Nationalization may occur with or without financial compensation to the former owners. Nationalization is distinguished from property redistribution in that the government retains control of nationalized property.
Some nationalizations take place when a government seizes property
acquired illegally. For example, in 1945 the French government seized
the car-maker Renault because its owners had collaborated with the 1940–1944 Nazioccupiers of France.
Economists distinguish between nationalization and socialization,
which refers to the process of restructuring the economic framework,
organizational structure, and institutions of an economy on a socialist basis. By contrast, nationalization does not necessarily imply social ownership and the restructuring of the economic system. Historically, states have carried out nationalizations for various different purposes under a wide variety of different political systems and economic systems.
Political support
Nationalization was one of the major mechanisms advocated by reformist socialists and social democrats
for gradually transitioning to socialism. In this context, the goals of
nationalization were to dispossess large capitalists, redirect the
profits of industry to the public purse, and establish some form of workers' self-management as a precursor to the establishment of a socialist economic system.
Although sometimes undertaken as part of a strategy to build
socialism, more commonly nationalization was also undertaken and used to
protect and develop industries perceived as being vital to a nation's
competitiveness (such as aerospace and shipbuilding), or to protect jobs
in certain industries.
Nationalization has had varying levels of support throughout history. After the Second World War,
nationalization was supported by social democratic and democratic
socialist parties throughout Western Europe, such as the British Labour Party. In the United States, potentially nationalizing healthcare
is often a topic of political disagreement and makes frequent
appearances in debates between political candidates. A 2020 poll shows
that a majority (63%) of Americans support a nationalized healthcare
system.
A re-nationalization occurs when state-owned assets are privatized and later nationalized again, often when a different political party or faction
is in power. A re-nationalization process may also be called "reverse
privatization". Nationalization has been used to refer to either direct
state-ownership and management of an enterprise or to a government
acquiring a large controlling share of a publicly listed corporation.
According to research by Paasha Mahdavi, leaders who consider
nationalization face a dilemma: "nationalize and reap immediate gains
while risking future prosperity, or maintain private operations, thereby
passing on revenue windfalls but securing long-term fiscal streams."
He argues that leaders "nationalize extractive resources to extend the
duration of their power" by using "this increased capital to secure
political support."
Economic analysis
Nationalization can have positive and negative effects.
In 2019 research based on studies from Greenwich University found that
the nationalization of key services such as water, bus, railways and
broadband in the United Kingdom could save £13bn every year.
Nationalization may produce other effects, such as reducing
competition in the marketplace, which in turn reduces incentives to
innovation and maintains high prices. In the short run, nationalization
can provide a larger revenue stream for government but may cause that
industry to falter depending on the motivations of the nationalizing
party.
Nationalization was employed towards the Panama Canal by the Panamanian Government, which came under the Panama Canal Authority in 1999, to internationally positive effect. Likewise, the Suez Canal was nationalized multiple times throughout history. In Germany, the Federal Press [Bundesdruckerei] was nationalized in 2008 with positive revenue and net income since.
Expropriation
"Expropriation" redirects here. For the 1974 Chilean film, see The Expropriation.
Expropriation is the seizure of private property by a public
agency for a purpose deemed to be in the public interest. It may also be
used as a penalty for criminal proceedings. Expropriation differs from eminent domain
in that the property owner is not compensated for the seized property.
Unlike eminent domain, expropriation may also refer to the taking of
private property by a private entity authorized by a government to take property in certain situations.
Due to political risks that are involved when countries engage in
international business, it is important to understand the expropriation
risks and laws within each of the countries in which business is
conducted in order to understand the risks as an investor in that
country.
Trends
Studies
have found that nationalization follows a cyclical trend.
Nationalization rose in the 1960s and 1970s, followed by an increase in
privatization in the 80s and 90s, followed again by an increase in
nationalization in the 2000s and 2010s.
However, nationalization is not a specifically socialist
strategy, and Marxism's founders were skeptical of its value. As Engels
put it:
Therein precisely lies the rub;
for, so long as the propertied classes remain at the helm,
nationalisation never abolishes exploitation but merely changes its form
— in the French, American or Swiss republics no less than in monarchist
Central, and despotic Eastern, Europe.
— Friedrich Engels, Letter from Engels to Max Oppenheim, 24 March 1891
Nikolai Bukharin also criticised the term nationalisation, preferring the term statisation instead.
Free to Choose: A Personal Statement
maintains that the free market works best for all members of a society,
provides examples of how the free market engenders prosperity, and
maintains that it can solve problems where other approaches have failed.
Published in January 1980, the 297 page book contains 10 chapters. The
book was on top of the United States best sellers list for 5 weeks.
PBS broadcast the programs, beginning in January 1980. It was filmed at the invitation of Robert Chitester, the owner of WQLN-TV.
It was based on a 15-part series of taped public lectures and
question-and-answer sessions. The general format was that of Milton
Friedman visiting and narrating a number of success and failure stories
in history, which he attributes to free-market capitalism or the lack
thereof (e.g., Hong Kong is commended for its free markets, while India
is excoriated for relying on centralized planning especially for its protection of its traditional textile industry). Following the primary show, Friedman would engage in discussion moderated by Robert McKenzie with a number of selected debaters drawn from trade unions, academy and the business community, such as Donald Rumsfeld (then of G.D. Searle & Company) and Frances Fox Piven of City University of New York.
The interlocutors would offer objections to or support for the
proposals put forward by Friedman, who would in turn respond. After the
final episode, Friedman sat down for an interview with Lawrence Spivak.
The series was rebroadcast in 1990 with Linda Chavez moderating the episodes. Arnold Schwarzenegger, George Shultz, Ronald Reagan, David D. Friedman, and Steve Allen,
each give personal introductions for one episode. This time, after the
documentary segment, Milton Friedman sits down with a single discussion
participant to debate the points raised in the episode.
Positions advocated
The Friedmans advocate laissez-faire economic policies, often criticizing interventionist
government policies and their cost in personal freedoms and economic
efficiency in the United States and abroad. They argue that
international free trade has been restricted through tariffs
and protectionism while domestic free trade and freedom have been
limited through high taxation and regulation. They cite the 19th-century
United Kingdom, the United States before the Great Depression, and modern Hong Kong as ideal examples of a minimalist economic policy. They contrast the economic growth of Japan after the Meiji Restoration and the economic stagnation of India after its independence from the British Empire,
and argue that India has performed worse despite its superior economic
potential due to its centralized planning. They argue that even
countries with command economies, including the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, have been forced to adopt limited market mechanisms in order to operate. The authors argue against government taxation on gas and tobacco and government regulation of the public school systems. The Friedmans argue that the Federal Reserve exacerbated the Great Depression by neglecting to prevent the decline of the money supply
in the years leading up to it. They further argue that the American
public falsely perceived the Depression to be a result of a failure of
capitalism rather than the government, and that the Depression allowed
the Federal Reserve Board to centralize its control of the monetary system despite its responsibility for it.
On the subject of welfare, the Friedmans argue that the United States has maintained a higher degree of freedom and productivity by avoiding the nationalizations and extensive welfare systems of Western European countries such as the United Kingdom and Sweden. However, they also argue that welfare practices since the New Deal under "the HEW empire" have been harmful. They argue that public assistance programs have become larger than originally envisioned and are creating "wards of the state" as opposed to "self-reliant individuals." They also argue that the Social Security System is fundamentally flawed, that urban renewal and public housing programs have contributed to racial inequality and diminished quality of low-income housing, and that Medicare and Medicaid are responsible for rising healthcare prices in the United States. They suggest completely replacing the welfare state with a negative income tax as a less harmful alternative.
In the United States, the number of homeless people on a given night in January 2024 was more than 770,000 according to the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Homelessness has increased in recent years, in large part due to an increasingly severe housing shortage and rising home prices in the United States.
Most homeless people lived in California, New York, Florida, and
Washington in 2022, according to the annual Homeless Assessment Report. The majority of homeless people in the United States have been homeless for less than one year; two surveys by YouGov in 2022 and 2023 found that just under 20 percent of Americans reported having ever been homeless.
The main contributor to homelessness is a lack of housing supply and rising home values.Interpersonal and individual factors, such as mental illness and addiction, also play a role in explaining homelessness. However, mental illness and addiction play a weaker role than structural socio-economic factors, as West Coast cities such as Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles have homelessness rates five times that of areas with much lower housing costs like Arkansas, West Virginia, and Detroit, even though the latter locations have high burdens of opioid addiction and poverty.
Historically, homelessness emerged as a national issue in the 1870s. Early homeless people lived in emerging urban cities, such as New York City. Into the 20th century, the Great Depression of the 1930s caused a substantial rise in homelessness. In 1990, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the homeless population of to be 228,621, or 0.09% of the 248,709,873 enumerated in the 1990 U.S. census, which homelessness advocates criticized as an undercount. In the 21st century, the Great Recession of the late 2000s and the resulting economic stagnation
and downturn have been major driving factors and contributors to rising
homelessness rates. Increases in homelessness broke records in 2022 and
in 2023.
In 2023, record levels of homelessness have been declared in Los
Angeles and New York City, and other cities around the country have
reported increased levels of homelessness, with the main drivers being a
shortage of affordable housing and the increased cost of living.
Health complications are significant concern for homeless people,
as lack of residence inhibits hygiene and access to healthy food, and exposes individuals to both cold and heat stress. This contributes to increased mortality rates. In City of Grants Pass v. Johnson (2024), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that anti-camping laws do not constitute a cruel and unusual punishment under the 8th Amendment even when no shelter is available, allowing cities to jail and fine homeless populations for sleeping and camping outside.
Vagabonds could be sentenced to the stocks for three days and nights. In 1530, whipping was added. The presumption was that vagabonds were unlicensedbeggars. In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years' servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second.
Large numbers of vagabonds were among the convicts transported to the American colonies in the 18th century.
Urbanization
The Bowery Mission at 36 Bowery in New York City, c. 1880s
Homelessness emerged as a national issue in the 1870s. There are no
national figures documenting homeless people's demography at this time. Jacob Riis wrote about, documented, and photographed the poor and destitute, although not specifically homeless people, in New York City tenements in the late 19th century. His book, How the Other Half Lives,
published in 1890, raised public awareness of living conditions in the
slums, causing some changes in building codes and some social
conditions.
The growing movement toward social concern sparked the
development of rescue missions, such as America's first rescue mission,
the New York City Rescue Mission, founded in 1872 by Jerry and Maria McAuley. In smaller towns, there were hobos, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the American Civil War, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as "hobohemia" all over America.
By the late 19th century, many American towns and cities had significant numbers of homeless people. In New York City, for example, there was an area known as "the Bowery". Rescue missions offering "soup, soap, and salvation", a phrase introduced by The Salvation Army, sprang up along the Bowery thoroughfare, including the oldest one, The Bowery Mission. The mission was founded in 1879 by the Rev. and Mrs. A.G. Ruliffson.
The Great Depression
of the 1930s caused a devastating epidemic of poverty, hunger, and
homelessness. There were two million homeless people migrating across
the United States. Many lived in shantytowns they called "Hoovervilles"
deriding the President they blamed for the Depression. Residents lived
in shacks and begged for food or went to soup kitchens. Authorities did
not officially recognize these Hoovervilles and occasionally removed the
occupants for technically trespassing on private lands, but they were
frequently tolerated out of necessity. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took over the presidency from Herbert Hoover, he passed the New Deal, which greatly expanded social welfare, including providing funds to build public housing.
1960s and 1970s
A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were white.
The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a pre-disposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States. Long term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals into single-room occupancies
and sent to community health centers for treatment and follow-up. Never
adequately funded, the community mental health system struggled to meet
patient needs and many of the "deinstitutionalized" wound up living on the streets, with no sustainable support system.In the United States, during the late 1970s, the deinstitutionalization
of patients from state psychiatric hospitals was a precipitating factor
which seeded the population of people that are homeless, especially in
urban areas such as New York City.
The number of homeless people grew in the 1980s, nearly doubling from 1984 to 1987. According to Don Mitchell, this was in part due to the neoliberalreforms of the Reagan presidency, as housing and social service cuts increased and also the economy suffered a recession early in the decade. In 1984, the Federal government determined that somewhere between 200,000 and 500,000 Americans were homeless.
There were some U.S. federal initiatives that aimed to help, end and
prevent homelessness. However, there were no designated homeless-related
programs in the Office of Management and Budget. Tent cities, which had largely vanished during the post-war period, began to re-emerge during this time.
The history of the United States in the 1980s
illustrates that this was a time when there was economic distress, and
high unemployment at points, and was the period when chronic
homelessness became a societal problem. In 1980, federal funds accounted
for 22% of big city budgets. By 1989, the similar aid composed only 6%
of urban revenue, part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to
support local governments.
It is largely, although not exclusively, in these urban areas, that
homelessness became widespread and reached unprecedented numbers.
Most notable were cuts to federal low-income housing programs. An advocacy group claims that Congress halved the budget for public housing and Section 8,
the government's housing voucher subsidization program, and that
between 1980 and 1989, HUD's budget authority was reduced from $74
billion, to $19 billion. Such alleged changes are claimed to have resulted in an inadequate supply of affordable housing
to meet the growing demand of low-income populations. In 1970, there
were 300,000 more low-cost rental units (6.5 million) than low-income
renter households (6.2 million). By 1985, the advocacy group claimed
that the number of low-cost units had fallen to 5.6 million, and the
number of low-income renter households had grown to 8.9 million, a
disparity of 3.3 million units.
In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis of the 1980s and
after many years of advocacy and numerous revisions, President Reagan
signed into law the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act
in 1987. This remains the only piece of federal legislation that
allocates funding to the direct service of homeless people. The
McKinney–Vento Act paved the way for service providers in the coming
years. In the 1990s, homeless shelters, soup kitchens,
and other supportive services sprouted up in towns and cities
nationally. Despite these efforts and the dramatic economic growth
marked by this decade, homeless numbers rose and remained high from 1990
to 1999 according to the "coalition for the homeless" webpage.
It became increasingly apparent that simply providing services to
alleviate the symptoms of homelessness, such as shelter beds, hot
meals, psychiatric counseling, although needed, were not successful at
solving the root causes of homelessness. In 1987, the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness
(USICH), a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was
established as a requirement of the McKinney–Vento Act of 1987.
A 1990 survey found that most homeless people were unable to bathe or shower.
In 1992, the National Commission on Severely Distressed Public
Housing published a report identifying 6% of public housing as "severely
distressed".
This led to a 5 billion dollar funding package, HOPE VI, for replacing
distressed public housing with mixed-income developments.
The demolition of SROs was incentivized by increased real estate prices
and neighborhood pressure, resulting in the teardown of more units than
were initially identified. Redevelopments did not include nearly as
many units of public housing as were demolished, decreasing the total
stock of public housing and putting more people on the streets.
Over
the past decades, the availability and quality of data on homelessness
has improved considerably, due, in part, to initiatives by the United
States government. Since 2007, the US Department of Housing and Urban
Development has issued an Annual Homeless Assessment Report, which revealed the number of individuals and families that were homeless, both sheltered and unsheltered.
In the US Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2008 Annual
Homeless Assessment Report, the most common demographic features of all
sheltered homeless people are: male, members of minority groups, older
than age 31, and alone. More than 40 percent of sheltered homeless
people have a disability. At the same time, sizable segments of the
sheltered homeless population are white, non-Hispanic (38 percent),
children (20 percent), or part of multi-person households (33 percent).
About 68 percent of the 1.6 million sheltered homeless people were
homeless as individuals and 32 percent were persons in families.
A homeless camp in New Orleans, March 2023
In 2008, more than 66% of all sheltered homeless people were located in principal cities,
with 32% located in suburban or rural jurisdictions. About 40% of
people entering an emergency shelter or transitional housing program
during 2008 came from another homeless situation (sheltered or
unsheltered), 40% came from a housed situation (in their own or someone
else's home), and the remaining 20% were split between institutional
settings or other situations such as hotels or motels. Most people had
relatively short lengths of stay in emergency shelters: 60% stayed less
than a month, and a 33% stayed a week or less.
In 2009, there were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered
homeless persons nationwide. About two-thirds of those stayed in
emergency shelters or used transitional housing programs. The remainder
lived on the street in abandoned buildings or other areas not meant for
human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S.
population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program
between October 1, 2008, and September 30, 2009. Around 44% of homeless people were employed. In 2009, it was estimated that one out of 50 children or 1.5 million children in the United States of America would experience some form of homelessness each year.
There were an estimated 37,878 homeless veterans in the United States
in January 2017, or 8.6 percent of all homeless adults, compared with
about 7 percent of the U.S. adult population in 2018 that were military veterans. In 2013, Texas, California and Florida had the highest numbers of unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18, comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population. In 2020, New York City reported it had about 114,000 temporarily homeless school children.
From 2007 to 2015, homelessness appeared, from the federal
survey, to be in decline. Beginning in 2016, the surveys showed a steady
increase in homelessness, particularly among the unsheltered.
The COVID-19 pandemic,
and associated economic downturn, housing shortages and housing price
inflation, outpacing wage growth, and the end of government protections
and assistance to counter the economic effects of COVID-19 -- along with
the explosive growth in addictions to methamphetamine, opioids, and Fentanyl -- contributed to a sharp rise in homelessness
in the early 2020s. By 2023, according to the federal survey, a record
653,104 homeless were identified in the annual federal survey -- a 12%
jump over the previous year, quadruple any other year's increase, with
increases in every category and demographic of homelessness.
In June 2024, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a ruling in the case Grants Pass v. Johnson that allowed for cities to ban homeless encampments.
The homeless population in the United States rose by more than 18
percent in a single year in 2024, government officials said, driven by
high housing costs, natural disasters and increased migration to big
cities. According to the poll, the number of homeless people on a given
night in January 2024 was more than 770,000. Children under 18
experienced the largest increase, with nearly 150,000 homeless on survey
night. Overall, family homelessness is up 39 percent from the previous
year.
Lack of available and affordable housing
as a cause of homelessness was named at the 2004 United States
Conference of Mayors, surveying the mayors of major cities on the extent
and causes of urban homelessness.
The next three causes identified by mayors, in rank order, were mental
illness or the lack of needed services, substance use and lack of needed
services, and low-paying jobs. The lowest ranking cause, cited by five
mayors, was prisoner reentry. Other causes cited were unemployment, domestic violence, and poverty.
The major causes of homelessness include:
Lack of affordable housing throughout much of the country is
considered the "root cause" of the contemporary homelessness crisis.
Writing for The Atlantic
in 2023, Jerusalem Demsas says that "homelessness is primarily a
function of the broader housing-unaffordability crisis, which in turn is
primarily a function of how difficult local governments have made
building new housing in the places that need it the most."
Lack of sufficient urban housing projects to provide safe, secure, and affordable housing to the financially underprivileged. For low-wage workers, rents can be unaffordable in areas where their workplace is located.
The deinstitutionalization movement from the 1950s onwards in state mental health systems, to shift towards 'community-based' treatment of the mentally ill, as opposed to long-term commitment in institutions.There is disproportionally higher prevalence of mental disorders
relative to other disease groups within homeless patient populations, at
both inpatient hospitals and hospital-based emergency departments.
Redevelopment and gentrification
activities instituted by cities, through which low-income neighborhoods
are declared blighted and demolished, to make way for projects that
generate higher property taxes and other revenue, creating a shortage of
housing affordable to low-income working families, the elderly poor,
and the disabled.
Natural disasters
that destroy homes: hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, etc. Places of
employment are often destroyed, causing unemployment and transience.
People who have served time in prison, have used addictive
substances, or have a history of mental illness find it difficult to
find employment for years at a time because of the use of computer
background checks by potential employers. Also inclusive of registered sex offenders who are considered unwelcome in some metropolitan areas. See prisoner reentry.
People with criminal charges at large that are in hiding seeking to evade law enforcement.
Teenagers who flee or are thrown out by parents who disapprove of
their child's sexual orientation or gender identity. A 2010 study by the
Center for American Progress shows that a disproportionately high number of homeless youth, between 20 and 40%, are gay and transgender.
Complex building codes which can make it difficult to build and construct. Traditional huts, cars, and tents can be illegal, classified as substandard and may require removal by the owner or be subject to removal by the government.
Individuals who prefer homelessness and wish to remain off the grid for political and ideological purposes. Often self-identified as gutter punks or urban survivalists. The Department of Housing and Urban Development rarely reports on this counter-cultural movement,
since its adherents often refuse to participate in governmental studies
and do not seek governmental assistance for ideological or political
purposes.
Lack of resources in place in the communities to help aid in prevention of homelessness before it becomes a crisis.
High rents, in particular areas where individuals could pay over a
third of their income on rent and related costs increase the potential
of homelessness. In poor communities, landlords
increase the rent burden on tenants in what they perceive to be risky
investments, extracting more profits from them than their counterparts
in more affluent communities, which according to sociologist Matthew Desmond
and his colleague, "directly contributes to their economic scarcity and
hardship and is a source of residential insecurity, eviction, and
homelessness."
Low-income workers are at increased risk of homelessness as wages
for the typical American worker have stagnated over the last three
decades, while housing costs have climbed, according to the National Alliance to End Homelessness.
Adverse childhood experiences
In a study on adverse childhood experiences,
"Nearly nine in ten homeless adults have been exposed to at least one
early traumatic experience, and more than half of homeless adults have
been exposed to four or more early traumatic experiences".
According to the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the demand for emergency
shelter in 270 U.S. cities increased 13 percent in 2001 and 25 percent
in 2005.Twenty-two percent of those requesting emergency shelter were turned away.
In response to the Great Recession in the United States, President Obama signed several pieces of legislation that addressed the homelessness crisis. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
addressed homelessness prevention, in which he allocated an additional
$1.5 billion to HUD for the "Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Rehousing
Program (HPRP)." The purpose of HPRP was to assist individuals and
families who are otherwise healthy and not chronically homeless in
escaping homelessness or preventing homelessness of the vulnerable
population.
In May 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency
Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act, reauthorizing HUDs Homeless Assistance programs. It was part of the Helping Families Save Their Homes Act of 2009.
The HEARTH act allows for the prevention of homelessness, rapid
re-housing, consolidation of housing programs, and new homeless
categories.
In 2011, the Federal government launched of Opening Doors: The Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness.Opening Doors is a publication of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness,
which worked with all Federal agencies and many state and local
stakeholders on its creation and vision, setting a ten-year path on
preventing and ending all types of homelessness. This plan was presented
to the President and Congress in a White House Ceremony in June 2010.
I've got economically zero unemployment in my city, and I've got
thousands of homeless people that actually are working and just can't
afford housing. There's nowhere for these folks to move to.
Seattle City Council member Mike O'Brien on the explosion of homelessness on the West Coast, 2019.
In New York City, the number of homeless people using nightly shelter
service tripled from about 20,000 to more than 60,000 between January
2000 and January 2015. By 2016, homelessness was considered an epidemic in several U.S. cities. In 2016, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti
and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a
state of emergency and try to find $100 million "to cure what has
become a municipal curse."
During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, mass job loss and unemployment led to fears of mass evictions, as tenants became unable to pay rent. According to US government sources, homelessness has increased drastically, particularly in the US West, as real estate shortages
drove up rents even higher, when people from already lower income
levels were laid off from their jobs and evicted from existing housing.
The estimates for homeless persons in the US during the COVID-19 pandemic
range from 600,000 to 1.5 million people, making the US the worst
affected industrialized country with regard to unhoused individuals.
In 2020, local city governments in California and Oregon
started to intensify anti-homelessness campaigns, with limited success
as local citizens reported extensive sprawls of homeless people in parks
and public areas, creating unsanitary conditions with negative effects
on small businesses. In March 2021, there were an estimated 6.4 million American households that were behind on rent.
Due to COVID, the Department of Housing and Urban Development's
2021 report to Congress on the state of homelessness in the United
States was unable to perform an accurate count of unsheltered homeless
individuals. Instead, the report focused on point-in-time counts of
sheltered homeless peoples.
Unaffordable housing
Homelessness is driven by a number of causes, but one of the most direct causes is a lack of affordable housing. According to the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness,
"affordable housing shortages" is among the top policy-related causes
of homelessness, and 40%-60% of homeless people have a job, yet still
cannot afford housing.
In academic research, homelessness rates are directly correlated with
increases in rent, most notably when the cost of rent in an area exceeds
30% of an area's median income.
In 2023, the surge in homelessness has been linked to soaring rents
eating away at any worker wage gains not only in California and
Washington, but also Arizona, Ohio, Tennessee and Texas.
In 2024, in California in particular, high housing costs were found to be a key driver of homelessness. A 2023 survey of homeless individuals in California
found that among typical causes of homelessness, many people were
driven into homelessness due to high rents and low incomes which could
not cover the cost of rent. In San Diego, according to a 2023 report by the Private Equity Stakeholder Project, Blackstone Inc.
has contributed to the problem through aggressive evictions and rent
increases of some 43-64% on vacant properties in two years.
In a 2022 book titled "Homelessness is a Housing Problem",
Clayton Page Aldern, a policy analyst and data scientist in Seattle, and
Gregg Colburn, an assistant professor of real estate at the University of Washington's College of Built Environments,
studied homelessness rates across the country, along with what possible
factors might be influencing the rates. They found that high rates of
homelessness are caused by shortages of affordable housing, not by
mental illness, drug addiction, or poverty.
They found that mental illness, drug addiction and poverty occur
nationwide, but not all places have equally expensive housing costs.
One example cited is that two states with high rates of opioid
addiction, Arkansas and West Virginia, both have low per capita rates of
homelessness, because of low housing prices. With respect to poverty, the city of Detroit is one of the poorest
cities, yet Detroit's homelessness rate is 20% that of West Coast cities
like Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego.
Definitions and categories
The
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development acknowledges
four categories of people who qualify as legally homeless: (1) those who
are currently homeless, (2) those who will become homeless in the
imminent future, (3) certain youths and families with children who
suffer from home instability caused by a hardship, and (4) those who
suffer from home instability caused by domestic violence.
According to the 1994 Stewart B. McKinney Act, a person is
considered homeless if they "lack a fixed, regular, and adequate
nighttime residence and ... has a primary nighttime residency that is:
(A) a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to
provide temporary living accommodations... (B) an institution that
provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be
institutionalized, or (C) a public or private place not designed for, or
ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings."
Human Rights Watch (2010) identified emancipated teenagers in
California as a new homeless population.
Homeless veterans are persons who have served in the armed forces,
who are homeless or living without access to secure and appropriate
accommodation. In January 2020, by HUD point-in-time measurements, there
were an estimated 37,252 homeless veterans in the United States, or 8 percent of all homeless adults. In 2020, just over 8 percent of homeless U.S. veterans were female.
Throughout the 21st century, homeless service providers and the
Federal government have been able to reduce chronic homelessness and
homelessness among Veterans with targeted efforts and interagency
cooperation on initiatives, like the HUD-VASH program. Indeed, the prominent role of the Department of Veterans Affairs and its joined up approach to veteran welfare help to distinguish the US response to veteran homelessness internationally.
Homeless children in the United States: The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011, 2012, and 2013 at about three times their number in 1983.
The number of homeless children in the US grew from 1.2 million in
2007 to 1.6 million in 2010. The US defines homelessness as "individuals
who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence," per the
1987 McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act. The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011, 2012, and 2013 at about three times their number in 1983.
In 2010, a study found that an "estimated two million [youth] run away
from or are forced out of their homes each year" in the United States.
Texas, California and Florida have the highest numbers of
unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18; comprising 58% of the
total homeless under 18 youth population.
The United States government has been making efforts since the late 1970s to accommodate this section of the population. The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act of 1978 made funding available for shelters and funded the National Runaway Switchboard. Other efforts include the Child Abuse and Treatment Act of 1974, the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, and the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act.
There has been a decline of arrest rates in street youth, dropping in
30,000 arrests from 1998 to 2007. Instead, the authorities are referring
homeless youth to state-run social service agencies.
In 2020, the National Center for homeless Education reported that in the U.S. public education system, over 1.5 million students experienced homelessness during their 2017 and 2018 school year.
According to a survey, Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, one
in four teens that participated in this survey who identify as gay or
lesbian are homeless. Various sources report between 20 percent and 40
percent identify as LGBT. 2015 research shows that a disproportionate
number of homeless youth in the United States identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender, or LGBT.
The
topic of homeless families first emerged in the United States during
the 1980s, when social welfare programs were being cut and high rates of
income inequality,
child poverty, and the lack of affordable housing were becoming an
issue. The issue of homeless families came back in 2009 after the
Recession, which replicated the same issues from the 80s.
The 2000s saw a new population of those experiencing homelessness:
families with children. While an emerging problem at the beginning of
the decade, the problem continued to persist to 2010.
At the close of the decade the trend continued, with the number
of individuals in homeless families increasing from 431,541 in 2007 to
535,447 in 2009. Though the US Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) conducts an annual Point-in-Time count of homeless people,
including homeless families, its methodology has been criticized for
under-reporting the number of homeless families. HUD reported that the
number of homeless families decreased by 2% from 2017 to 2018, and by
23% from 2007 to 2018. However, 85% of local services for homeless
people reported an increase during the same time. While HUD reported
111,592 homeless minors in 2018, the United States Department of Education reported 1.3 million homeless minors in the 2016 – 2017 school year.
In 2019, the state of New York had the greatest number of
homeless families, at 15,901. California had the second-greatest number
of homeless families, at 7,044, followed by Massachusetts at 3,766.
Wyoming had the fewest, at 37.
A 2007 study discovered that the three biggest risk factors that
contributed to family homelessness in the United States are: ethnicity,
lack of resources (specifically funds), and young children/pregnancy.
There is a strong correlation between homeless families and households
run and financed by a single female, especially one from a minority
group and with at least two children.
Single-income families, especially those below the federal poverty
line, have a harder time finding housing than other families, especially
given the limited affordable housing options.
Homeless families do not always take refuge in shelters, but
being homeless also does not necessarily mean living on the streets.
Homeless women with children are more likely to live with family or
friends than those without children, and this group is treated with
higher priority by both the government and society. In 2020, homeless mothers had a much higher prevalence of depression,
at 40 to 85%, compared to 12% in women of all socioeconomic groups.
Homeless mothers have higher rates of substance use, anxiety disorders,
and PTSD. Nearly all of them (92%) experience physical or sexual abuse.
Chronic homelessness
Changes in different types of homelessness in the U.S. between 2011 and 2020
In 2017, about 85,000 chronically homeless people were sleeping on the streets or in shelters.
A chronically homeless individual is defined as an unaccompanied person
who has been homeless for a consecutive year, or four or more periods
of homelessness within the last three years, with a disability
preventing them from working.
This definition was expanded in 2009 due to the HEARTH act, to include
families who were experiencing prolonged or repeating homelessness due
to a disabled parent. A 2017 study found that leaving these individuals
to remain on the streets can cost taxpayers up to $50,000 per year for a
single chronically homeless individual, by them cycling in and out of
treatment facilities, jails, hospitals and other institutional care
facilities.
Since 2007, the number of chronically homeless individuals has
decreased by 33%, with Utah reporting to have achieved an end to chronic
homelessness.
Episodic homelessness
An
episodic homeless person is someone that has experienced three
instances of homelessness within a given year. After four instances
within a year, they are classified as chronically homeless. Episodic homelessness usually afflicts younger people that are fighting health issues or addiction.
Transitional homelessness
Transitional homelessness is a type of homelessness that's a result of a major life change or catastrophic event.
Those life events could include losing a job, a medical condition,
divorce, domestic abuse, and more. It is likely that people experiencing
episodic homelessness are young, and end up staying in shelters for a
brief period.
Hidden homelessness
Hidden
homelessness goes unreported and undocumented. Individuals who are
classified as such are temporarily living with others with no guarantees
for the long term.
The community of homeless people in the United States is aided by
governmental and non-governmental organizations. According to the
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, in 2017, the
number of people experiencing homelessness in unsheltered locations
increased for a second straight year by 9% between 2016 and 2017.
This issue is partly caused by a lack of affordable housing and is
exacerbated by the criminalization of behaviors associated with
homelessness. This problem is also costly for the country in supporting
these individuals. Multiple studies have demonstrated success in
reducing the homeless population as well as its harmful financial and
societal effects by providing these individuals with a combination of
housing without preconditions and supportive care. These studies include
the 2014 Housing first implementation of the Department of Veterans
Affairs National Center on Homelessness Among Veterans and a study performed through Brown University.
Effects of homelessness
Effects
In 2004, the downtown partnership in Nashville, Tennessee,
conducted a census on businesses. Sixty percent of respondents
identified that public inebriates, transients and vagrants affect their
employees, clients and customers. Businesses were solicited to identify
issues that need to be addressed; transients and panhandlers ranked
amongst the top five issues.
Audio deterrents
In 2019, two 7-Eleven locations — one in Sacramento, California, and one in Portland, Oregon — briefly employed a high-pitched noise maker to repel panhandlers and vagrants. In Portland, a local news source (750 KXL) described the sidewalk in front of the Downtown Portland
7-Eleven as being transformed from "barely walkable" to clean and
orderly for the first time in years, after the repelling device was
installed by the building's owner, Standard Insurance Company.
The manager of the 7-Eleven told reporters he would see as many as a
dozen transients simultaneously loitering in front of his store,
and that this loitering adversely affected his business. The building's
owner issued a statement that the goal was to protect the "safety of
their employees, tenants, and guests in a location that has been
consistently plagued by public drug use and menacing behavior."
In 2019, a manager for a 7-Eleven in Modesto, California,
also attested to the effectiveness of sound for deterring undesirable
activity, commenting that "Once the music started, the riffraff left."
The McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act
Homelessness
has a tremendous effect on a child's education. Education of homeless
youth is thought to be essential in breaking the cycle of poverty.
The 1987 McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal
opportunity to a free public education to homeless students. This act is
supposed to break down the barriers homeless students have to receiving
an education. These barriers include residency restriction, medical
record verification, and transportation issues.
Once a student surpasses these barriers, they are still subject
to the stigma of being homeless, and the humiliation they feel because
of their situation. Some families do not report their homelessness,
while others are unaware of the opportunities available to them. Many
report that maintaining a stable school environment helps the students
because it is the only thing that remains normal. Many homeless students fall behind their peers in school due to behavioral disorders, and lack of attendance in school.
Since the United States housing bubble
collapse, there has been a rise in the number of homeless students. In
December 2008, NAEHCY or the National Association for the Education of
Homeless for Children and Youth, reported a 99% increase in homeless
students within a three-month period in San Diego.
Of 1,636 schools in December 2008, 330 reported no increase in
student homelessness, 847 reported an increase of half, and 459 reported
an increase of 25 percent or more. Due to underfunding, many school
districts struggled to provide the necessary services to support
homeless students, as mandated in the provisions of the McKinney–Vento
Act, such as rising transportation needs and the greater range and
usefulness of services. Wisconsin Rapids Public Schools Homeless Liaison Heather Lisitza says:
One of the biggest challenges our
district faces is providing transportation to students who are
experiencing homelessness. There are few approaches that our district
can utilize to provide transportation for these students. Our city has
only one taxi cab service and no public bus system. Our cab company is
small and simply cannot fulfill all of our transportation requests. When
it's possible, we add students to existing bus routes or set up a
contractual agreement with the student's parent/guardian. However, there
have been many situations where none of these options have worked.
Another challenge our district faces is providing proper outer-wear for
students who are homeless. Being that we live in central Wisconsin and
have long, cold winters, all students need proper outerwear to go
outside. Proper outerwear includes snow boots, hat, mittens, snow pants,
and a winter jacket that has a working zipper or buttons on it. This
expense adds up quickly and is hard to provide to the increasing number
of homeless students.
This is especially worrisome since homeless students are 1) 1.5 times
more likely to perform below grade level in reading; 2) 1.5 times more
likely to perform below grade level in spelling; and 3) 2.5 times more
likely to perform below grade level in math.
There are a few worries that there will be false reports of homeless students, but mostly it is not an issue.
As of 2011, there were laws that both directly and indirectly criminalized people that are homeless. As of 2012, some jurisdictions had made it illegal to attempt to feed homeless people outdoors. As of 2014, at least 31 cities have criminalized feeding people that are homeless.
In 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Committee criticized the United States for the criminalization of homelessness, noting that such "cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment" is in violation of international human rights treaty obligations. A 2018 report by Philip Alston,
the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, found
that homeless persons have effectively been criminalized in many cities
around the United States, and noted that "punishing and imprisoning the
poor is the distinctively American response to poverty in the
twenty-first century."
As of 2023, both Missouri, Tennessee, and Texas have passed laws to ban
homeless public camping by homeless people, often punishing such
behavior with felony charges, with other states considering similar
legislation.
Vagrancy
As of 2024, some municipalities in the US make it a crime to provide food or shelter to homeless people. Some local jurisdictions make it illegal for homeless people to use blankets or soap.
In August 2012, a federal district judge in Philadelphia ruled that laws prohibiting serving food to homeless people outdoors were unconstitutional.
In June 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit struck down a 1983 ordinance in the city of Los Angeles which "bans people from living in cars or recreational vehicles on city streets or in parking lots" as being unconstitutionally vague,
saying "This broad and cryptic statute criminalizes innocent behavior,
making it impossible for citizens to know how to keep their conduct
within the pale. ... Unlike other cities, which ban overnight parking or
sleeping in vehicles, Los Angeles' law prohibits using cars as 'living
quarters' both overnight and 'day-by-day, or otherwise'."
In 2015, homeless rights advocates were pushing for "Right to
Rest" bills in several states, to overturn laws that target homeless
people for sitting, eating, and sleeping in public places.
In 2018, in Martin v. Boise
the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that city ordinances
banning sleeping outside cannot be enforced, if there are not enough
shelter beds available in the city.
In 2024, in Grants Pass v. Johnson
the US Supreme Court ruled that cities may criminalize homelessness, as
homelessness constitutes conduct, not status, and that the precedent
set in Robinson v. California does not apply.
Since the 1990s, there has been a growing number of violent acts
committed upon people experiencing homelessness. The rate of such
documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999. Some teens engage in this activity as a source of amusement. CNN reported in 2007 that such incidents were on the rise.
In 2006, the Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism (CSHE) at California State University,
San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless
people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76
people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories, such as race and religion, combined.
Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much
higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most
incidents never get reported to authorities. A 2007 study found that the
number of violent crimes against homeless people is increasing.In 2013, there were 109 attacks on homeless people, a 24 percent
increase on the previous year, according to the NCH. Eighteen people
died as a result of the attacks. In July 2014, three boys 15, 16 and 18,
were arrested and charged with beating to death two homeless men with
bricks and a metal pole in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
As in other countries, criminals—both individuals and organized groups—sometimes exploit homeless people, ranging from identity theft to tax and welfare scams.
Homeless people, and homeless organizations, are also known to be
accused or convicted of frauds and scams. These incidents often lead to
negative impressions of homeless people by the general public.
Health
Homelessness
is a public welfare and health epidemic within the United States. Any
period of homelessness is associated with adverse health consequences.
These adverse health consequences are associated with poor living
conditions and a lack of access to treatment facilities. Due to living
in extreme poverty, it is unlikely for an individual or a family to have
a healthcare plan. These healthcare plans are important in obtaining
treatment for illnesses or injury from treatment facilities. Without it,
individuals and families are left to deal with their ailments
themselves or endure further financial burden by receiving treatments
without a health insurance plan.
Respiratory infections and outbreaks of tuberculosis and other
aerosol transmitted infections have been reported. Homeless intravenous
drug users are at an increased risk of contracting HIV, and hepatitis B
and C infections.
The close living spaces of areas such as Skid Row in California
provide an environment in which infectious diseases can spread easily.
These areas with a high concentration of homeless individuals are dirty
environments, with little resources for personal hygiene. A 2018 report
to congress estimated that 35% of homeless people were in unsheltered
locations not suitable for human habitation.
There is a bidirectional relationship between homelessness and poor health.
Homelessness exacts a heavy toll on individuals. The longer individuals
experience homelessness, the more likely they are to experience poor
health and be at higher risk for premature death.
Health conditions, such as substance use and mental illness, can
increase people's susceptibility to homelessness. Conversely,
homelessness can cause further health issues, due to constant exposure
to environmental threats such as violence and communicable diseases.
Homeless people have disproportionately high rates of poly substance
use, mental illness, physical health problems and legal issues/barriers
in attaining employment.
A 2000 study found that large numbers of homeless people work,
but few homeless people are able to generate significant earnings from
employment alone.
Physical health problems limit work and daily activities, which are
barriers to employment. Substance use is positively associated with a
lower work level, and negatively related to a higher work level.
Those with physical health problems are substantially more likely than
those with mental health problems to be in the more generous disability
programs. Substance use disorders are a barrier to participation in
disability programs. A 2015 study found that rates of participation in
government programs are low, and that people with major mental disorders
have a low participation rate in disability programs.
Homeless deaths
US homeless deaths surged 77% from 2016 to 2020. A February 2022 analysis in The Guardian
found that some 18,000 homeless people died on the streets and in
encampments and shelters over a five year period, with 5,000 of these
deaths occurring in 2020. The non-profit National Health Care for the
Homeless Council places homeless deaths at between 17,000 and 40,000
annually. Many are never counted, given that the federal government does
not track homeless deaths nationally.
The top direct causes of death among the homeless population
include "drug overdoses, violence, traffic deaths and premature
lethality of treatable conditions like heart disease." Regarding drug
deaths, methamphetamine is a significant killer, as people who are
homeless use the stimulant drug to stay awake and alert in order to
protect themselves from violence. The report notes that outside of
direct medical causes of death, a major factor contributing to both the
epidemic of homelessness and surge in deaths among the homeless
population is the lack of affordable housing throughout much of the
country.
Homelessness among the elderly
A 2023 report found that Homelessness among the elderly has been increasing. A 2002 report by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health found that homeless persons die at greater rates than the general public from specific causes.
They are more likely to die by: 35 times from alcohol or drug
overdoses, 16 times from auto accidents, 14 times from murder, 8 times
from suicide, and 4 times from heart disease. September 2023 HUD data found that the elderly are the fastest growing demographic of the homeless population.
In 2023, Judge Milan Smith Jr., an American jurist claimed that
homelessness is "presently the defining public health and safety crisis
in the western United States."
According to 2023 Los Angeles homeless services authority data, on
average, six unhoused people die in Los Angeles each day. The causes
reported of death are overdoses, heart disease, traffic accidents,
homicides, hypothermia, and heat exhaustion. Va Lecia Adams Kellum,
Lahsa's CEO, believes "The primary causes of homelessness are economic."
Comprehensive health care
Comprehensive
healthcare usually refers to a form of medical care that meets a
patient's whole needs through the provision of a wide range of health
services. This form of holistic care in relation to homeless people is often difficult for them to access, due to issues of location, stigma, etc, and difficult for care givers to perform and manage, as a result of the unpredictability of homeless people day to day.
Tailored care approach
As high-risk and socially disadvantaged persons, homeless patients tend to require a lot of acute care,
of short term but active treatment, with poor results. Due to the
conditions homelessness creates, acute care and health is difficult to
manage and maintain.
The Tailored Care approach recognizes the situation of homeless people
and seeks to provide specialized care to the homeless community. Studies
have found that the tailored approach is good at engaging homeless
persons seeking health care for the first time.
These health care facilities position themselves in homeless shelters
or in areas easily accessible to the homeless population. Some of these
health care providers also provide meal kits, on-site showers,
transportation, and hygiene kits.
This form of holistic and tailored care leads to the reduction in
emergency service use, and hospitalizations amongst the homeless
community.
This approach has been used in the government-sponsored Health Care for the Homeless Model (HCH Model).
Each HCH project is federally funded, and works as federally qualified
health centers that work at the intersection of multiple disciplines.
These health centers usually provide their patients access to health
services such as primary care, mental health services, and addiction
services, as well as social services such as after-jail services and
case management.
There is no set structure that each health center needs to follow—each
health center has the agency to provide a variety of services based on
their networks and connections with the local neighborhood, government,
or community, but are not mandated to do so except for providing primary
care.
Children's health
For
children, there are risks to seeking refuge in shelters, which are
heightened and more noticeable for children. Children's homelessness
health risks include malnutrition
from lack of access to food with nutritional content, behavioral
problems associated with coping, social insecurity from growing up in an
unstable environment, and mental illnesses such as PTSD and trauma.
Mother's health
Just
as children who come from homeless families are at a higher risk of
developing behavioral, mental, and physical health problems than their
peers, their mothers are also at a higher risk especially in developing
mental illnesses.
There are many things that contribute to why homeless women are at a
higher rate of developing a mental illness compared to the general
population, but there has been a reoccurring theme among studies focused
on this issue.
In 2006, homeless individuals reported mental illness as being the number three reason for becoming or staying homeless.
Such illnesses are often closely linked with the fourth
reason—substance use—and therefore it is generally accepted that both of
these issues should be treated simultaneously.
Although many medical, psychiatric, and counseling services exist to
address these needs, it is commonly believed that without the support of
reliable and stable housing, such treatments remain ineffective. In the
absence of a universal healthcare plan, many of those in need cannot afford such services.
A 2020 representative sample of homeless youth across multiple US
cities found that, in each city, more than 80% of the sampled
individuals met criteria for at least one psychiatric diagnosis. A 2020 Epidemiological study found that only about 25–30% of homeless persons have a severe mental illness such as schizophrenia. Early studies, comparing homeless persons found that depression and suicidal thoughts were very prevalent, along with symptoms of trauma and substance abuse.
Efforts towards ending homelessness
Housing
In 2006, homeless individuals reported a lack of affordable housing as the number one reason for becoming homeless.
The two main types of housing programs provided for homeless
people are transitional and permanent housing. Transitional housing
programs are operated with one goal in mind—to help individuals and
families obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible. Transitional
housing programs assist homeless for a fixed amount of time, or until
they are able to obtain housing on their own and function successfully
in the community, or whichever comes first.
Some shelters and associated charitable foundations have bought
buildings and real estate to develop into permanent housing for homeless
people in lieu of transitional Housing.
The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development and Veterans Administration have a special Section 8
housing voucher program called VASH (Veterans Administration Supported
Housing), or HUD-VASH, which gives out a certain number of Section 8
subsidized housing vouchers to eligible homeless and otherwise
vulnerable US armed forces veterans. The HUD-VASH program has been successful in housing many homeless veterans.
In 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles
because they cannot find affordable housing has "exploded", particularly
in cities with steep increases in the cost of living such as Seattle,
Los Angeles, Portland, and San Francisco. Bloomberg reported in November 2018 that the wealthiest cities in the
U.S., in particular those in the Western states, are experiencing a
homelessness crisis driven largely by stagnant wages and "skyrocketing
rents".
In 2019, Google pledged one billion USD into funding 20,000 homes over the next decade throughout the San Francisco Bay Area.
The Bay Area is booming with economically successful people, who end up
driving up the price of housing and increases the divide between the
people who need the housing and the new houses being built. In particular, the metropolitan area of San Francisco has some of the most expensive real estate in the United States.
Housing First
Housing First
is an evidence based approach, that recognizes housing as one of the
most impactful social determinants of health that affect those
experiencing homelessness.
Housing First has been met with success since its initial
implementations in 2009, by providing relatively no strings-attached
housing to homeless people with substance use disorder problems or
mental health issues. Housing First allows homeless men and women to be
taken directly off the street into private community-based apartments,
without requiring treatment first. This allows homeless people to return
to some sense of normalcy, from which it is believed that they are
better-poised to tackle their addictions or sicknesses. The relapse rate
through these types of programs is lower than that of conventional
homeless programs.
The BHH Collective is a program that has implemented the Housing
First approach. It began in 2015 as an initiative in Chicago, Illinois,
between BHH and University of Illinois Hospital to provide for
frequently homeless emergency department patients.
The housing was paid for by the hospital and federal housing subsidies.
The program provides the individuals with case managers, specialized
health services based on the individual's needs, and other services they
need.
BHH Collective aims to address the connection between housing and
health by providing supportive housing to homeless individuals in order
to improve the health of homeless people and address homelessness at the
same time.
Other transitional housing interventions
Studies
have been conducted to demonstrate the ability of homeless people to
receive and maintain houses and jobs when provided with adequate
support. In LA's Homeless Opportunity Providing Employment (HOPE), for
homeless adults with mental illness, individual characteristics in
regards to specific mental illness or substance abuse played little role
in the systemic difference to the employment outcomes. However, these
factors including race and ethnicity, affected individual housing
outcomes.
The provision of housing for homeless people reduces healthcare
costs, inpatient hospitalizations, and emergency room costs. When
provided with supportive housing, many homeless people are eligible for
healthcare coverage. People with housing are less likely to need health
services, as a stable home provides protection from the elements,
prevention from sicknesses, wounds and infections, and a generally safer
environment than the streets. This is what Rapid Rehousing
programs (RRHP) support. Designed to aid families experiencing
homelessness, RRHP provides access to private affordable housing markets
for a better transition back into stable housing.
The three major parts necessary for the program's success are: finding
landlords and appropriate housing, providing move-in assistance;
providing case management and support services to ensure the prolonged
and eventual permanent rehousing success of each family.
In the early 2000s, the provision of housing for homeless persons
was contingent on their treatment and abstinence from addictive
substances.
However, emerging Permanent supportive housing approaches reversed the
requirements, and provided homeless people housing without evidence of
treatment for mental illness or substance abuse.
These interventions are usually paired with case managers. With the
inclusion of income assistance programs, there is a significant increase
in number of days spent stably housed for participating individuals.
Employment
Many homeless people in the United States work, both part-time and full-time. Employment
opportunities can be useful in providing financial stability to
homeless individuals. Estimates of unemployment within the homeless
population range from 57% to 90%.
Programs seeking to help homeless people find and maintain jobs usually
focus on individual characteristics of homeless people as barriers,
such as addiction and mental illness.
Research indicates that there are systemic factors that exclude
homeless people from the work force, such as expectations, and the
overall structure of the labor market.
The rise of temporary employment in the modern labor market has made
homeless people unable to secure stable employment and income, to ensure
their ability to afford and maintain a house.
Federal and presidential efforts
In 2001, President Bush made ending chronic homelessness by 2012 as part of his Compassion Agenda, as his campaign promised to fully fund the McKinney Act. The bi-partisan, congressionally mandated, Millennial Housing Commission included ending chronic homelessness in 10 years, among its principal recommendations in its Report to Congress in 2002. By 2003, the Interagency Council on Homelessness had been re-engaged and charged with pursuing the President's 10-year plan.
In October 2003, the Administration announced the award of over
$48 million in grants aimed at serving the needs of the chronically
homeless, through two initiatives. The "Ending Chronic Homelessness
through Employment and Housing" initiative was a collaborative grant
offered jointly by HUD and the Department of Labor (DOL).With the focus on providing housing and employment for the homeless
population, there was not much attention placed on their comprehensive
health.
Addressing homeless health is difficult in a traditional healthcare
setting, due to the complex nature of the needs of homeless people and
the multitude of health consequences they face. In 2003–04, during the
108th United States Congress meeting, the proposed Bringing America Home Act
was intended to provide comprehensive treatment for many homeless
mental and substance use disorder patients - it has not been passed or
funded.
In 2010, under President Obama's administration, a federal
strategic plan to end homelessness was released. This plan created four
key goals: Prevent and end homelessness among Veterans in 5 years;
Finish the job of ending chronic homelessness in 7 years; Prevent and
end homelessness for families, youth, and children in 10 years; Set a
path to ending all types of homelessness.
Capitalizing on these insights, the Plan built on previous reforms and
the intent by the Obama Administration to directly address homelessness
through intergovernmental cooperation for rehabilitating the homeless
population and preventing homelessness to those at high-risk.
In 2015, First Lady Michelle Obama called for the collaboration of
mayors, governors, and county officials to commit to ending Veteran
homelessness in their communities, and reached out to additional mayors
and local leaders to participate.
Public libraries
In
May 1991, Richard Kreimer, a homeless man in Morristown, N.J. sued the
local public library and the Town of Morristown for expelling him from
the library, after other patrons complained about his disruptive
behavior and pungent body odor. He later won the case and settled for
$250,000.
Public libraries can and often do significantly assist with the
issues presented by homelessness. In many communities, the library is
the only facility that offers free computer and internet access. This is
where many people experiencing homelessness go to locate services for
basic needs, such as healthcare, education, and housing. Library
computers are necessary for building a resume, searching for open jobs
in the area, and completing job applications.
A 2010 article and video entitled, "SF library offers Social Services to Homeless,"
speaks about the San Francisco library having a full-time social worker
at the library to reduce and help homeless patrons. It mentions that
Leah Esguerra, who is a psychiatric social worker, has a usual routine
making her rounds to different homeless patrons, and greeting them to
see if she could help them. She offers help in different forms that
could range from linking patrons with services, or providing them with
mental health counseling. She supervises a 12-week vocational program
that culminates in gainful employment in the library for the formerly
homeless.
The San Jose University Library became one of the first academic
libraries to pay attention to the needs of homeless people and implement
changes to better serve this population. In 2007, the merged University
Library and Public Library made the choice to be proactive in reaching
out. Collaborations with non-profit organizations in the area culminated
in computer classes being taught, as well as nutrition classes, family
literacy programs, and book discussion groups.
After eighteen months, the library staff felt they still were not doing
enough and "analyzed program participation trends supplemented by
observation and anecdotes" in order to better understand the information
needs of homeless people. When it was understood that these needs are
complex, additional customer service training was provided to all staff
who were interested.
Once the staff more fully understood the needs of homeless
people, it was determined that many programs in place already, with a
few minor adjustments, would be helpful to homeless people. For example,
the providing book clubs have proven to be very effective bridges
between librarians and homeless people.
Programs were tailored to meet these needs. Additional changes
implemented included temporary computer passes and a generous in-house
reading space to counteract the policies in place that may prevent a
homeless person from obtaining a library card.
The Dallas Public Library
started "Coffee and Conversation" which is part of their Homeless
Engagement Initiative. The staff hopes these bimonthly events between
staff and homeless patrons will help them better serve the homeless
people population in Dallas.
They sponsor Street View podcast, a library produced podcast featuring
the stories and experiences of the city's homeless population. Guests
often include social service providers.
As
of 2023, the issue of homelessness in the US is severe, with states
like California, New York, Florida, Texas, and Washington having a
combined number of over 330,000 homeless people. In 2023, California
alone had over 161,000. Although begging and panhandling is one of the
main ways homeless people obtain money, in Kansas, Mississippi, and
Maryland, begging and panhandling are considered crimes. In June 2024, a U.S. Supreme Court 6-3 ruling, permitted cities to enforce bans on homeless people sleeping in public places.
Public attitudes
Many advocates for homeless people contend that a key difficulty is the social stigma
surrounding homelessness. Many associate a lack of a permanent home
with a lack of a proper bathroom and limited access to regular grooming.
Thus, people that are homeless become "aesthetically unappealing" to
the general public. Research shows that "physically attractive persons are judged more positively than physically unattractive individuals on various traits... reflecting social competence."
In addition to the physical component of stigmatization exists an
association of homeless people with mental illness. Many people
consider the mentally ill to be irresponsible and childlike and treat
them with fear and exclusion, using their mental incapacitation as justification for why they should be left out of communities.
A common misconception persists that many individuals who
panhandle are not actually homeless, but actually use pity and
compassion to fund their lifestyles, making up to $20 an hour and living
luxurious lives. This exception to the rule seems more prevalent due to media attention, but in reality, only a few cases exist.
Public opinion surveys show relatively little support for this view. A 1995 paper in the American Journal of Community Psychology
concluded that "although the homeless are clearly stigmatized, there is
little evidence to suggest that the public has lost compassion and is
unwilling to support policies to help homeless people." A Penn State study in 2004 concluded that "familiarity breeds sympathy" and greater support for addressing the problem.
A 2007 survey conducted by Public Agenda, a non-profit
organization that helps leaders and their citizens navigate through
complex social issues, found that 67 percent of New Yorkers agreed that
most homeless people were without shelter because of "circumstances
beyond their control", including high housing costs and lack of good and
steady employment. More than one-third (36 percent) said they worried
about becoming homeless themselves, with 15 percent saying they were
"very worried." 90 percent of New Yorkers believed that everyone has a
right to shelter, and 68 percent believed that the government is
responsible for guaranteeing that right to its citizens. The survey
found support for investments in prevention, rental assistance and
permanent housing for homeless people.
Research by Public Agenda concluded that the public's sympathy
has limits. In a 2002 national survey, the organization found 74 percent
say the police should leave a homeless person alone if they are not
bothering anyone. In contrast, 71 percent say the police should move
homeless people if they are keeping customers away from a shopping area.
51 percent say homeless people should be moved if they are driving
other people away from a public park.
Statistics and demographics
Completely
accurate and comprehensive statistics are difficult to acquire for any
social study, but especially so when measuring the ambiguous hidden, and
erratic reality of homelessness. All figures given are estimates. These
estimates represent overall national averages. The proportions of
specific homeless communities can vary substantially depending on local
geography.
Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress
US yearly timeline of people experiencing homelessness, 2007-2020.
Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on
homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department
of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress
(AHAR), released every year since 2007. The AHAR report relies on data
from two sources: single-night, point-in-time counts of both sheltered
and unsheltered homeless populations reported on the Continuum of Care
applications to HUD; and counts of the sheltered homeless population
over a full year provided by a sample of communities based on data in
their Management Information Systems (HMIS).
Other statistics
Homeless children in the United States. The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011, 2012, and 2013 at about three times their number in 1983.
Total number
Over
the course of the year (October 2009 – September 2010), the 2010 Annual
Homeless Assessment Report found that 1,593,150 individuals experienced
homelessness.
Most were homeless temporarily. The chronically homeless population,
those with repeated episodes or who have been homeless for long periods,
decreased from 175,914 in 2005 to 123,833 in 2007.
In the 2017 AHAR (Annual Homeless Assessment Report) about 553,742
people experienced homelessness, which was a 1% increase from 2016. An April 2022 YouGov
survey found that 19 percent of Americans reported having ever been
homeless, while a December 2023 survey found that 17 percent of
Americans reported having been homeless at one point in their lives.
Familial composition
In the 2010 NCHWIH report:
51.3% are single males.
24.7% are single females.
23% are families with children—the fastest growing segment.
5% are minors unaccompanied by adults.
39% of the total homeless population are children under the age of 18.
Marital status
In the 2014 NCHWIH report:
24% are married.
76% are single.
67.5% are single males within the single percentage.
32.5% are single females within the single percentage.
In the 2010 SAMHSA report, among all sheltered individuals over the course of a year (October 2009-September 2010):
Gender, Age, Race/Ethnicity
41.6% are White, Non-Hispanic
9.7% are White, Hispanic
37% are Black/African-American
4.5% are other single races;
7.2% are multiple races
In the 2014 NCHWIH report:
42% are African American (over-represented 3.23× compared to 13% of general population).
38% are Caucasian (under-represented 0.53× compared to 72% of general population).
20% are Hispanic (over-represented 1.25× compared to 16% of general population).
4% are Native American (over-represented 4× compared to 1% of general population).
2% are Asian-American (under-represented 0.4× compared to 5% of general population).
Mental health
In the 2010 SAMHSA report:
26.2% of all sheltered persons who were homeless had a severe mental illness
About 30% of people who are chronically homeless have mental health conditions.
In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:
Over 60% of people who are chronically homeless have experienced lifetime mental health problems
Substance use
In the 2010 SAMHSA report:
34.7% of all sheltered adults who were homeless had chronic substance use issues
About 50% of people who are chronically homeless had co-occurring substance use problems.
In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:
Over 80% have experienced lifetime alcohol and/or drug problems
Education
According
to the 1996 Urban Institute findings of the National Survey of Homeless
Assistance Providers and Clients (UIHAC) report
53% have less than a high school education
21% have completed high school
27% have some education beyond high school.
Employment
In the 1996 UIHAC report:
44 percent did paid work during the past month. Of these:
20 percent worked in a job lasting or expected to last at least three months.
25 percent worked at a temporary or day labor job.
2 percent earned money by peddling or selling personal belongings.
A 2010 longitudinal study of homeless men conducted in Birmingham, Alabama, found that most earned an average of ninety dollars per week, while working an average of thirty hours per week.
In the 2010 SAMHSA report, research on shelter use in New York City and Philadelphia concluded that:
People experiencing transitional homelessness constitute 80% of shelter users
People experiencing episodic homelessness comprise 10% of shelter users.
In New York City
Transitionally homeless individuals experience an
average of 1.4 stays over a 3-year period, for a total of 58 days on
average over the 3 years.
Episodically homeless individuals, on average, experience 4.9
shelter episodes over a 3-year period totaling 264 days with an average
length of stay of 54.4 days.
Data from the 1996 NSHAPC, show that about 50% of people who were
homeless were experiencing their first or second episode of
homelessness, which typically lasted a few weeks or months to one year.
Gender
In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:
60.5% are male.
39% are female.
0.4% are transgender
0.2% do not identify as male, female, or transgender.
Age
In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:
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