The professional practice of behavior analysis is one domain of behavior analysis: the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis.
The professional practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of
interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of
behaviorism and the research of both the experimental analysis of
behavior and applied behavior analysis. Professional practice seeks
maximum precision to change behavior most effectively in specific
instances. Behavior analysts are mental health professionals
and, in some states, may hold a license, certificate or registration as
a behavior analyst. In other states, there are no laws governing their
practice and, as such, the practice may be prohibited as falling under
the practice definition of other mental health professionals. This is
rapidly changing as Behavior Analysts are becoming more and more common.
The professional practice of behavior analysis is a hybrid discipline with specific influences coming from counseling, psychology, education, special education, communication disorders, physical therapy and criminal justice. As a discipline it has its own conferences, organizations, certification processes and awards.
The professional practice of behavior analysis is a hybrid discipline with specific influences coming from counseling, psychology, education, special education, communication disorders, physical therapy and criminal justice. As a discipline it has its own conferences, organizations, certification processes and awards.
Defining the scope of practice
The Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) defines behavior analysis as:
The field of behavior analysis grew out of the scientific study of principles of learning and behavior. It has two main branches: experimental and applied behavior analysis. The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) is the basic science of this field and has over many decades accumulated a substantial and well-respected research literature. This literature provides the scientific foundation for applied behavior analysis (ABA), which is both an applied science that develops methods of changing behavior and a profession that provides services to meet diverse behavioral needs. Briefly, professionals in applied behavior analysis engage in the specific and comprehensive use of principles of learning, including operant and respondent learning, in order to address behavioral needs of widely varying individuals in diverse settings. Examples of these applications include: managing behavior of children in school settings; enhancing the abilities, and choices of children and adults with different kinds of disabilities; training animals; and augmenting the performance and satisfaction of employees in organizations and businesses.
As the above suggests, behavior analysis is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) include the use of behavior management, behavioral engineering and behavior therapy. Behavior analysis is an active, environmental-based approach.
Currently in the U.S. some behavior analysts at the masters level
are licensed; others work with an international certification where
licenses are unavailable, although this may not be allowed in some
states or jurisdictions. At the doctoral level many are licensed as psychologists
with Diplomate status in behavioral psychology or licensed as licensed
behavior analysts. Diplomate status alone, however, does not allow one
to practice in every state and each state's regulatory statute must be
reviewed for the appropriateness and legality of practice.
Certification
The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) offers a technical certificate
in behavior analysis. The American Psychological Association offers a
diplomate (post PhD and licensed certification) in behavioral
psychology.
The meaning of certification
BACB is a private non-profit organization without governmental powers
to regulate behavior analytic practice. However it does wield the power
to suspend or revoke certification from those certified if they violate
the strict ethical guidelines of practice. As many states are without a
licensure act, this has been sufficient to deter violators as it
removes their ability to vendor with the state, schools, and insurance
companies under that certification. While the BACB certification means
that candidates have satisfied entry-level requirements in behavior
analytic training, certificants are able to practice independently
within the scope of their practice and training. Thus, a BCBA (such as
those who go into marketing, engineering, or other approved fields in
which BCBAs work) who has never trained to work nor worked with children
diagnosed with autism should not attempt to do so independently. Most
health insurance companies also recognize the BCBA credential as one
conferring the capability and the right to practice independently in
many states (including California with the recent passage of SB 946 into
law).
Some states still require certificants to be licensed by their
respective jurisdictions for independent practice when treating
behavioral health or medical problems, and a number of states including
Arizona and Nevada have created a specific BCBA licensing program (for a
full list please refer to the BACB website). Licensed certificants must
operate within the scope of their license and within their areas of
expertise. Where the government regulates behavior analytic services,
unlicensed certificants may be supervised by a licensed professional and
operate within the scope of their supervisor's license when treating
disorders if that jurisdiction allows such supervision. Unlicensed
certificants who provide behavior analytic training for educational or
optimal performance purposes do not require licensed supervision, unless
the law or precedent prohibits such practice. Where the government does
not regulate the treatment of medical or psychological disorders
certificants should practice in accord with the laws of their state,
province, or country. All certificants must practice within their
personal areas of expertise.
Licensure
The
model licensing act for behavior analysts has been revised several
times to reflect best practices and policy. Previous versions included
provisions that would have made it in practice more difficult then to
obtain the necessary experiential hours for license and independent
practice as a clinical psychologist.
Once the person is licensed public protection is still monitored
by the licensing board as well as the BACB, both of which make sure that
the person receives sufficient ongoing education, and the BACB and
licensing board investigate ethical complaints. In February 2008,
Indiana, Arizona, Massachusetts, Vermont, Oklahoma and other states now
have legislation pending to create licensure for behavior analysts.
Pennsylvania was the first state in 2008 to license behavior specialists
to cover behavior analysts. Arizona, less than three weeks later,
became the first state to license behavior analysts. Other states such
as Nevada and Wisconsin have also passed behavior analytic licensure.
In California, after the defeat of a bill to create a license for
BCBAs in 2011, the state government instead passed SB 946 which
mandates that all non-governmental insurance agencies reimburse for BCBA
for behavior therapy in treating autism, starting in 2012. Unlike many
weaker bills mandating that autism be covered by insurance, SB 946 does
not currently impose an arbitrary cap on services by age or funding
amount – in this it is similar to other treatments such as those for
heart attacks or other chronic conditions.
Service delivery models
Definitions
Behavior analytic services can be and often are delivered through various treatment modalities. These include:
- Consultation – an indirect model in which the consultant works with the consultee to change the behavior of the client.
- Therapy – (individual, group, or family) in which the therapist works directly with a person with some form of pathology to lessen the pathology.
- Counseling – where the counselor works directly with a person who has problems but no pathology.
- Coaching – in which the coach works with a person to achieve a life goal.
Primary methods
The two primary methods
for delivering behavior analytic services are consultation and/or
direct therapy; the former involves three parties: consultant, consultee
and a client whose behavior is changed (who may or may not be present
for all meetings).
Consultation can involve working with the consultee (i.e., a
parent or teacher) to build a plan around the behavior of a client
(i.e., a child or student), or training the consultees themselves to
modify the behavior of the client. Within the domain of parent–child
consultation, standard intervention includes teaching parents skills
such as basic reinforcement, time-out and how to manipulate different factors to modify behavior.
Direct therapy involves the relationship of behavior analyst and
client, usually one-on-one, in which the analyst is responsible for
directly modifying the behavior of their client. Direct therapy is also
used in schools but can also be found in group homes, in a behavior modification facility and in behavior therapy (where the focus may be on tasks such as quitting smoking, modifying behaviors for sex offenders or other types of offenders, modifying behaviors related to mood disorders) or to encourage job seeking behavior in psychiatric patients.
History of behavior models
Two
older and less used models still exist for the delivery of behavior
analytic services. These models worked mostly with normal or typically
developing populations. These two models are the Behavioral Coaching and the Behavioral Counseling
model. Both were very popular in the 1960s–1980s but have recently seen
a decline in popularity, in spite of their success, as proponents
argued the merits of holding strictly to learning theory. The Association for Behavior Analysis International still retains a special interest group in behavioral counseling and coaching.
History of behavioral counseling
Behavioral counseling was very popular throughout the 1970s and at least into the early 1980s.
Behavioral counseling is an active action–oriented approach that works
with the typically developing population but also assists people with
specific/discrete problems such as career decision making, drinking,
smoking or rehabilitation after injury.
Life coaching
The behavioral coaching model is sometimes referred to as life coaching. However, like counselors and psychologists, life coaches can have varied orientations/change theories (see behavioral change theories).
Behavioral life coaches operate mainly from a behavior analytic
orientation. Unlike therapy this model is applied to people who desire
to achieve a specific goal such as increasing their assertiveness with others.
This model is educational and is usually presented as an alternative to
therapy. Coaches use behavioral techniques such as objective setting,
goal setting, self-control training and behavioral activation to help
clients achieve specific life goals. Behavioral coaching was sometimes
used to teach job skills to people having mental retardation or head
injury. In this area the model made extensive use of task analysis,
direct instruction, role play, reinforcement and error correction. Often this approach employs techniques of direct instruction.
Goal of increasing reinforcement
Behavioral
counseling was largely seen as a growth model that tried to increase
the individuals sense of "freedom" by helping the client reduce
punishment or coercion in their lives, build skills, and increase access
to reinforcement.
B.F. Skinner created a video discussing the processes involved and the
importance of reinforcement to increase the sense of "freedom". Behavioral counseling attempts to use in-session reinforcement to improve decision-making, functional assessment of the clients problem, and behavioral interventions to reduce problem behaviors.
Social learning in behavioral counseling
Some behavioral counselors approach therapy from a social learning perspective
but many held a position based on the use of behavioral psychology with
a focus on the use of operant, respondent conditioning procedures.
Some who did adopt a position on modeling held closer to the behavioral
view of modeling as generalized imitation developed through learning
processes.
Weight loss
The behavioral counseling approach became very popular in weight reduction
and is on the American Psychological Association's list of
evidence-based practices for weight loss. Behavioral counseling for
weight loss by Richard B. Stuart led to the commercial program called Weight Watchers.
Recently, efforts have been made to resurrect interest in behavioral
counseling as a method to effectively deliver services to normal
problemed populations.
Treatment of autism
Among the available approaches to treating autism, early intensive behavioral interventions (EIBIs) have demonstrated efficacy in promoting social and language development and in reducing behaviors that interfere with learning and cognitive functioning. In addition, such therapies have led to increased intellectual skills and increased adaptive functioning. Even with past successes, behavior therapists continue to develop models of social skills.
Therapy qualifications
These are generally treatments based on applied behavior analysis
(ABA) and involve intensive training of the therapists, extensive time
spent in ABA therapy (20–40 hours per week) and weekly supervision by
experienced clinical supervisors—known as board certified behavior
analysts. ABA therapy often employs principles of overlearning to help acquire mastery and fluency of skills.
Children with autism
The
ABA approach teaches many skills such as appropriate play (a precursor
to social interaction and engagement with the world and others), social, motor and verbal behaviors as well as reasoning skills and the ability to self-regulate appropriately. ABA therapy is used to teach behaviors to individuals with autism who may not otherwise observe these behaviors spontaneously through imitation.
In recent years the ABA approach has been criticized by members
of the autistic community. Many have reported suffering from
post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of being forced to comply
with training procedures.
Imitation
Imitation can also be directly trained.
ABA therapies teach these skills through use of behavioral observation
and reinforcement or prompting to teach each step of a behavior.
Research and treatments
Extensive
research exists to show that behavior analysis is an effective
treatment for autism with literally hundreds of studies showing its
effectiveness with persons of all ages in enhancing functioning,
building skills and independence as well as improving life quality.
What remains controversial are claims of behavior analysis "curing
autism". This controversy exists because behavior analysis is used to
alter rates of behavior, and not the condition of "autism." Nonetheless,
behavior analysis is used to treat the behaviors of many in the
autistic population.
While several small studies exist showing that behavior analysis holds
promise in this area, the number of well-controlled studies do not rise
to the level required by the American Psychological Association to hold
the treatment as empirically supported in this area.
Misconceptions of treatment
An
increasing amount of research in the field of applied behavior analysis
is concerned with autism; and it is a common misconception that
behavior analysts work almost exclusively with individuals with autism
and that ABA is synonymous with discrete trials teaching. ABA principles
can also be used with a range of typical or atypical individuals whose issues vary from developmental delays, significant behavioral problems or undesirable habits.
Curriculum development in behavior analytic programs for children with autism is important.
Curriculum should carefully task analyze the skill needed to be learned
and then ensure that proper tool skills have been taught before the
skill itself is attempted to be taught. Applied behavior analysis is often confused as a table-only therapy. Properly performed, applied behavior analysis should be done in both table and natural environments depending on the student's progress and needs.
Once a student has mastered a skill at the table the team should move
the student into a natural environment for further training and
generalization of the skill.
Frequently standardized assessments such as the Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills
(ABLLS) is used to create a baseline of the learner's functional skill
set. The ABLLS breaks down the learner's strengths and weaknesses to
best tailor the applied behavior analysis curriculum to them. By
focusing on the exact skills that need help the teacher does not teach a
skill the student knows. This can also prevent student frustration at
attempting a skill for which they are not ready.
Many families have fought school districts for such programs. Donald Baer,
a behavior analyst who often testified as an expert witness, provided
several letters to lawyers before he died. Ohio State has archived those
letters.
Discrete trials
Discrete trials were originally used by people studying classical conditioning to demonstrate stimulus–stimulus pairing. Discrete trials are often contrasted with free operant procedures, like ones used by B.F. Skinner in learning experiments with rats and pigeons, to show how learning was influenced by rates of reinforcement. The discrete trials method was adapted as a therapy for developmentally delayed children and individuals with autism. For example, Ole Ivar Lovaas
used discrete trials to teach autistic children skills including making
eye contact, following simple instructions, advanced language and
social skills. These discrete trials involved breaking a behavior into
its most basic functional unit and presenting the units in a series.
A discrete trial usually consists of the following: the
antecedent, the behavior of the student and a consequence. If the
student's behavior matches what is desired the consequence is something
positive: food, candy, a game, praise, etc. If the behavior was not
correct the teacher offers the correct answer then repeats the trial
possibly with more prompting, if needed.
There is usually an inter-trial interval that allows for a few
seconds to separate each trial to allow the student to process the
information, teach the student to wait and make the onset of the next
trial more discrete. Discrete trials can be used to develop most skills
which includes cognitive, verbal communication, play, social and
self-help skills. There is a carefully laid out procedure for error
correction and a problem solving model to use if the program gets stuck. Discrete trial is sometimes referred to as the Lovaas technique.
Discrete trials have been helpful in the treatment of pediatric feeding problems as well as in the prevention of feeding problems.
Free operant procedures
In language training, many free operant procedures emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
These procedures did not try to train discrimination first, and then
passively wait for generalization, but instead worked from the start on
actively promoting generalization.>Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). "An implicit technology of generalization". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 10 (2): 349–367. doi:10.1901/jaba.1977.10-349. PMC 1311194. PMID 16795561.
Initially the model was referred to as incidental teaching but later was called milieu language teaching and finally natural language teaching.
Peterson (2007) completed a comprehensive review of 57 studies on these
training procedures. This review found that 84% of the studies of the
natural language procedures looked at maintenance and 94% looked at
generalization and were able to provide direct support of its occurrence
as part of the training.
Other applications of applied behavior analysis
Clinical behavior analysis
Dougher's edited volume titled Clinical Behavior Analysis on
Context Press highlights the application of behavior analysis to adult
outpatients. He identifies four comprehensive behavior analytic
programs: Stephen Hayes et al.'s acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), Jacobson et al. behavioral activation (BA), Kohlenberg & Tsai's functional analytic psychotherapy, exposure therapies (i.e., Systematic desensitization), and the community reinforcement approach
for treating addictions. In addition, the book highlights several
recent areas of functional analysis research for common clinical
problems. Many of these areas are specified in the section on behavior therapy.
Community reinforcement approach and family training
The study of behavioral factors related to addictions has a long history. Thus it is no surprise many behavioral treatments would be found to be efficacious.
One efficacious approach is the community reinforcement approach. The
community reinforcement approach has considerable research supporting it
as efficacious. Started in the 1970s by Nathan H. Azrin
and his graduate student Hunt, the community reinforcement approach is a
comprehensive operant program built on a functional assessment of a
client's drinking behavior and the use of positive reinforcement and contingency management for nondrinking. When combined with disulfiram (an aversive procedure) community reinforcement showed remarkable effects. One component of the program that appears to be particularly strong is the non-drinking club. Applications of community reinforcement to public policy has become the recent focus of this approach.
An offshoot of the community reinforcement approach is the community reinforcement approach and family training.
This program is designed to help family members of substance abusers
feel empowered to engage in treatment. The rates of success have varied
somewhat by study but seem to cluster around 70%.
The program uses a variety of interventions based on functional
assessment including a module to prevent domestic violence. Partners are
trained to use positive reinforcement, various communication skills and
natural consequences.
Children with disruptive disorders and parenting
With children, applied behavior analysis provides the core of the positive behavior support movement and creates the basis of Teaching-Family Model
homes. Teaching-Family homes have been found to reduce recidivism for
delinquent youths both while they are in the homes and after they leave.
Operant procedures form the basis of behavioral parent training
developed from social learning theorists. The etiological models for
antisocial behavior show considerable correlation with negative
reinforcement and response matching. Behavioral parent training or Parent Management Training has been very successful in the treatment of conduct disorders in children and adolescents with recent research focusing on making it more culturally sensitive. In addition, behavioral parent training has been shown to reduce corporal or abusive child discipline tactics. Behavior analysts typically adhere to a behavioral model of child development in their practice.
Recidivism
Recent studies showing that behavior analysis can reduce recidivism have led to a resurgence in behavior therapy facilities. Of particular interest has been the growing research on the Teaching-Family Model which was developed by Montrose Wolf and clearly reduces recidivism rates. In addition, behaviorally-based early intervention programs have shown effectiveness.
Exposure therapy
Methods of counter-conditioning and respondent extinction, called
exposure therapy, are often employed by many behavior therapists in the
treatment of phobias, anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addictions (cue exposure). Prolonged exposure therapy has been particularly helpful with PTSD.
Several procedures to block respondent conditioning such as blocking
and overshadowing are sometimes used in behavioral medicine to prevent
conditioned taste aversion for patients with chemotherapy treatments. Exposure with Response Prevention (ERP) is a respondent extinction procedure often used to treat obsessive–compulsive behavior. Escape response blocking is critical for this procedure. For PTSDs exposure therapy is one of the few evidence-based techniques.
Recent research suggests exposure therapy is an excellent means of
alleviating both the anxiety and cognitive symptoms specific to PTSD
with no additive effect for additional cognitive components.
Several authors have argued that exposure by itself is necessary and
sufficient to produce behavior change in reducing fear in social phobics
and helping them engage more effectively with others. The Washington Post
ran a story that only exposure therapy is proven for PTSD and that
cognitive therapy or even drug therapy are not shown at this time to be
effective.
Operant-based EEG biofeedback
Kamiya (1968) demonstrated that the alpha rhythm in humans could be operantly conditioned. He published an influential article in Psychology Today
that summarized research showing subjects learn to discriminate when
alpha was present or absent, and that they could use feedback to shift
the dominant alpha frequency about 1 Hz. Almost half of his subjects
reported experiencing a pleasant "alpha state" characterized as an
"alert calmness". These reports may have contributed to the perception
of alpha biofeedback as a shortcut to a meditative state. He also
studied the electroencephalography (EEG) correlates of meditative states. Operant conditioning of EEG has had considerable support in many areas including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and even seizure disorders.
Early studies of the procedure included the treatment of seizure
disorders. Luber and colleagues (1981) conducted a double blind
crossover study showing that seizure activity decreased by 50% in the
contingent conditioning of inhibiting brain waves as opposed to the
non-contingent use.
Sterman (2000) reviewed 18 studies of a total of 174 clients and found
82% of the participants had significant seizure reduction (30% less
weekly seizures).
Organizational
Behavior analysis with organizations is sometimes combined with
systems theory in an approach called organizational behavior management.
This approach has shown success particularly in the area of behavior-based safety.
Behavior safety research has lately become focused on factors that lead
programs to being retained in institutions long after the designer
leaves.
Educational
Direct instruction and Direct Instruction:
the former representing the process and the latter a specific
curriculum that highlights that process remain both current and
controversial in behavior analysis. The essential features are a carefully structured fast-paced program based on teacher-directed small group instruction. One controversy that remains is that teacher creativity is admonished in the program.
Even with such issues to be worked out positive gains in reading for
the approach have been reported in the literature since 1968.
An example of the positive gains reported by Meyer (1984) found that
34% of children in the DISTAR group were accepted to college as compared
to only 17% of the control school. Current research is focused on peer delivery of the program.
School-wide positive behavior support
is based on the use of behavior analytic procedures delivered in an
organizational behavior management approach. School-wide behavioral
support has been increasingly accepted by administrators, lawmakers and
teachers as a way to improve safety in classrooms.
Curriculum-based measurement and curriculum matching is another active area of application.
Curriculum-based measurement uses rate and reading performance as the
primary variable in determining reading levels. The goal is to better
match children to the appropriate curriculum level to remove frustration
as well as to track reading performance over time to see if it is
improving with intervention. This model also serves as the basis for response to intervention models.
Functional behavioral assessment was mandated in the United States for children who meet criteria under the individuals with disabilities education act.
This approach has precluded many procedures for modifying and
maintaining children in not just the school system, but in many cases in
the regular education setting. Even children with severe behavior problems appear to be helped.
Teaching children to recruit attention
has become a very important area in education. In many cases one
function of children's disruptive behavior is to get attention.
Hospital settings
One area of interest in hospitals is the blocking effect—especially for conditioned taste aversion.
This area of interest is considered important in the prevention of
weigh loss during chemotherapy for cancer patients. Another area of
growing interest in the hospital setting is the use of operant-based
biofeedback with those suffering from cerebral palsy or minor spinal injuries.
Brucker's group at the University of Miami has had some success
with specific operant conditioning-based biofeedback procedures to
enhance functioning.
While such methods are not a cure, and gains tend to be in the moderate
range, they do show ability to help remaining central nervous system
cells to regain some control over lost areas of functioning.
Residential treatment
Behavioral interventions have been very helpful in reducing problem behaviors in residential treatment centers. The type of residential versus mental retardation does not appear to be a factor. Behavioral interventions have been found to be successful even when medication interventions fail.
Space program
Probably one of the most interesting applications of behavior analysis in the 1960s was its contribution to the space program.
Research in this area is used to train astronauts including the
chimpanzees sent into space. Continued work in this area focuses on
ensuring that astronauts who live in confined areas and space do not
develop behavioral health problems. Most of this work was led by pioneer behaviorist Joseph V. Brady.
Consumer and professional relationships
Open
communication and a supportive relationship between educational systems
and families allow the student to receive a beneficial education. This
pertains to typical learners as well as to individuals who need
additional services. It was not until the 1960s that researchers began
exploring behavior analysis as a method to educate those children who
fall somewhere along the autism spectrum. Behavior analysts agree that
consistency in and out of the school classroom is key in order for
children with autism to maintain proper standing in school and continue
to develop to their greatest potential.
Applied behavior analysts sometimes work with a team to address a
person's educational or behavioral needs. Other professionals such as
speech therapists, physicians and the primary caregivers are treated as
key to the implementation of successful therapy in the applied behavior
analysis (ABA) model. The ABA method relies on behavior principles to
develop treatments appropriate for the individual. Regular meetings with
professionals to discuss programming are one way to establish a
successful working relationship between a family and their school. It is
beneficial when a caregiver can conduct generalization procedures
outside of school. In the ABA framework, developing and maintaining a
structured working relationship between parents or guardians and
professionals is essential to ensure consistent treatment.
Intervention goals
When working directly with clients, behavior analysts engage in a process of collaborative goal setting. Goal setting ensures that the client is already under stimulus control of the goal and is thus more likely to engage in behavior to achieve it. Behavior analytic programs are ultimately skill building, they enhance functioning, lead to higher quality of life, and build self-control.
One of the most distinguishing features of behavior analysis has been
its core belief that all individuals have a right to the most effective
treatment for their condition. and a right to the most effective educational strategy available.
History
Applied behavior analysis is the applied side of the experimental analysis of behavior. It is based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning and represents a major approach to behavior therapies. Its origin can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael's 1959 article "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" as well as to initial efforts to implement teaching machines.
The research basis of ABA can be found in the theoretical work of behaviorism and radical behaviorism originating with the work of B.F. Skinner. In 1968 Baer, Wolf and Risley wrote an article that was the source of contemporary applied behavior analysis
providing the criteria to judge the adequacy of research and practice
in applied behavior analysis. It became the core and centerpiece behavioral engineering.
Work in respondent conditioning (what some would term classical conditioning) began with the work of Joseph Wolpe in the 1960s. It was improved by the work of Edna B Foa who did extensive research on exposure and response prevention for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). In addition, she worked on exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder.
Over the years most behavior analysts have existed and conducted
research in many areas and University departments: behavior analysis,
psychology, special education, regular education, speech–language
pathology, communication disorders, school psychology, criminal justice
and family life. They have belonged to many organizations including the American Psychological Association (APA) and have most often found a core intellectual home in the Association for Behavior Analysis International.
Current research
Behavior analysis remains one of the most active research areas in all of psychology, developmental disability, mental health and other studies of human behavior. Current research in behavior analysis focuses on expanding the tradition by looking at setting events, behavioral activation, the Matching law, relational frame theory, stimulus equivalences and covert conditioning as exemplified in Skinner's model of rule-governed behavior Verbal Behavior.
Experimental psychopathology
Experimental
psychopathology is a behavior therapy area in which animal models are
developed to simulate human pathology. For example, Wolpe studied cats
to build his theory of human anxiety. This work continues today in the study of both pathology and treatment.
Historical controversies
Initially, applied behavior analysis used punishment such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors.
Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out
of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods. In
general, aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments due to legal restrictions. However, procedures such as odor aversion, covert sensitization and other covert conditioning procedures, based on punishment or aversion strategies, are still used effectively in the treatment of pedophiles.
In addition, with some populations such as conduct disorder in children
there is considerable evidence that has developed to show that all
positive programs can produce change but that children will not enter
into the normal range without punishment procedures. These programs have shifted to using child time-out and response–cost procedures to ensure that clients rights to effective interventions are met.
Homosexuality
In 1973 the APA removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual yet it kept "ego dystonic" homosexuality as a condition until the DSM III-R (1987). In 1974 Ole Ivar Lovaas, pioneer of the use of discrete trial teaching (DTT) to treat autism, was the second author on a journal article describing the use of ABA to reduce "feminine" behaviors and increase "masculine" behaviors of a male child in an effort to prevent adult transsexualism.
Treatments designed to uphold traditional sex-role behaviors were
opposed by some behavior analysts who argued that the intervention was
not justified.
In the late 1960s Wolpe refused to treat homosexual behavior arguing
that it was easier and more productive to treat the religious guilt than
the homosexuality. He instead provided assertiveness training to a
homosexual client. Most behavior analysts and behavior therapists have not worked in sexual re–orientation therapy since Gerald Davison argued that the issue was not one of effectiveness but of ethics.
When he wrote the paper presenting this position, Davison was president
of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, now the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies,
and thus his views carried much weight. Davison argued that
homosexuality is not pathological and is only a problem if it is
regarded as one by society and the therapist.
Ethical practice
Punishment and aversion therapies
The use of punishment
and aversion therapy procedures are a constant ethical challenge for
behavior analysts. One of the original reasons for the development of
the Behavior Analyst Certification Board were cases of abuse from
behaviorists.
Both continue to draw proponents and opposition, however, in some of
the more controversial cases some middle ground has been found through
legislation.
Sex offenders and recidivism
A study in 1991 showed that behavior modification was effective in sex offender treatment and covert sensitization, and it has been shown to have some effects on reducing recidivism.
However Gene Able, who has done extensive research in this area,
suggests that it is not as effective outside of the package which
contains odor aversion, satiation therapy (masturbatory reconditioning),
and various social skills training programs including empathy training.
Current behavior analysis programs offer this type of comprehensive
treatment approach.
In addition they use a combination of functional assessment, behavior
chain analysis and risk assessment to create relapse prevention
strategies and to help the offender to develop better self-control.
With sex offenders who have retardation, comprehensive behavioral programming has been effective at least in the short run. This treatment included formal academic and vocational training, sex education, a unit token economy,
and individual behavior therapy including sexual reconditioning. In
addition it included supported competitive employment, fading of program
structure, and increased community participation.
Journals
There are multiple journals which produce articles on the clinical applications of applied behavior analysis. The most popular, and widely used, of these journals is the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. There are many other journals dedicated to this field. Some of these include The Behavior Analyst Today, the International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy and three new journals scheduled for release in 2008: Behavior Analysis in Sports, Health, Fitness and Behavioral Medicine, the Journal of Behavior Analysis in Crime and Victim: Treatment and Prevention as well as the Association for Behavior Analysis International's Behavior Analysis in Practice.
Professional organizations
The Association for Behavior Analysis
International has a special interest group for practitioner issues,
behavioral counseling, and clinical behavior analysis. The Association
for Behavior Analysis International has larger special interest groups
for autism and behavioral medicine. The Association for Behavior Analysis International serves as the core intellectual home for behavior analysts.
The Association for Behavior Analysis International sponsors multiple
conferences/year, including the annual conference, annual autism
conference, biannual international conference, and other conferences on
specific issues such as behavioral theory and sustainability.
The Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT) also has an interest group in behavior analysis,
which focuses on clinical behavior analysis. In addition, the
Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies has a special
interest group on addictions.
Doctoral level behavior analysts who are psychologists belong to the American Psychological Association's division 25: Behavior analysis. APA offers a diplomate in behavioral psychology.
