdisciplinarity requires adequate addressing of the complexity of
problems and the diversity of perceptions of them, that abstract and
case-specific knowledge are linked, and that practices promote the
common good.
Transdisciplinarity arises when participating experts interact in
an open discussion and dialogue, giving equal weight to each
perspective and relating them to each other. This is difficult because
of the overwhelming amount of information involved, and because of
incommensurability of specialized languages in each field of expertise.
To excel under these conditions, researchers need not only in-depth
knowledge and know-how of the disciplines involved, but skills in
moderation, mediation, association and transfer.
Wider usage
Transdisciplinarity is also used to signify a unity of knowledge beyond disciplines.
Jean Piaget
introduced this usage of the term in 1970, and in 1987, the
International Center for Transdisciplinary Research (CIRET) adopted the
Charter of Transdisciplinarity at the 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinarity, Convento da Arrabida, Portugal, November 1994.
In the CIRET approach, transdisciplinarity is radically distinct from interdisciplinarity.
Interdisciplinarity, like pluridisciplinarity, concerns the transfer of
methods from one discipline to another, allowing research to spill over
disciplinary boundaries, but staying within the framework of
disciplinary research.
As the prefix "trans" indicates, transdisciplinarity concerns
that which is at once between the disciplines, across the different
disciplines, and beyond each individual discipline. Its goal is the
understanding of the present world, of which one of the imperatives is
the overarching unity of knowledge.
Another critical defining characteristic of transdisciplinary
research is the inclusion of stakeholders in defining research
objectives and strategies in order to better incorporate the diffusion
of learning produced by the research. Collaboration between stakeholders
is deemed essential – not merely at an academic or disciplinary
collaboration level, but through active collaboration with people
affected by the research and community-based stakeholders. In such a
way, transdisciplinary collaboration becomes uniquely capable of
engaging with different ways of knowing the world, generating new
knowledge, and helping stakeholders understand and incorporate the
results or lessons learned by the research.
Transdisciplinarity is defined by Basarab Nicolescu through three methodological postulates: the existence of levels of Reality, the logic of the included middle, and complexity.
In the presence of several levels of Reality the space between
disciplines and beyond disciplines is full of information. Disciplinary
research concerns, at most, one and the same level of Reality; moreover,
in most cases, it only concerns fragments of one level of Reality. On
the contrary, transdisciplinarity concerns the dynamics engendered by
the action of several levels of Reality at once. The discovery of these
dynamics necessarily passes through disciplinary knowledge. While not a
new discipline or a new superdiscipline, transdisciplinarity is
nourished by disciplinary research; in turn, disciplinary research is
clarified by transdisciplinary knowledge in a new, fertile way. In this
sense, disciplinary and transdisciplinary research are not antagonistic
but complementary. As in the case of disciplinarity, transdisciplinary
research is not antagonistic but complementary to multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity research.
According to Nicolescu, transdisciplinarity is nevertheless
radically distinct from multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity
because of its goal, the understanding of the present world, which
cannot be accomplished in the framework of disciplinary research.
The goal of multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity always remains
within the framework of disciplinary research. If transdisciplinarity is
often confused with interdisciplinarity or multidisciplinarity (and by
the same token, we note that interdisciplinarity is often confused with
multidisciplinarity) this is explained in large part by the fact that
all three overflow disciplinary boundaries. Advocates maintain this
confusion hides the huge potential of transdisciplinarity. One of the best known professionals of transdisciplinarity in Argentina is Pablo Tigani, and his concept about transdisciplinarity is:
It is the art of combining several
sciences in one person. A transdisciplinary is a scientist trained in
various academic disciplines. This person merged all his knowledge into
one thick wire. That united knowledge wire is used to solve problems
that include many problems. The decision of a transdisciplinary
executive is the only one that takes into account the total resolution
of a problem without leaving any loose thread.
Currently, transdisciplinarity is a consolidated academic field that is giving rise to new applied researches, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean. In this sense, the transdisciplinary and biomimetics research of Javier Collado on Big History represents an ecology of knowledge between scientific knowledge and the ancestral wisdom of native peoples, such as Indigenous peoples in Ecuador. According to Collado, the transdisciplinary methodology applied in the field of Big History
seeks to understand the interconnections of the human race with the
different levels of reality that co-exist in nature and in the cosmos,
and this includes mystical and spiritual experiences, very present in
the rituals of shamanism with ayahuasca and other sacred plants. In abstract, the teaching of Big History in universities of Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina
implies a transdisciplinary vision that integrates and unifies diverse
epistemes that are in, between, and beyond the scientific disciplines,
that is, including ancestral wisdom, spirituality, art, emotions, mystical experiences and other dimensions forgotten in the history of science, specially by the positivist approach.
Transdisciplinary education
Transdisciplinary
education is education that brings integration of different disciplines
in a harmonious manner to construct new knowledge and uplift the
learner to higher domains of cognitive abilities and sustained knowledge
and skills. It involves better neural networking for lifelong learning.
Transdisciplinarity has been flagged internationally as an important aim of education. For example, Global Education Magazine, an international journal supported by UNESCO and UNHCR:
"transdisciplinarity represents the capable germ to promote an
endogenous development of the evolutionary spirit of internal critical
consciousness, where religion and science are complementary. Respect,
solidarity and cooperation should be global standards for the entire
human development with no boundaries. This requires a radical change in
the ontological models of sustainable development, global education and
world-society. We must rely on the recognition of a plurality of models,
cultures and socio-economical diversification. As well as biodiversity
is the way for the emergence of new species, cultural diversity
represents the creative potential of world-society."
Influence in disciplines and fields
Arts and humanities
Transdisciplinarity can be found in the arts and humanities. For example, the Planetary Collegium
seeks "the development of transdisciplinary discourse in the
convergence of art, science, technology and consciousness research." The
Plasticities Sciences Arts (PSA) research group also develops
transdisciplinary approaches regarding humanities and fundamental
sciences relationships as well as the Art & Science field. An
example of transdisciplinary research in the arts and humanities can be
seen in Lucy Jeffery's study on the work of Samuel Beckett, entitled Transdisciplinary Beckett: Visual Arts, Music, and the Creative Process.
In this "scheme of transdisciplinarity", all anthropological
disciplines (paragraph C in the table of the pdf-file below), their
questions (paragraph A: see pdf-file) and results (paragraph B: see
pdf-file) can be intertwined and allocated with each other for examples
how these aspects go into those little boxes in the matrix.
This chart includes all realms of anthropological research (no one is
excluded). It is the starting point for a systematical order for all
human sciences, and also a source for a consistent networking and
structuring of their results. This "bio-psycho-social" orientation
framework is the basis for the development of the "Fundamental Theory of
Human Sciences" and for a transdisciplinary consensus. (In this
tabulated orientation matrix the questions and reference levels in italics
are also the subject of the humanities.). Niko Tinbergen was familiar
with both conceptual categories (i.e. the four central questions of
biological research and the levels of analysis), the tabulation was made
by Gerhard Medicus. Certainly, a humanist perspective always involves a
transdisciplinary focus. A good and classic example of mixing very
different sciences was the work developed by Leibniz in
seventeenth-eighteenth centuries in order to create a universal system
of justice.
Health science
The
term transdisciplinarity is increasingly prevalent in health care
research and has been identified as important to improving the
effectiveness and efficiency in health care.
Transdisciplinary within public health emphasizes integrating diverse
individuals, skills, perspectives, and expertise across disciplines to
dissolve traditional boundaries and develop holistic approaches linking
ecosystem and human health boundaries.
According to his contemporary, Jerome of Stridon, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith". In his youth he was drawn to the Manichaean faith, and later to the Hellenistic philosophy of Neoplatonism.
After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine
developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a
variety of methods and perspectives. Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity.
In the East, his teachings are more disputed and were notably attacked by John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque, was rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination.
Though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered
a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Gregory Palamas. In the Greek and Russian Orthodox churches, his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.
The historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: "Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example, Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."
Life
Background
Augustine of Hippo, also known as Saint Augustine or Saint Austin, is known by various cognomens throughout the many denominations of the Christian world, including Blessed Augustine and the Doctor of Grace (Latin: Doctor gratiae).
Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica, by Niccolò di Pietro, 1413–15
Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in the Roman province of Numidia. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed. He had a brother named Navigius and a sister whose name is lost but is conventionally remembered as Perpetua.
Scholars generally agree that Augustine and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa, but were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity. In his writings, Augustine mentions in passing his identity as a Roman African. For example, he refers to Apuleius as "the most notorious of us Africans,"to Ponticianus as "a country man of ours, insofar as being African," and to Faustus of Mileve as "an African Gentleman".
Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests his father's ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born. It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name, but as his family were honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language was likely Latin.
At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 31 kilometres (19 miles) south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices.
His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number
of friends stole pears from a neighbourhood garden. He tells this story
in his autobiography, Confessions. He realises that the pears
were "tempting neither for its colour nor its flavour" – he was neither
hungry nor poor, and he had enough of fruit which were "much better".
Over the next few chapters, Augustine agonises over this past sin of
his, recognising that one does not desire evil for evil's sake. Rather,
"through an inordinate preference for these goods of a lower kind, the
better and higher are neglected".
In other words, man is drawn to sin when grossly choosing the lesser
good over a greater good. Eventually, Augustine concludes that it was
the good of the "companionship" between him and his accomplices that
allowed him to delight in this theft.
At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric, though it was above the financial means of his family. Despite the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic
lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their
sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance encouraged
inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about
sexual experiences.
Despite multiple claims to the contrary, it has been suggested that
Augustine's actual sexual experiences were likely with members of the
opposite sex only.
It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogueHortensius
(now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression,
enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth.
It started his interest in philosophy. Although raised Christian, Augustine became a Manichaean, much to his mother's chagrin.
At about the age of 17, Augustine began a relationship with a
young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person
of his class, the woman remained his lover. He was warned by his mother
to avoid fornication (sex outside marriage), but Augustine persisted in
the relationship for over fifteen years, and the woman gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388), which means "Gift from God",
who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385,
Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare to
marry a teenage heiress. By the time he was able to marry her, however,
he has already converted to Christianity and decided to become a
Christian priest and the marriage did not happen.
Augustine was, from the beginning, a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek
– his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his
students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he
realized he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he
acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. He
did, however, become a master of Latin.
Move to Carthage, Rome, and Milan
The earliest known portrait of Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome
Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The
following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and
remained there for the next nine years.
Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a
school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians
practised, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the
apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to
the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended
faithfully all term, and then did not pay.
Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked by the imperial court at Milan
to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north
to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won
the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when
such posts gave ready access to political careers.
Although Augustine spent ten years as a Manichaean, he was never
an initiate or "elect", but an "auditor", the lowest level in this
religion's hierarchy. While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism. In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the New Academy
movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical
prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many
faiths. At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism, and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Christianity. This was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire on 27 February 380 by the Edict of Thessalonica
and then issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382.
Initially, Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its
ideologies, but after coming in contact with Ambrose of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.
Saint Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica (1846) by Ary Scheffer
Augustine arrived in Milan and visited Ambrose, having heard of his
reputation as an orator. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of
rhetoric, but older and more experienced.
Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, "And I began to love
him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had
entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church – but as a friendly
man." Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. In his Confessions, Augustine states, "That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should." Ambrose adopted Augustine as a spiritual son after the death of Augustine's father.
Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a
respectable marriage for him. Although Augustine acquiesced, he had to
dismiss his concubine and grieved for having forsaken his lover. He
wrote, "My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my
marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and
bleeding." Augustine confessed he had not been a lover of wedlock so
much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had
to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional
wound was not healed. It was during this period that he uttered his famously insincere prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet."
There is evidence Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage. In his Confessions,
he admitted the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity
to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his
eleven-year-old fiancée but never renewed his relationship with either
of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste
steered Augustine away from marriage, saying they could not live a life
together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back
years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as Christianae vitae otium – the leisure of Christian life.
In late August of 386, at the age of 31, having heard of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of Anthony of the Desert,
Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his
conversion was prompted by hearing a child's voice say "take up and
read" (Latin: tolle, lege). Resorting to the sortes biblicae, he opened a book of St. Paul's writings (Confessiones
8.12.29) at random and read Romans 13:13–14: "Not in rioting and
drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and
envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the
flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof."
He later wrote an account of his conversion in his Confessions (Latin: Confessiones), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics. The following is taken from that work:
Belatedly I loved thee, O Beauty so ancient and so new, belatedly I
loved thee. For see, thou wast within and I was without, and I sought
thee out there. Unlovely, I rushed heedlessly among the lovely things
thou hast made. Thou wast with me, but I was not with thee. These things
kept me far from thee; even though they were not at all unless they
were in thee. Thou didst call and cry aloud, and didst force open my
deafness. Thou didst gleam and shine, and didst chase away my blindness.
Thou didst breathe fragrant odours and I drew in my breath; and now I
pant for thee. I tasted, and now I hunger and thirst. Thou didst touch
me, and I burned for thy peace.
Ambrose baptized Augustine and his son Adeodatus, in Milan on Easter Vigil, 24–25 April 387.[84] A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his apologyOn the Holiness of the Catholic Church. That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa. Augustine's mother Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa. Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property. Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died. Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. He only kept the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends.
Furthermore, while he was known for his major contributions to
Christian rhetoric, another major contribution was his preaching style.
After converting to Christianity, Augustine turned against his
profession as a rhetoric professor in order to devote more time to
preaching. In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius
(now Annaba), in Algeria. He was especially interested in discovering
how his previous rhetorical training in Italian schools would help the
Christian Church achieve its objective of discovering and teaching the
different scriptures in the Bible. He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.
He preached around 6,000 to 10,000 sermons when he was alive; however,
there are only around 500 sermons that are accessible today. When Augustine preached his sermons, they were recorded by stenographers. Some of his sermons would last over one hour and he would preach multiple times throughout a given week.
When talking to his audience, he would stand on an elevated platform;
however, he would walk towards the audience during his sermons. When he was preaching, he used a variety of rhetorical devices that included analogies, word pictures, similes, metaphors, repetition, and antithesis when trying to explain more about the Bible.
In addition, he used questions and rhymes when talking about the
differences between people's life on Earth and Heaven as seen in one of
his sermons that was preached in 412 AD. Augustine believed that the preachers' ultimate goal is to ensure the salvation of their audience.
In 395, he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo and became full Bishop shortly thereafter, hence the name "Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste.
He remained in that position until his death in 430. Bishops were the
only individuals allowed to preach when he was alive and he scheduled
time to preach after being ordained despite a busy schedule made up of
preparing sermons and preaching at other churches besides his own.
When serving as the Bishop of Hippo, his goal was to minister to
individuals in his congregation and he would choose the passages that
the church planned to read every week. As bishop, he believed that it was his job to interpret the work of the Bible. He wrote his autobiographical Confessions in 397–398. His work The City of God was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths had sacked Rome in 410.
Augustine worked tirelessly to convince the people of Hippo to convert
to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a
monastic life in the episcopal residence.
Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita.
During this latter part of Augustine's life, he helped lead a large
community of Christians against different political and religious
factors which had a major influence on his writings.
Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a
stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity
against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal
traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked
tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and
exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.
Death and sainthood
Shortly before Augustine's death, the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman Africa.
The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430 when Augustine entered
his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles
attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during
the siege.
Augustine has been cited to have excommunicated himself upon the
approach of his death in an act of public penance and solidarity with
sinners. Spending his final days in prayer and repentance, he requested the penitential Psalms
of David be hung on his walls so he could read them and upon which led
him to "[weep] freely and constantly" according to Possidius' biography.
He directed the library of the church in Hippo and all the books
therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.
Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but
they returned soon after and burned the city. They destroyed all but
Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.
Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day
is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron
saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and
dioceses. He is invoked against sore eyes.
According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustine's body was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, to save them from frequent coastal raids by Saracens. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called Arca), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life, created by Giovanni di Balduccio.
In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel
d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing human bones (including
part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits
(Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Augustine.
The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1785, Augustine's ark and relics were brought to Pavia Cathedral in 1799. San Pietro fell into disrepair but was finally restored in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.
In 1842, a portion of Augustine's right arm (cubitus) was secured from Pavia and returned to Annaba. It now rests in the Saint Augustin Basilica within a glass tube inserted into the arm of a life-size marble statue of the saint.
Views and thought
Augustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with John Chrysostom, Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity.
Theology
Christian anthropology
Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of theological anthropology. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of soul and body. In his late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420) he exhorted respect for the body on the grounds it belonged to the very nature of the human person. Augustine's favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife.
Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity
they are now experiencing dramatic combat with one another. They are
two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional
object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial
dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.
Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, in detailed efforts to explain the metaphysics
of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit they are
metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and
body, with the soul superior to the body. The latter statement is
grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.
Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Basil of Caesarea, Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion",
and although he disapproved of abortion during any stage of pregnancy,
he made a distinction between early and later abortions. He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of Exodus 21:22–23, which incorrectly translates the word "harm" (from the original Hebrew text) as "form" in the Koine Greek
of the Septuagint. His view was based on the Aristotelian distinction
"between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'".
Therefore, he did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed"
fetus since he thought it could not be known with certainty the fetus
had received a soul.
Augustine held that "the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone".
However, he considered procreation as "one of the goods of marriage;
abortion figured as a means, along with drugs which cause sterility, of
frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum which included
infanticide as an instance of 'lustful cruelty' or 'cruel lust.'
Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an 'evil
work:' a reference to either abortion or contraception or both."
In City of God, Augustine rejected both the contemporary ideas
of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed
from the Church's sacred writings. In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis,
Augustine argued that God had created everything in the universe
simultaneously and not over a period of six days. He argued the six-day
structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a logical framework,
rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a
spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One
reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach 18:1, creavit omnia simul
("He created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof that
the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literalistically. As additional support for describing the six days of creation as a heuristic device, Augustine thought the actual event of creation would be incomprehensible by humans and therefore needed to be translated.
Augustine also does not envision original sin as causing
structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of
Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall.Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognized that interpreting
the creation story was difficult, and remarked that interpretations
could change should new information come up.
Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist
sect. He taught there is one Church, but within this Church there are
two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the laity)
and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either
dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the
institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims
salvation and administers the sacraments, while the latter is the
invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages,
who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal,
will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people
(as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the
Donatist claim that only those in a state of grace
were the "true" or "pure" church on earth, and that priests and bishops
who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect
the sacraments.
Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in City of God.
There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled
by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which
are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of the Apostles, and their authority in the Church is God-given.
The concept of Church invisible
was advocated by Augustine as part of his refutation of the Donatist
sect, though he, as other Church Fathers before him, saw the invisible
Church and visible Church as one and the same thing, unlike the later
Protestant reformers who did not identify the Catholic Church as the true church. He was strongly influenced by the Platonist
belief that true reality is invisible and that, if the visible reflects
the invisible, it does so only partially and imperfectly (see Theory of Forms). Others question whether Augustine really held to some form of an "invisible true Church" concept.
Eschatology
Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection,
but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. During the
medieval period, the Catholic Church built its system of eschatology on
Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.
During the Reformation, theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those who died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.
Mariology
Although Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the Ever-Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, believing her to be "full of grace" (following earlier Latin writers such as Jerome) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence. Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary "conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever".
Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation
Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts
science and humans' God-given reason, the biblical text should be
interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a
literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean the Scriptures
are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor.
Painting of Augustine (1458) by Tomás Giner, tempera on panel, Diocesan Museum of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain
Augustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first. The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17). The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.
Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to
acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its
hierarchy of beings and values.
They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom if Satan had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix Mali). Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. In terms of metaphysics, concupiscence is not a state of being but a bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.
Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and
the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum, who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia. They refused to agree original sin wounded human will and mind,
insisting human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to
think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity
for doing good, but a person is free to act or not act in a righteous
way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing,
but a person can make either good or bad use of it.
Pelagians insisted human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. fornication,
is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person does not use natural
desires in a proper way. In opposition, Augustine pointed out the
apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as
one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's
disobedience to God.
Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manichaeans for about nine years, who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge. But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen. By malum
(evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as
a vice dominating people and causing in men and women moral disorder.
Agostino Trapè insists Augustine's personal experience cannot be
credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's
marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from
the absence of Christian wedding rites. As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.
The view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church. It is clear the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of Plotinus, a Neoplatonist who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind. Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.
Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality
and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as
coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as
described in the Confessions. Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption
of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The
virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of
Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a remedium concupiscentiae – remedy of concupiscence.The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.
The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his
pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted
to his descendants by concupiscence, which he regarded as the passion of both soul and body, making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.
Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical
death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin,
Augustine was the first to add the concept of inherited guilt (reatus) from Adam whereby an infant was eternally damned at birth.
Although Augustine's anti-Pelagian defence of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, i.e. Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418), his inherited guilt eternally damning infants was omitted by these councils and popes. Anselm of Canterbury established in his Cur Deus Homo
the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen,
namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which
every man ought to possess," thus separating it from concupiscence, with which some of Augustine's disciples had identified it, as later did Luther and Calvin. In 1567, Pope Pius V condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.
Augustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, he believed predestination
was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe
in Christ, that God's grace was "a reward for human assent". Later, in response to Pelagius, Augustine said that the sin of pride
consists in assuming "we are the ones who choose God or that God
chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us",
and argued that God's grace causes the individual act of faith.
Scholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies double predestination,
or the belief God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for
salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny he held such a view while
some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did
believe in double predestination.
About 412, Augustine became the first Christian to understand
predestination as a divine unilateral pre-determination of individuals'
eternal destinies independently of human choice, although his prior
Manichaean sect did teach this concept. Some Protestant theologians, such as Justo L. González and Bengt Hägglund, interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance.
In On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia),
Augustine wrote: "And what is written, that He wills all men to be
saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways,
some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I
will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all
the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is
among them."
Speaking of the twins Jacob and Esau, Augustine wrote in his book On the Gift of Perseverance, "[I]t ought to be a most certain fact that the former is of the predestinated, the latter is not."
Also in reaction to the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the sacraments.
Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church,
while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular.
Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments does not depend upon the
holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato);
therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided
they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the
Church. On this point, Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.
Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic
Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated
that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the
Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic
Church.
Augustine believed that in a real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that Christ's statement, "This is my body" referred to the bread he carried in his hands,
and that Christians must have faith the bread and wine are in fact the
body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes.
For instance, he stated that "He [Jesus] walked here in the same flesh,
and gave us the same flesh to be eaten unto salvation. But no one eats
that flesh unless first he adores it; and thus it is discovered how such
a footstool of the Lord's feet is adored; and not only do we not sin by
adoring, we do sin by not adoring."
Presbyterian professor and author John Riggs argued that
Augustine held that Christ is really present in the elements of the
Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in Heaven.
Augustine, in his work On Christian Doctrine, referred to the Eucharist as a "figure" and a "sign".
Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism.
About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for
salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during
his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his
position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are
saved. This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.
Augustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called mathematici.
Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine
himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly
fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a
bishop, he warned that one should avoid astrologers who combine science
and horoscopes.
(Augustine's term "mathematici", meaning "astrologers", is sometimes
mistranslated as "mathematicians".) According to Augustine, they were
not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but "common swindlers".
Epistemology
Epistemological concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues Contra academicos (386) and De Magistro
(389), both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity,
reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development
of his doctrine of divine illumination.
The doctrine of illumination claims God plays an active and regular
part in human perception and understanding by illuminating the mind so
human beings can recognize intelligible realities God presents (as
opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as
in, for example, Descartes's idea of clear and distinct perceptions).
According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds
and is different from other forms of sense perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.
Augustine also posed the problem of other minds throughout different works, most famously perhaps in On the Trinity (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds. In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony
to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide
knowledge even if we do not have independent reasons to believe their
testimonial reports.
Augustine asserted Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance.
However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be
stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others
could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate
authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to
be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work The City of God. In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation. Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace. Thomas Aquinas,
centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an
attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.
Free will
Included in Augustine's earlier theodicy is the claim God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing free will.
Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally
predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not
considered as "free" as it once was because it is bound by material
things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in
unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will
that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption.
After 412, Augustine changed his theology, teaching that humanity had
no free will to believe in Christ but only a free will to sin: "I in
fact strove on behalf of the free choice of the human 'will,' but God's
grace conquered" (Retract. 2.1).
The early Christians opposed the deterministic views (e.g., fate)
of Stoics, Gnostics, and Manichaeans prevalent in the first four
centuries.
Christians championed the concept of a relational God who interacts
with humans rather than a Stoic or Gnostic God who unilaterally
foreordained every event (yet Stoics still claimed to teach free will). Patristics
scholar Ken Wilson argues that every early Christian author with extant
writings who wrote on the topic prior to Augustine of Hippo (412)
advanced human free choice rather than a deterministic God.
According to Wilson, Augustine taught traditional free choice until
412, when he reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic
training when battling the Pelagians.
Only a few Christians accepted Augustine's view of free will until the
Protestant Reformation when both Luther and Calvin embraced Augustine's
deterministic teachings wholeheartedly.
The Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish.
While God knows who will and will not be saved, with no possibility for
the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's
perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.
Sociology, morals and ethics
Natural law
Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the
laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and
rights occur naturally, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals.
All who have wisdom and conscience, he concludes, are able to use
reason to recognize the lex naturalis, natural law.
Mortal law should not attempt to force people to do what is right or
avoid what is wrong, but simply to remain just. Therefore "an unjust law is no law at all".
People are not obligated to obey laws that are unjust, those that their
conscience and reason tell them violate natural law and rights.
Slavery
Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves as a "pious and holy" act.
He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against
slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children.
Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted the sale of
children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of
preventing infanticide
when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the
tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their
children as a means of survival.
In his book, The City of God, he presents the development
of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He
wrote that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made
in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational
creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts". Thus he wrote
that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not
kings over men. "The condition of slavery is the result of sin", he
declared. In The City of God,
Augustine wrote he felt the existence of slavery was a punishment for
the existence of sin, even if an individual enslaved person committed no
sin meriting punishment. He wrote: "Slavery is, however, penal, and is
appointed by that law which enjoins the preservation of the natural
order and forbids its disturbance."
Augustine believed slavery did more harm to the slave owner than the
enslaved person himself: "the lowly position does as much good to the
servant as the proud position does harm to the master."
Augustine proposes as a solution to sin a type of cognitive reimagining
of one's situation, where slaves "may themselves make their slavery in
some sort free, by serving not in crafty fear, but in faithful love,"
until the end of the world eradicated slavery for good: "until all
unrighteousness pass away, and all principality and every human power be
brought to nothing, and God be all in all."
Jews
Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people, and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfilment of prophecy.
He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy,
namely "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm
59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to
Christianity at "the end of time", argued God had allowed them to
survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued,
they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands.
The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians
should let the Jews "survive but not thrive" (it is repeated by the
author James Carroll in his book Constantine's Sword, for example) is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.
Sexuality and the sexes
For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual
act itself, but in the emotions that typically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God. Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual lust (concupiscentia)
has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male
erection), sexual lust is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore,
evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (On marriage and concupiscence1.19). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate inevitably perpetuates evil (On marriage and concupiscence 1.27; A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians
2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish
pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to
avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the "better" way (Confessions 8.2) and abstain from marriage (On marriage and concupiscence
1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin,
although necessarily produces the evil of sexual lust. Based on the same
logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack
of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the
act.
Before the Fall, Augustine believed sex was a passionless affair,
"just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant
operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat", that the seed "might be sown without any shameful lust, the genital members simply obeying the inclination of the will".
After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere
will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary
erections: "Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other
hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body
while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow
through what it has begun and arouse the body also" (City of God 14.16).
Augustine censured those who try to prevent the creation of
offspring when engaging in sexual relations, saying that though they may
be nominally married they are not really, but are using that
designation as a cloak for turpitude. When they allow their unwanted
children to die of exposure, they unmask their sin. Sometimes they use
drugs to produce sterility, or other means to try to destroy the fetus
before they are born. Their marriage is not wedlock but debauchery.
Augustine believed Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their
hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge
before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam.Accordingly, Augustine did not believe Adam was any less guilty of sin. Augustine praises women and their role in society and in the Church. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John, Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan
woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the Church in
agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride
of Christ. "Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her."
Augustine believed that "woman has been made for man" and that
"in sex she is physically subject to him in the same way as our natural
impulses need to be subjected to the reasoning power of the mind, in
order that the actions to which they lead may be inspired by the
principles of good conduct". Women were created as a "helper" to men for Augustine.
Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is De Magistro
(On the Teacher), which contains insights into education. His ideas
changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his
ideas. In the last years of his life, Augustine wrote his Retractationes (Retractations),
reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick
believes an accurate translation of "retractationes" may be
"reconsiderations". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme
of the way Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search
for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room
for doubt, development, and change.
Augustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking
skills. Because written works were limited during this time, spoken
communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the
importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his
pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed dialectic is the best
means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for
learning encounters between teachers and students. Augustine's dialogue
writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.
He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds:
the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;
the student who has had no education; and
the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.
If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects,
the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already
learned, but to challenge the student with material they do not yet know
thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must
be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and
sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one
with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he
does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of
student the difference between "having words and having understanding" and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.
Under the influence of Bede, Alcuin, and Rabanus Maurus, De catechizandis rudibus
came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the
monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.
Augustine believed students should be given an opportunity to
apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of
Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles
of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when
speaking to the students. The mixed style includes complex and
sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of
the subject they are studying. The grand style is not quite as
elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the
purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine
balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline.
Augustine knew Latin and Ancient Greek. He had a long correspondence with St Jerome regarding the textual differences existing between the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint,
concluding that the original Greek manuscripts were closely similar to
the other Hebrew ones, and also that even the differences in the two
original versions of the Holy Scripture could enlight its spiritual
meaning to have been unitarily inspired by God.
Coercion
Augustine of Hippo had to deal with issues of violence and coercion
throughout his entire career due largely to the Donatist-Catholic
conflict. He is one of the very few authors in Antiquity who ever truly
theoretically examined the ideas of religious freedom and coercion.
Augustine handled the infliction of punishment and the exercise of
power over law-breakers by analyzing these issues in ways similar to
modern debates on penal reform.
His teaching on coercion has "embarrassed his modern defenders and vexed his modern detractors," because it is seen as making him appear "to generations of religious liberals as le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs."
Yet Brown asserts that, at the same time, Augustine becomes "an
eloquent advocate of the ideal of corrective punishment" and reformation
of the wrongdoer.
Russell says Augustine's theory of coercion "was not crafted from
dogma, but in response to a unique historical situation" and is,
therefore, context-dependent, while others see it as inconsistent with
his other teachings.
The context
During the Great Persecution,
"When Roman soldiers came calling, some of the [Catholic] officials
handed over the sacred books, vessels, and other church goods rather
than risk legal penalties" over a few objects.
Maureen Tilley says this was a problem by 305, that became a schism by
311, because many of the North African Christians had a long established
tradition of a "physicalist approach to religion."
The sacred scriptures were not simply books to them, but were the Word
of God in physical form, therefore they saw handing over the Bible, and
handing over a person to be martyred, as "two sides of the same coin." Those who cooperated with the authorities became known as traditores. The term originally meant one who hands over a physical object, but it came to mean "traitor".
According to Tilley, after the persecution ended, those who had apostatized wanted to return to their positions in the church. The North African Christians, (the rigorists who became known as Donatists), refused to accept them. Catholics were more tolerant and wanted to wipe the slate clean.
For the next 75 years, both parties existed, often directly alongside
each other, with a double line of bishops for the same cities. Competition for the loyalty of the people included multiple new churches and violence. No one is exactly sure when the Circumcellions
and the Donatists allied, but for decades, they fomented protests and
street violence, accosted travellers and attacked random Catholics
without warning, often doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as
beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging
out eyes.
Augustine became coadjutor Bishop
of Hippo in 395, and since he believed that conversion must be
voluntary, his appeals to the Donatists were verbal. For several years,
he used popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils,
appeals to the emperor and political pressure to bring the Donatists
back into union with the Catholics, but all attempts failed.
The harsh realities Augustine faced can be found in his Letter 28
written to bishop Novatus around 416. Donatists had attacked, cut out
the tongue and cut off the hands of a Bishop Rogatus who had recently
converted to Catholicism. An unnamed count of Africa had sent his agent
with Rogatus, and he too had been attacked; the count was "inclined to
pursue the matter."
Russell says Augustine demonstrates a "hands-on" involvement with the
details of his bishopric, but at one point in the letter, he confesses
he does not know what to do. "All the issues that plague him are there:
stubborn Donatists, Circumcellion violence, the vacillating role of
secular officials, the imperative to persuade, and his own
trepidations."
The empire responded to the civil unrest with the law and its
enforcement, and thereafter, Augustine changed his mind about using
verbal arguments alone. Instead, he came to support the state's use of
coercion.
Augustine did not believe the empire's enforcement would "make the
Donatists more virtuous" but he did believe it would make them "less
vicious."
The theology
The primary 'proof-text' of what Augustine thought concerning
coercion is from Letter 93, written in 408, as a reply to bishop
Vincentius, of Cartenna (Mauretania, North Africa). This letter shows
that both practical and biblical reasons led Augustine to defend the
legitimacy of coercion. He confesses that he changed his mind because of
"the ineffectiveness of dialogue and the proven efficacy of laws."
He had been worried about false conversions if force was used, but
"now," he says, "it seems imperial persecution is working." Many
Donatists had converted. "Fear had made them reflect, and made them docile." Augustine continued to assert that coercion could not directly convert
someone, but concluded it could make a person ready to be reasoned with.
According to Mar Marcos, Augustine made use of several biblical
examples to legitimize coercion, but the primary analogy in Letter 93
and in Letter 185, is the parable of the Great Feast in Luke 14.15–24
and its statement compel them to come in. Russell says, Augustine uses the Latin term cogo, instead of the compello of the Vulgate, since to Augustine, cogo meant to "gather together" or "collect" and was not simply "compel by physical force."
In 1970, Robert Markus
argued that, for Augustine, a degree of external pressure being brought
for the purpose of reform was compatible with the exercise of free
will. Russell asserts that Confessions 13
is crucial to understanding Augustine's thought on coercion; using
Peter Brown's explanation of Augustine's view of salvation, he explains
that Augustine's past, his own sufferings and "conversion through God's
pressures," along with his biblical hermeneutics, is what led him to see
the value in suffering for discerning truth.
According to Russell, Augustine saw coercion as one among many
conversion strategies for forming "a pathway to the inner person."
In Augustine's view, there is such a thing as just and unjust
persecution. Augustine explains that when the purpose of persecution is
to lovingly correct and instruct, then it becomes discipline and is
just.
He said the church would discipline its people out of a loving desire
to heal them, and that, "once compelled to come in, heretics would
gradually give their voluntary assent to the truth of Christian
orthodoxy." Frederick H. Russell
describes this as "a pastoral strategy in which the church did the
persecuting with the dutiful assistance of Roman authorities," adding that it is "a precariously balanced blend of external discipline and inward nurturance."
Augustine placed limits on the use of coercion, recommending
fines, imprisonment, banishment, and moderate floggings, preferring
beatings with rods which was a common practice in the ecclesial courts. He opposed severity, maiming, and the execution of heretics.
While these limits were mostly ignored by Roman authorities, Michael
Lamb says that in doing this, "Augustine appropriates republican
principles from his Roman predecessors..." and maintains his commitment
to liberty, legitimate authority, and the rule of law as a constraint on
arbitrary power. He continues to advocate holding authority accountable
to prevent domination but affirms the state's right to act.
Herbert A. Deane,
on the other hand, says there is a fundamental inconsistency between
Augustine's political thought and "his final position of approval of the
use of political and legal weapons to punish religious dissidence" and
others have seconded this view.
Brown asserts that Augustine's thinking on coercion is more of an
attitude than a doctrine since it is "not in a state of rest," but is
instead marked by "a painful and protracted attempt to embrace and
resolve tensions."
According to Russell, it is possible to see how Augustine himself had evolved from his earlier Confessions
to this teaching on coercion and the latter's strong patriarchal
nature: "Intellectually, the burden has shifted imperceptibly from
discovering the truth to disseminating the truth."
The bishops had become the church's elite with their own rationale for
acting as "stewards of the truth." Russell points out that Augustine's
views are limited to time and place and his own community, but later,
others took what he said and applied it outside those parameters in ways
Augustine never imagined or intended.
Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of
surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one
hundred separate titles. They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine); exegetical works such as commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms and Paul'sLetter to the Romans; many sermons and letters; and the Retractationes, a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life.
Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his Confessions, which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for De civitate Dei (The City of God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably of more doctrinal importance than the Confessions or the City of God. He also wrote On Free Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.
Legacy
Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics painting by Vergós Group
In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Some Neoplatonic concepts are still visible in Augustine's early writings. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teaching on argument). Augustine, along with Ambrose, Jerome and pope Gregory the Great, is considered one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers.
In philosophy
PhilosopherBertrand Russell was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the Confessions, comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that time is subjective. Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time
in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created
universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and
change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his
consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.
Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions,
had a continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the
20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and
language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and
time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl
writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of
descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be
deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was
Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem."
Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work Being and Time. Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for vita socialis
in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love,
grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity."
Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and the Limits of Politics
tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil:
"Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence
of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ...
envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann in Jerusalem]."
Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary
critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these
20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are
three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first,
political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian political theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.
In theology
Thomas Aquinas
was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin,
Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in
that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen
man their natural powers even after the Fall, without "supernatural
gifts".
While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt
as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not
destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther
and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty
(see total depravity).
According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from a miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft.
According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly
city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and eco-fundamentalism.[276] Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thoughts, particularly The City of God, in their book of political philosophy Empire.
Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt,
an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral
dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his
thought throughout her career. Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in Philosophical Investigations
for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring
partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage
from the Confessions. Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian
and Neoplatonic knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian
connection: "as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the
importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the
Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but
reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual
exigencies."
In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.
Oratorio, music
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet "Pour St Augustin mourant", H.419, for 2 voices and continuo (1687), and "Pour St Augustin", H.307, for 2 voices and continuo (1670s).
Much of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio La conversione di Sant'Agostino (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based on an earlier five-act play Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr.[278]
In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent
character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to
Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent[279] says:
Maria
Antonia Walpurgis revised the five-part Jesuit drama into a two-part
oratorio liberty in which she limits the subject to the conversion of
Augustine and his submission to the will of God. To this was added the
figure of the mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation appear by
experience rather than the dramatic artifice of deus ex machina.
Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God,
but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is
displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages.
In popular art
In his poem "Confessional", Frank Bidart
compares the relationship between Augustine and his mother, Saint
Monica, to the relationship between the poem's speaker and his mother.
English pop/rock musician, singer and songwriter Sting wrote a song related to Saint Augustine entitled "Saint Augustine in Hell" which was part of his fourth solo studio album Ten Summoner's Tales released in March 1993.
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