Quark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Quark
A proton, composed of two up quarks and one down quark. (The color assignment of individual quarks is not important, only that all three colors be present.) |
| Composition |
Elementary particle |
| Statistics |
Fermionic |
| Generation |
1st, 2nd, 3rd |
| Interactions |
Electromagnetism, gravitation, strong, weak |
| Symbol |
q |
| Antiparticle |
Antiquark (q) |
| Theorized |
Murray Gell-Mann (1964)
George Zweig (1964) |
| Discovered |
SLAC (~1968) |
| Types |
6 (up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top) |
| Electric charge |
+2⁄3 e, −1⁄3 e |
| Color charge |
Yes |
| Spin |
1⁄2 |
| Baryon number |
1⁄3 |
A
quark (
// or
//) is an
elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of
matter. Quarks combine to form
composite particles called
hadrons, the most stable of which are
protons and
neutrons, the components of
atomic nuclei.
[1] Due to a phenomenon known as
color confinement, quarks are never directly observed or found in isolation; they can be found only within
hadrons, such as
baryons (of which protons and neutrons are examples), and
mesons.
[2][3] For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of the hadrons themselves.
There are six types of quarks, known as
flavors:
up,
down,
strange,
charm,
bottom, and
top.
[4] Up and down quarks have the lowest
masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of
particle decay:
the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state.
Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most
common in the
universe, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in
high energy collisions (such as those involving
cosmic rays and in
particle accelerators).
Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including
electric charge,
mass,
color charge and
spin. Quarks are the only elementary particles in the
Standard Model of
particle physics to experience all four
fundamental interactions, also known as
fundamental forces (
electromagnetism,
gravitation,
strong interaction, and
weak interaction), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not
integer multiples of the
elementary charge. For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of
antiparticle, known as an
antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties have
equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The
quark model was independently proposed by physicists
Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig in 1964.
[5]
Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and
there was little evidence for their physical existence until
deep inelastic scattering experiments at the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.
[6][7] Accelerator experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The
top quark was the last to be discovered at
Fermilab in 1995.
[5]
Classification
Six of the particles in the
Standard Model are quarks (shown in purple). Each of the first three columns forms a
generation of matter.
The
Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the currently known
elementary particles. This model contains six
flavors of quarks (
q), named
up (
u),
down (
d),
strange (
s),
charm (
c),
bottom (
b), and
top (
t).
[4] Antiparticles of quarks are called
antiquarks, and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as
u for an up antiquark. As with
antimatter in general, antiquarks have the same mass,
mean lifetime, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other
charges have the opposite sign.
[8]
Quarks are
spin-1⁄2 particles, implying that they are
fermions according to the
spin-statistics theorem. They are subject to the
Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two identical fermions can simultaneously occupy the same
quantum state. This is in contrast to
bosons (particles with integer spin), any number of which can be in the same state.
[9] Unlike
leptons, quarks possess
color charge, which causes them to engage in the
strong interaction. The resulting attraction between different quarks causes the formation of composite particles known as
hadrons (see "
Strong interaction and color charge" below).
The quarks which determine the
quantum numbers of hadrons are called
valence quarks; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of
virtual (or
sea) quarks, antiquarks, and
gluons which do not influence its quantum numbers.
[10] There are two families of hadrons:
baryons, with three valence quarks, and
mesons, with a valence quark and an antiquark.
[11] The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the
atomic nucleus.
[12] A great number of hadrons are known (see
list of baryons and
list of mesons), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of
"exotic" hadrons with more valence quarks, such as
tetraquarks (
qqqq) and
pentaquarks (
qqqqq), has been conjectured
[13] but not proven.
[nb 1][13][14]
Elementary fermions are grouped into three
generations,
each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation
includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and
the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of
quarks and other elementary fermions have failed,
[15] and there is strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist.
[nb 2][16] Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to
decay into lower-generation particles by means of
weak interactions.
Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature.
Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in
those involving
cosmic rays), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the
Big Bang, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the
quark epoch). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in
particle accelerators.
[17]
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four
fundamental interactions of contemporary physics: electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction.
[12] Gravitation is too weak to be relevant to individual particle interactions except at extremes of energy (
Planck energy) and distance scales (
Planck distance). However, since no successful
quantum theory of gravity exists, gravitation is not described by the Standard Model.
See the
table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
History
The
quark model was independently proposed by physicists
Murray Gell-Mann[18] and
George Zweig[19][20] in 1964.
[5] The proposal came shortly after Gell-Mann's 1961 formulation of a particle classification system known as the
Eightfold Way—or, in more technical terms,
SU(3) flavor symmetry.
[21] Physicist
Yuval Ne'eman had independently developed a scheme similar to the Eightfold Way in the same year.
[22][23]
At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "
particle zoo" included, amongst other particles, a multitude of
hadrons.
Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles,
but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks.
Their model involved three flavors of quarks,
up,
down, and
strange, to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge.
[18][19][20]
The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal was
mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a
physical entity or a mere abstraction used to explain concepts that were
not fully understood at the time.
[24]
In less than a year, extensions to the Gell-Mann–Zweig model were proposed.
Sheldon Lee Glashow and
James Bjorken predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called
charm. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the
weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known
leptons, and implied a
mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known
mesons.
[25]
In 1968,
deep inelastic scattering experiments at the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) showed that the proton contained much smaller,
point-like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle.
[6][7][26] Physicists were reluctant to firmly identify these objects with quarks at the time, instead calling them "
partons"—a term coined by
Richard Feynman.
[27][28][29] The objects that were observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks as the other flavors were discovered.
[30] Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and
gluons).
The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by SLAC's
scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of
Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation
for the
kaon (
K) and
pion (
π) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.
[31]
In a 1970 paper, Glashow,
John Iliopoulos and
Luciano Maiani presented further reasoning for the existence of the as-yet undiscovered
charm quark.
[32][33] The number of supposed quark flavors grew to the current six in 1973, when
Makoto Kobayashi and
Toshihide Maskawa noted that the experimental observation of
CP violation[nb 3][34] could be explained if there were another pair of quarks.
Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see
November Revolution)—one at SLAC under
Burton Richter, and one at
Brookhaven National Laboratory under
Samuel Ting. The charm quarks were observed
bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two parties had assigned the discovered meson two different symbols,
J and
ψ; thus, it became formally known as the
J/ψ meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.
[29]
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending
the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by
Haim Harari[35] was the first to coin the terms
top and
bottom for the additional quarks.
[36]
In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at
Fermilab led by
Leon Lederman.
[37][38]
This was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the
top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. However,
it was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by
the
CDF[39] and
DØ[40] teams at Fermilab.
[5] It had a mass much larger than had been previously expected,
[41] almost as large as that of a
gold atom.
[42]
Etymology
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word
quark in
James Joyce's book
Finnegans Wake:
Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he has not got much of a bark
And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.
—James Joyce,
Finnegans Wake[43]
Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his book
The Quark and the Jaguar:
[44]
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental
constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the
spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional
perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the
word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark"
(meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to
rhyme with "Mark", as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find
an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream
of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are
typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "portmanteau"
words in "Through the Looking-Glass". From time to time, phrases occur
in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the
bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of
the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark" might be "Three quarts for Mister
Mark", in which case the pronunciation "kwork" would not be totally
unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way
quarks occur in nature.
Zweig preferred the name
ace for the particle he had
theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once the quark
model had been commonly accepted.
[45]
The quark flavors were given their names for a number of reasons. The
up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of
isospin, which they carry.
[46] Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the
strange particles
discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed;
these particles were deemed "strange" because they had unusually long
lifetimes.
[47]
Glashow, who coproposed charm quark with Bjorken, is quoted as saying,
"We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and
pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world."
[48] The names "bottom" and "top", coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks".
[35][36][47]
In the past, bottom and top quarks were sometimes referred to as
"beauty" and "truth" respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen
out of use.
[49] While "truth" never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "
beauty factories".
[50]
Properties
Electric charge
Quarks have
fractional electric charge values – either
1⁄3 or
2⁄3 times the
elementary charge, depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as
up-type quarks) have a charge of +
2⁄3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks (
down-type quarks) have −
1⁄3. Antiquarks have the opposite charge to their corresponding quarks; up-type antiquarks have charges of −
2⁄3 and down-type antiquarks have charges of +
1⁄3. Since the electric charge of a
hadron
is the sum of the charges of the constituent quarks, all hadrons have
integer charges: the combination of three quarks (baryons), three
antiquarks (antibaryons), or a quark and an antiquark (mesons) always
results in integer charges.
[51]
For example, the hadron constituents of atomic nuclei, neutrons and
protons, have charges of 0 and +1 respectively; the neutron is composed
of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton of two up quarks and
one down quark.
[12]
Spin
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important
degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "
spin"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be
point-like.
[52]
Spin can be represented by a
vector whose length is measured in units of the
reduced Planck constant ħ (pronounced "h bar"). For quarks, a measurement of the spin vector
component along any axis can only yield the values +
ħ/2 or −
ħ/2; for this reason quarks are classified as
spin-1⁄2 particles.
[53] The component of spin along a given axis – by convention the
z axis – is often denoted by an up arrow ↑ for the value +
1⁄2 and down arrow ↓ for the value −
1⁄2, placed after the symbol for flavor. For example, an up quark with a spin of +
1⁄2 along the
z axis is denoted by u↑.
[54]
Weak interaction
![A tree diagram consisting mostly of straight arrows. A down quark forks into an up quark and a wavy-arrow W[superscript minus] boson, the latter forking into an electron and reversed-arrow electron antineutrino.](https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/blogger_img_proxy/AEn0k_vLMYYAWmz34IxRgASy-UQJKSeN0ytnTxklnFb2SqsxaSULppw6W7EcvL9MNTbbBfroM2odFAkR5BHP-Vaiblgc5TSqgRHKpvLCHWZDiCQFttGQH9SPcLtwxtnB6FrRmRYF9U52h70kL6KFgW0f016dOD2BIkKQCMdwT92bq9yV2xnbj7htVrC0CNPe4NwRZBc1XloMJg=s0-d)
Feynman diagram of
beta decay with time flowing upwards. The CKM matrix (discussed below) encodes the probability of this and other quark decays.
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four
fundamental interactions in particle physics. By absorbing or emitting a
W boson,
any up-type quark (up, charm, and top quarks) can change into any
down-type quark (down, strange, and bottom quarks) and vice versa. This
flavor transformation mechanism causes the
radioactive process of
beta decay, in which a neutron (
n) "splits" into a proton (
p), an
electron (
e−) and an
electron antineutrino (
ν
e) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (
udd) decays into an up quark by emitting a
virtual W− boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (
uud). The
W− boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.
[55]
| n |
→ |
p |
+ |
e− |
+ |
ν
e |
(Beta decay, hadron notation) |
| udd |
→ |
uud |
+ |
e− |
+ |
ν
e |
(Beta decay, quark notation) |
Both beta decay and the inverse process of
inverse beta decay are routinely used in medical applications such as
positron emission tomography (PET) and in experiments involving
neutrino detection.
The
strengths of the weak interactions between the six quarks. The "intensities" of the lines are determined by the elements of the
CKM matrix.
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all
quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its
own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations
are described by a
mathematical table, called the
Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix (CKM matrix). Enforcing
unitarity, the approximate
magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:
[56]
where
Vij represents the tendency of a quark of flavor
i to change into a quark of flavor
j (or vice versa).
[nb 4]
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right
side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the
Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix (PMNS matrix).
[57] Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.
[58]
Strong interaction and color charge
All types of hadrons have zero total color charge.
The pattern of strong charges for the three colors of quark, three
antiquarks, and eight gluons (with two of zero charge overlapping).
According to
QCD, quarks possess a property called
color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled
blue,
green, and
red.
[nb 5] Each of them is complemented by an anticolor –
antiblue,
antigreen, and
antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.
[59]
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called
strong interaction, which is mediated by
force carrying particles known as
gluons; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called
quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A quark charged with one color value can form a
bound system
with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor; three
(anti)quarks, one of each (anti)color, will similarly be bound together.
The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark
with color charge
ξ plus an antiquark with color charge −
ξ will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white" color) and the formation of a meson. Analogous to the
additive color model in basic
optics,
the combination of three quarks or three antiquarks, each with
different color charges, will result in the same "white" color charge
and the formation of a baryon or antibaryon.
[60]
In modern particle physics,
gauge symmetries – a kind of
symmetry group – relate interactions between particles (see
gauge theories). Color
SU(3) (commonly abbreviated to SU(3)
c) is the gauge symmetry that relates the color charge in quarks and is the defining symmetry for quantum chromodynamics.
[61] Just as the laws of physics are independent of which directions in space are designated
x,
y, and
z,
and remain unchanged if the coordinate axes are rotated to a new
orientation, the physics of quantum chromodynamics is independent of
which directions in three-dimensional color space are identified as
blue, red, and green. SU(3)
c color transformations correspond to "rotations" in color space (which, mathematically speaking, is a
complex space). Every quark flavor
f, each with subtypes
fB,
fG,
fR corresponding to the quark colors,
[62] forms a triplet: a three-component
quantum field which transforms under the fundamental
representation of SU(3)
c.
[63] The requirement that SU(3)
c
should be local – that is, that its transformations be allowed to vary
with space and time – determines the properties of the strong
interaction, in particular the existence of
eight gluon types to act as its force carriers.
[61][64]
Mass
Current quark masses for all six flavors in comparison, as
balls of proportional volumes.
Proton and
electron (red) are shown in bottom left corner for scale
Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass:
current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while
constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the
gluon particle field surrounding the quark.
[65]
These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron's
mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together,
rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently
massless, they possess energy – more specifically,
quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE) – and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see
mass in special relativity). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately 938
MeV/c2, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about 11 MeV/c
2; much of the remainder can be attributed to the gluons' QCBE.
[66][67]
The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the
Higgs mechanism, which is related to the
Higgs boson. Physicists hope that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass of ~173 GeV/c
2, almost the mass of a gold atom,
[66][68] might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.
[69]
Table of properties
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks.
Flavor quantum numbers (
isospin (
I3),
charm (
C),
strangeness (
S, not to be confused with spin),
topness (
T), and
bottomness (
B′)) are assigned to certain quark flavors, and denote qualities of quark-based systems and hadrons.
The
baryon number (
B) is +
1⁄3 for all quarks, as baryons are made of three quarks. For antiquarks, the electric charge (
Q) and all flavor quantum numbers (
B,
I3,
C,
S,
T, and
B′) are of opposite sign. Mass and
total angular momentum (
J; equal to spin for point particles) do not change sign for the antiquarks.
Quark flavor properties[66]
| Name |
Symbol |
Mass (MeV/c2)* |
J |
B |
Q |
I3 |
C |
S |
T |
B′ |
Antiparticle |
Antiparticle symbol |
| First generation |
| Up |
u |
1.7 to 3.1 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
+2⁄3 |
+1⁄2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Antiup |
u |
| Down |
d |
4.1 to 5.7 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
−1⁄3 |
−1⁄2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Antidown |
d |
| Second generation |
| Charm |
c |
1290+50
−110 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
+2⁄3 |
0 |
+1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Anticharm |
c |
| Strange |
s |
100+30
−20 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
−1⁄3 |
0 |
0 |
−1 |
0 |
0 |
Antistrange |
s |
| Third generation |
| Top |
t |
172900±600 ± 900 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
+2⁄3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
+1 |
0 |
Antitop |
t |
| Bottom |
b |
4190+180
−60 |
1⁄2 |
+1⁄3 |
−1⁄3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
−1 |
Antibottom |
b |
J = total angular momentum, B = baryon number, Q = electric charge, I3 = isospin, C = charm, S = strangeness, T = topness, B′ = bottomness.
* Notation such as 4190+180
−60 denotes measurement uncertainty. In the case of the top quark, the first uncertainty is statistical in nature, and the second is systematic.
Interacting quarks
As described by
quantum chromodynamics, the
strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless
vector gauge bosons.
Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the
standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general
formulation known as
perturbation theory), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a
virtual
emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between
quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits
a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a
red–antigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's
color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.
[70][71][72]
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes
asymptotic freedom: as quarks come closer to each other, the chromodynamic binding force between them weakens.
[73]
Conversely, as the distance between quarks increases, the binding force
strengthens. The color field becomes stressed, much as an elastic band
is stressed when stretched, and more gluons of appropriate color are
spontaneously created to strengthen the field. Above a certain energy
threshold, pairs of quarks and antiquarks
are created. These pairs bind with the quarks being separated, causing new hadrons to form. This phenomenon is known as
color confinement: quarks never appear in isolation.
[71][74] This process of
hadronization
occurs before quarks, formed in a high energy collision, are able to
interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which
may decay before it hadronizes.
[75]
Sea quarks
Hadrons, along with the
valence quarks (
q
v) that contribute to their
quantum numbers, contain
virtual quark–antiquark (
qq) pairs known as
sea quarks (
q
s). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the
annihilation
of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of
gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea".
[76]
Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and
they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron.
Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic
particles under certain circumstances.
[77]
Other phases of quark matter
A qualitative rendering of the
phase diagram of quark matter. The precise details of the diagram are the subject of ongoing research.
[78][79]
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become deconfined and exist as free particles. In the course of
asymptotic freedom,
the strong interaction becomes weaker at higher temperatures.
Eventually, color confinement would be lost and an extremely hot
plasma of freely moving quarks and gluons would be formed. This theoretical phase of matter is called
quark–gluon plasma.
[80]
The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and
have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and
experimentation. A recent estimate puts the needed temperature at
(1.90±0.02)×1012 Kelvin.
[81] While a state of entirely free quarks and gluons has never been achieved (despite numerous attempts by
CERN in the 1980s and 1990s),
[82] recent experiments at the
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider have yielded evidence for liquid-like quark matter exhibiting "nearly perfect"
fluid motion.
[83]
The quark–gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in
the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and
down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10
−6 seconds after the
Big Bang (the
quark epoch), the universe was filled with quark–gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.
[84]
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures – possibly comparable to those found in
neutron stars – quark matter is expected to degenerate into a
Fermi liquid of weakly interacting quarks. This liquid would be characterized by a
condensation of colored quark
Cooper pairs, thereby
breaking the local SU(3)c symmetry. Because quark Cooper pairs harbor color charge, such a phase of quark matter would be
color superconductive; that is, color charge would be able to pass through it with no resistance.
[85]
