International English is the concept of using the English language as a global means of communication similar to an international auxiliary language, and often refers to the movement towards an international standard for the language. Related and sometimes synonymous terms include: Global English, World English, Common English, Continental English, General English, and Engas (English as associate language). Sometimes, these terms refer to the actuality of the situation, where English is spoken and used in numerous dialects around the world. These terms may acknowledge the diversity and varieties of English spoken throughout the world.
Sometimes however, these related terms refer to a desired standardisation (i.e., Standard English),
but there is no consensus on the path to this goal. There have been
many proposals for making International English more accessible to
people from different nationalities; Basic English is an example, but it failed to make progress. More recently, there have been proposals for English as a lingua franca (ELF) in which non-native speakers take a highly active role in the development of the language.
The modern concept of "International English" does not exist in
isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.
The English language evolved in England, from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons, who arrived from continental Europe in the 5th century. Those dialects became known as Englisc (literally "Anglish"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem Beowulf). However, less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is derived from the shared ancestry with other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman, Latin, and other languages. It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw. Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns they and them) are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great). Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Englisc language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Anglo-Norman
as the written language of England. During the Norman Period, English
absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately
one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English). With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English
vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later
periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions
of French instead of Old English orthography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer). The "difficulty" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages,
when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language
whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after
centuries of nonuse. During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England
(lived 1387–1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in
proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies. That led
to the development of Chancery English, a standardised form used in the government bureaucracy. (The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.)
The emergence of English as a language of Wales
results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates
from approximately this time period. Soon afterward, the development of
printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English. Following a change in vowel pronunciation
that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the
Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today. Scots,
as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland,
developed largely independent of Modern English, and is based on the
Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne.
Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater
influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects. As the political
influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707.
English was introduced to Ireland twice—a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect, and a modern introduction in which Hiberno-English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th century, following the Act of Union of 1800. Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th-century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects (except the affected Transatlantic accent), which are based on 18th-century English.
The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. British English
was only partially standardised when the American colonies were
established. Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the
dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently.
The British colonisation of Australia starting in 1788 brought the English language to Oceania. By the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and New Zealand.
It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from
Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on
speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe, English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French,
the common language of diplomacy at the time, but, under special
request from American president Woodrow Wilson, also in English – a
major milestone in the globalisation of English.
The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean
are caught between historical connections with the UK and the
Commonwealth and geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In
some things they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others,
especially commercial, they follow the U.S. standard.
In the outer circle are those countries where English has
official or historical importance ("special significance"). This
includes most of the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines,
under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. English in
this circle is used for official purposes such as in business, news
broadcasts, schools, and air traffic. Some countries in this circle have made English their national language. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.
The expanding circle refers to those countries where
English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain
functions, e.g., international business and tourism. By the twenty-first
century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native
speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council. Darius Degher, a professor at Malmö University in Sweden, uses the term decentered English to describe this shift, along with attendant changes in what is considered important to English users and learners. The Scandinavian language area as well as the Netherlands have a near complete bilingualism
between their native languages and English as a foreign second
language. Elsewhere in Europe, although not universally, English
knowledge is still rather common among non-native speakers. In many
cases this leads to accents derived from the native languages altering
pronunciations of the spoken English in these countries.
Research on English as a lingua franca in the sense of "English
in the Expanding Circle" is comparatively recent. Linguists who have
been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega.
English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching
English as an additional language (EAL) is usually based on the
standards of either American English or British English as well as
incorporating foreign terms. English as an international language (EIL)
is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in
particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to
communicate internationally. Roger Nunn
considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of
English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence
has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL.
Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language:
Furthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed.
With reference to the term "Globish", Robert McCrum has used this
to mean "English as global language". Jean-Paul Nerriere uses it for a
constructed language.
Basic Global English
Basic Global English, or BGE, is a concept of global English initiated by German linguist Joachim Grzega.
It evolved from the idea of creating a type of English that can be
learned more easily than regular British or American English and that
serves as a tool for successful global communication. BGE is guided by
creating "empathy and tolerance" between speakers in a global context.
This applies to the context of global communication, where different
speakers with different mother tongues come together. BGE aims to
develop this competence as quickly as possible.
English language teaching is almost always related to a
corresponding culture, e. g., learners either deal with American English
and therefore with American culture, or British English and therefore
with British culture. Basic Global English seeks to solve this problem
by creating one collective version of English. Additionally, its
advocates promote it as a system suited for self-teaching as well as
classroom teaching.
BGE is based on 20 elementary grammar rules that provide a
certain degree of variation. For example, regular as well as irregular
formed verbs are accepted. Pronunciation rules are not as strict as in
British or American English, so there is a certain degree of variation
for the learners. Exceptions that cannot be used are pronunciations that
would be harmful to mutual understanding and therefore minimize the
success of communication.
Basic Global English is based on a 750-word vocabulary.
Additionally, every learner has to acquire the knowledge of 250
additional words. These words can be chosen freely, according to the
specific needs and interests of the learner.
BGE provides not only basic language skills, but also so called
"Basic Politeness Strategies". These include creating a positive
atmosphere, accepting an offer with "Yes, please" or refusing with "No,
thank you", and small talk topics to choose and to avoid.
Basic Global English has been tested in two elementary schools in
Germany. For the practical test of BGE, 12 lessons covered half of a
school year. After the BGE teaching, students could answer questions
about themselves, their family, their hobbies etc. Additionally they
could form questions themselves about the same topics. Besides that,
they also learned the numbers from 1 to 31 and vocabulary including
things in their school bag and in their classroom. The students as well
as the parents had a positive impression of the project.
Varying concepts
Universality and flexibility
International
English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and
developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers,
but by all those who come to use it.
Basically, it covers the English language at large, often
(but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is
certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use,
and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching
English as an International Language'), and especially when the language
is considered as a whole in contrast with British English, American English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–445)
It especially means English words and phrases generally understood
throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The
importance of non-native English language skills can be recognized
behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science
and technology is broken English.
Neutrality
International English reaches toward cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:
What could be better than a type of English that saves
you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets!
Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an
attractive idea—both often concerned that their English should be
neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring.
Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and
cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard'
forms.
The development of International English often centres on academic and scientific communities,
where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the
language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry
into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.
Opposition
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.
Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992).
Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced
with the dual standard of American English and British English, and
other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and
Canadian).
Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One
(2005) argues that the international version of English is only
adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and
business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication
tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that
native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills
of others" by placing their faith in international English.
Appropriation theory
Some reject both what they call "linguistic imperialism" and David Crystal's
theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of
the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation
(e.g., Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes
around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often
use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the
globe, for example.
In English-language teaching, Bobda shows how Cameroon
has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching
English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a
Cameroonian context. This includes non-Western topics, such as the rule
of Emirs, traditional medicine, and polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and
Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been
appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. The Pakistani textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as Pakistan My Country, Our Flag, and Our Great Leader
(Malik 1993: 5,6,7), which might sound jingoistic to Western ears.
Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between
English Language Teaching (ELT), patriotism, and Muslim faith is seen as
one of the aims of ELT. The Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The
board ... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a
love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological
frontiers of your [the students] home lands." (Punjab Text Book Board
1997).
Many difficult choices must be made if further standardization of
English is pursued. These include whether to adopt a current standard or
move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International
English might supplant both current American and British English as a
variety of English for international communication, leaving these as
local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and
standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English
and would generally replace all these varieties of English.
We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two
standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local
identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the
human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own
language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)
This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess
a "non-standard" dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also
learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect.
(This phenomenon is known in linguistics as diglossia.)
Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different
varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without
great difficulty.
As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American
and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color.
The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are
largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that
exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor. Spelling
is but a small part of the differences between dialects
of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except
in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much
more than an agreed spelling pattern.
Dual standard
Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.
The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors
to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions)
and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English,
published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British
English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions
according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.
The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English Usage
(Peters, 2004), which attempts to avoid any language bias and
accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed
American and British forms.
Qualifications
Standardised
testing in International English for non-native English language
speakers has existed for a while. Learners can use their local dialect
of English so it does not matter if they use British or American
spelling. The International English Language Testing System (IELTS)
is recognised in countries such as the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia
and New Zealand and is the world's most popular English language test
for higher education and immigration. Other options are the International Certificate (PTE General) and Cambridge English Qualifications which are also recognised globally and can be used as evidence of a required standard of English.
Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (/maɪˈmɒnɪdiːz/) and also referred to by the acronym Rambam (Hebrew: רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewishphilosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. In his time, he was also a preeminent astronomer and physician, serving as the personal physician of Saladin. Born in Córdoba within the Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain), on Passover eve, 1138 (or 1135), he worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt.
During his lifetime, most Jews greeted Maimonides' writings on Jewish law and ethics with acclaim and gratitude, even as far away as Iraq and Yemen. Yet, while Maimonides rose to become the revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt, his writings also had vociferous critics, particularly in Spain. He died in Fustat, Egypt and, according to Jewish tradition, was buried in Tiberias. The Tomb of Maimonides in Tiberias is a popular pilgrimage and tourist site.
He was posthumously acknowledged as one of the foremost rabbinic decisors and philosophers in Jewish history, and his copious work comprises a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of Halacha. He is sometimes known as הנשר הגדול ("haNesher haGadol" The Great Eagle).
Aside from being revered by Jewish historians, Maimonides also
figures very prominently in the history of Islamic and Arab sciences and
he is mentioned extensively in studies. Influenced by Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and his contemporary Ibn Rushd, he became a prominent philosopher and polymath in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds.
Name
Maimonides referred to himself as "Moses, son of Rabbi Maimon the Spaniard" (Hebrew: משה ברבי מימון הספרדי).
In Medieval Hebrew he was usually called ר"ם, short for "our Rabbi
Moshe", but mostly he is called רמב"ם, short for "our Rabbi, Moshe son
of Maimon" and pronounced Rambam.
In Arabic, he is sometimes called "Moses 'son ofAmram' son of Maimon, of Obadiah, the Cordoban" (أَبُو عَمْرَان مُوسَى بْن مَيْمُون بْن عُبَيْد ٱللّٰه ٱلْقُرْطُبِيّ, Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaidallāh al-Qurṭubī), or more often simply "Moses, son of Maimon" (موسى بن ميمون).
In Greek, the Hebrew ben ('son of') becomes the patronymic suffix -ides, forming Μωησής Μαϊμονίδης "Moses Maimonides".
The dominion of the Almohad Caliphate at its greatest extent, c. 1200
Maimonides was born 1138 (or 1135) in Córdoba, Andalusia, in the Muslim-ruled Almoravid Empire, during what some scholars consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule. His father Maimon ben Joseph, was a Spanish dayyan (Jewish judge). Aaron ha-Kohen later wrote that he had traced Maimonides' descent back to Simeon ben Judah ha-Nasi from the Davidic line. His ancestry, going back four generations, is given in his Iggeret Teiman (Epistle to Yemen), as Moses son of Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Rabbi, son of Obadiah the Judge. At the end of his commentary on the Mishna,
however, a slightly different genealogy is presented: Moses son of
Maimon the Judge, son of Joseph the Wise, son of Isaac the Judge, son of
Joseph the Judge, son of Obadiah the Judge, son of Solomon the Rabbi,
son of Obadiah the Judge.
Maimonides studied Torah under his father, who had in turn studied under Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash, a student of Isaac Alfasi. At an early age, Maimonides developed an interest in sciences and philosophy. He read those Greek philosophers accessible in Arabic translations, and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of Islamic culture.
Maimonides, who was revered for his personality as well as for
his writings, led a busy life, and wrote many of his works while
travelling or in temporary accommodation.
Exile
Maimonides' house in Fez, Morocco, according to local tradition. It is now occupied by the Dar al-Magana.
A Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Córdoba in 1148 and abolished dhimmi status (i.e., state protection of non-Muslims ensured through payment of a tax, the jizya) in some of their territories. The loss of this status forced the Jewish and Christian communities to choose between conversion to Islam, death, or exile.
Many Jews were forced to convert, but due to suspicion by the
authorities of fake conversions, the new converts had to wear
identifying clothing that set them apart and made them subject to public
scrutiny.
Maimonides' family, along with most other Jews, chose exile. For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain and North Africa, eventually settling in Fez, Morocco. Some say that his teacher in Fez was Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Cohen Ibn Susan, until the latter was killed in 1165.
During this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah, during the years 1166–1168.
Following this sojourn in Morocco, he lived in Palestine with his father and brother, before settling in Fustat in Fatimid Caliphate-controlled Egypt by 1168. There is mention that Maimonides first settled in Alexandria, and moved to Fustat only in 1171. While in Cairo, he studied in a yeshiva attached to a small synagogue, which now bears his name. In Palestine, he prayed at the Temple Mount. He wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants.
Maimonides shortly thereafter was instrumental in helping rescue Jews taken captive during the Christian Amalric of Jerusalem's siege of the southeastern Nile Delta town of Bilbeis. He sent five letters to the Jewish communities of Lower Egypt asking them to pool money together to pay the ransom.
The money was collected and then given to two judges sent to Palestine
to negotiate with the Crusaders. The captives were eventually released.
Following this triumph, the Maimonides family, hoping to increase
their wealth, gave their savings to his brother, the youngest son David
ben Maimon, a merchant. Maimonides directed his brother to procure goods
only at the Sudanese port of ʿAydhab.
After a long, arduous trip through the desert, however, David was
unimpressed by the goods on offer there. Against his brother's wishes,
David boarded a ship for India, since great wealth was to be found in
the East.
Before he could reach his destination, David drowned at sea sometime
between 1169 and 1177. The death of his brother caused Maimonides to
become sick with grief.
In a letter discovered in the Cairo Geniza, he wrote:
The greatest misfortune that has
befallen me during my entire life—worse than anything else—was the
demise of the saint, may his memory be blessed, who drowned in the
Indian sea, carrying much money belonging to me, to him, and to others,
and left with me a little daughter and a widow. On the day I received
that terrible news I fell ill and remained in bed for about a year,
suffering from a sore boil, fever, and depression,
and was almost given up. About eight years have passed, but I am still
mourning and unable to accept consolation. And how should I console
myself? He grew up on my knees, he was my brother, [and] he was my
student.
Around 1171, Maimonides was appointed the Nagid of the Egyptian Jewish community. Arabist Shelomo Dov Goitein believes the leadership he displayed during the ransoming of the Crusader captives led to this appointment. However he was replaced by Sar Shalom ben Moses in 1173. Over the controversial course of Sar Shalom's appointment, during which Sar Shalom was accused of tax farming,
Maimonides excommunicated and fought with him for several years until
Maimonides was appointed Nagid in 1195. A work known as "Megillat Zutta"
was written by Abraham ben Hillel,
who writes a scathing description of Sar Shalom while praising
Maimonides as "the light of east and west and unique master and marvel
of the generation."
Physician
With the loss of the family funds tied up in David's business
venture, Maimonides assumed the vocation of physician, for which he was
to become famous. He had trained in medicine in both Spain and in Fez.
Gaining widespread recognition, he was appointed court physician to al-Qadi al-Fadil, the chief secretary to Sultan Saladin, then to Saladin himself; after whose death he remained a physician to the Ayyubid dynasty.
An autograph from the Cairo Geniza with words in Arabic and their Romance translations, both written in Hebrew script
In his medical writings, Maimonides described many conditions, including asthma, diabetes, hepatitis, and pneumonia, and he emphasized moderation and a healthy lifestyle.
His treatises became influential for generations of physicians. He was
knowledgeable about Greek and Arabic medicine, and followed the
principles of humorism in the tradition of Galen. He did not blindly accept authority but used his own observation and experience.
Julia Bess Frank indicates that Maimonides in his medical writings
sought to interpret works of authorities so that they could become
acceptable.
Maimonides displayed in his interactions with patients attributes that
today would be called intercultural awareness and respect for the
patient's autonomy.
Although he frequently wrote of his longing for solitude in order to
come closer to God and to extend his reflections—elements considered
essential in his philosophy to the prophetic experience—he gave over
most of his time to caring for others.
In a famous letter, Maimonides describes his daily routine. After
visiting the Sultan's palace, he would arrive home exhausted and hungry,
where "I would find the antechambers filled with gentiles and Jews
[...] I would go to heal them, and write prescriptions for their
illnesses [...] until the evening [...] and I would be extremely weak."
As he goes on to say in this letter, even on Shabbat
he would receive members of the community. Still, he managed to write
extended treatises, including not only medical and other scientific
studies but some of the most systematically thought-through and
influential treatises on halakha (rabbinic law) and Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages.
In 1172–74, Maimonides wrote his famous Epistle to Yemen.
It has been suggested that his "incessant travail" undermined his own
health and brought about his death at 69 (although this is a normal
lifespan).
Maimonides died on 12 December 1204 (20th of Tevet 4965) in Fustat. A variety of medieval sources beginning with Al-Qifti maintain that his body was interred near Lake Tiberias, though there is no contemporary evidence for his removal from Egypt. Today, Tiberias hosts the Tomb of Maimonides, on which is inscribed "From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses."
Maimonides and his wife, the daughter of Mishael ben Yeshayahu Halevi, had one child who survived into adulthood, Abraham Maimonides, who became recognized as a great scholar. He succeeded Maimonides as Nagid and as court physician
at the age of eighteen. Throughout his career, he defended his father's
writings against all critics. The office of Nagid was held by the
Maimonides family for four successive generations until the end of the
14th century.
With Mishneh Torah, Maimonides composed a code of Jewish law with the widest-possible scope and depth. The work gathers all the binding laws from the Talmud, and incorporates the positions of the Geonim (post-Talmudic early Medieval scholars, mainly from Mesopotamia). It is also known as Yad ha-Chazaka or simply Yad (יד) which has the numerical value 14, representing the 14 books of the work. The Mishneh Torah
made following Jewish law easier for the Jews of his time, who were
struggling to understand the complex nature of Jewish rules and
regulations as they had adapted over the years.
Later codes of Jewish law, e.g. Arba'ah Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Shulchan Aruch by Rabbi Yosef Karo, draw heavily on Mishneh Torah: both often quote whole sections verbatim. However, it met initially with much opposition.
There were two main reasons for this opposition. First, Maimonides had
refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity;
second, in the introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to "cut
out" study of the Talmud,
to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law, although Maimonides later
wrote that this was not his intent. His most forceful opponents were the
rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and a running critique by Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of Mishneh Torah. Nevertheless, Mishneh Torah was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of halakha. Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings.
In response to those who would attempt to force followers of Maimonides and his Mishneh Torah to abide by the rulings of his own Shulchan Aruch or other later works, Rabbi Yosef Karo wrote: "Who would dare force communities who follow the Rambam to follow any other decisor [of Jewish law], early or late? [...] The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors, and all the communities of the Land of Israel and the Arabistan and the Maghreb practice according to his word, and accepted him as their rabbi."
Maimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, rabbinic law, philosophy, and medical texts. Most of Maimonides' works were written in Judeo-Arabic. However, the Mishneh Torah was written in Hebrew. In addition to Mishneh Torah, his Jewish texts were:
Commentary on the Mishna (Arabic Kitab al-Siraj, translated into Hebrew as Pirush Hamishnayot), written in Classical Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet.
This was the first full commentary ever written on the entire Mishnah,
which took Maimonides seven years to complete. It is considered one of
the most important Mishnah commentaries, having enjoyed great popularity
both in its Arabic original and its medieval Hebrew translation. The
commentary includes three philosophical introductions which were also
highly influential:
The Introduction to the Mishnah deals with the nature of the
oral law, the distinction between the prophet and the sage, and the
organizational structure of the Mishnah.
The Introduction to Mishnah Sanhedrin, chapter ten (Pereḳ Ḥeleḳ), is an eschatological essay that concludes with Maimonides' famous creed ("the thirteen principles of faith").
The Introduction to Pirkei Avot, popularly called The Eight Chapters, is an ethical treatise.
Sefer Hamitzvot (The Book of Commandments). In this work, Maimonides lists all the 613 mitzvot traditionally contained in the Torah (Pentateuch). He describes fourteen shorashim (roots or principles) to guide his selection.
Sefer Ha'shamad (Letter of Martydom)
The Guide for the Perplexed,
a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating Aristotle's
philosophy and Jewish theology. Written in Judeo-Arabic under the title Dalālat al-ḥāʾirīn, and completed between 1186 and 1190. It has been suggested that the title is derived from the Arabic phrase dalīl al-mutaḥayyirin (guide of the perplexed) a name for God in a work by al-Ghazālī, echoes of whose work can be found elsewhere in Maimonides. The first translation of this work into Hebrew was done by Samuel ibn Tibbon in 1204 just prior to Maimonides' death.
Teshuvot, collected correspondence and responsa, including a number of public letters (on resurrection and the afterlife, on conversion to other faiths, and Iggereth Teiman—addressed to the oppressed Jewry of Yemen).
Hilkhot ha-Yerushalmi, a fragment of a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud, identified and published by Saul Lieberman in 1947.
Medical works
Maimonides' achievements in the medical field are well known, and are
cited by many medieval authors. One of his more important medical works
is his Guide to Good Health (Regimen Sanitatis), which he composed in Arabic for the Sultan al-Afdal, son of Saladin, who suffered from depression.
The work was translated into Latin, and published in Florence in 1477,
becoming the first medical book to appear in print there.
While his prescriptions may have become obsolete, "his ideas about
preventive medicine, public hygiene, approach to the suffering patient,
and the preservation of the health of the soul have not become
obsolete." Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in Arabic that have been translated by the Jewish medical ethicistFred Rosner into contemporary English. Lectures, conferences and research on Maimonides, even recently in the 21st century, have been done at medical universities in Morocco.
The Art of Cure – Extracts from Galen (Barzel, 1992, Vol. 5) is essentially an extract of Galen's extensive writings.
Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates (Rosner, 1987, Vol. 2; Hebrew: פירוש לפרקי אבוקראט) is interspersed with his own views.
Medical Aphorisms of Moses (Rosner, 1989, Vol. 3) titled Fusul Musa in Arabic ("Chapters of Moses", Hebrew: פרקי משה) contains 1500 aphorisms and many medical conditions are described.
Treatise on Hemorrhoids (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1; Hebrew: ברפואת הטחורים) discusses also digestion and food.
Treatise on Cohabitation (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1) contains recipes as aphrodisiacs and anti-aphrodisiacs.
Treatise on Asthma (Rosner, 1994, Vol. 6) discusses climates and diets and their effect on asthma and emphasizes the need for clean air.
Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1) is an early toxicology textbook that remained popular for centuries.
Regimen of Health (in Rosner, 1990, Vol. 4; Hebrew: הנהגת הבריאות) is a discourse on healthy living and the mind-body connection.
Discourse on the Explanation of Fits advocates healthy living and the avoidance of overabundance.
Glossary of Drug Names (Rosner, 1992, Vol. 7) represents a pharmacopeia with 405 paragraphs with the names of drugs in Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish.
The Oath of Maimonides
The Oath of Maimonides is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the Hippocratic Oath. It is not to be confused with a more lengthy Prayer of Maimonides. These documents may not have been written by Maimonides, but later. The Prayer appeared first in print in 1793 and has been attributed to Markus Herz, a German physician, pupil of Immanuel Kant.
Treatise on logic
The Treatise on Logic (Arabic: Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq) has been printed 17 times, including editions in Latin (1527), German (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), French
(1936) by Moïse Ventura and in 1996 by Rémi Brague, and English (1938)
by Israel Efros, and in an abridged Hebrew form. The work illustrates
the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in the teachings of the
great Islamic philosophers such as Avicenna and, above all, Al-Farabi, "the Second Master," the "First Master" being Aristotle. In his work devoted to the Treatise, Rémi Brague
stresses the fact that Al-Farabi is the only philosopher mentioned
therein. This indicates a line of conduct for the reader, who must read
the text keeping in mind Al-Farabi's works on logic. In the Hebrew
versions, the Treatise is called The words of Logic which
describes the bulk of the work. The author explains the technical
meaning of the words used by logicians. The Treatise duly inventories
the terms used by the logician and indicates what they refer to. The
work proceeds rationally through a lexicon of philosophical terms to a
summary of higher philosophical topics, in 14 chapters corresponding to
Maimonides' birthdate of 14 Nissan. The number 14 recurs in many of
Maimonides' works. Each chapter offers a cluster of associated notions.
The meaning of the words is explained and illustrated with examples. At
the end of each chapter, the author carefully draws up the list of words
studied.
Until very recently, it was accepted that Maimonides wrote the Treatise on Logic in his twenties or even in his teen years.
Herbert Davidson has raised questions about Maimonides' authorship of
this short work (and of other short works traditionally attributed to
Maimonides). He maintains that Maimonides was not the author at all,
based on a report of two Arabic-language manuscripts, unavailable to
Western investigators in Asia Minor. Rabbi Yosef Kafih maintained that it is by Maimonides and newly translated it to Hebrew (as Beiur M'lekhet HaHiggayon) from the Judeo-Arabic.
Philosophy
Through The Guide for the Perplexed
and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on
the Mishna, Maimonides exerted an important influence on the Scholastic philosophers, especially on Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus.
He was a Jewish Scholastic. Educated more by reading the works of Arab
Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he
acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy,
but with the doctrines of Aristotle. Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with the teachings of the Torah. In his Guide for the Perplexed,
he often explains the function and purpose of the statutory provisions
contained in the Torah against the backdrop of the historical
conditions. Maimonides is said to have been influenced by Asaph the Jew, who was the first Hebrew medical writer, and by Al-Ghazali, a prominent Persian philosopher. The book was highly controversial in its day, and was banned by French rabbis, who burnt copies of the work in Montpellier.
In his commentary on the Mishnah (Tractate Sanhedrin,
chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his "13 principles of faith"; and
that these principles summarized what he viewed as the required beliefs
of Judaism:
Maimonides is said to have compiled the principles from various
Talmudic sources. These principles were controversial when first
proposed, evoking criticism by Rabbis Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were effectively ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries.[64] However, these principles have become widely held and are considered to be the cardinal principles of faith for Orthodox Jews.[65] Two poetic restatements of these principles (Ani Ma'amin and Yigdal) eventually became canonized in many editions of the Siddur (Jewish prayer book).[66]
The omission of a list of these principles as such within his later works, the Mishneh Torah and The Guide for the Perplexed,
has led some to suggest that either he retracted his earlier position,
or that these principles are descriptive rather than prescriptive.[67][68][69][70][71]
Theology
Depiction of Maimonides teaching students about the 'measure of man' in an illuminated manuscript
Maimonides equated the God of Abraham to what philosophers refer to as the Necessary Being. God is unique in the universe, and the Torah commands that one love and fear God (Deut
10:12) on account of that uniqueness. To Maimonides, this meant that
one ought to contemplate God's works and to marvel at the order and
wisdom that went into their creation. When one does this, one inevitably
comes to love God and to sense how insignificant one is in comparison
to God. This is the basis of the Torah.[72]
The principle that inspired his philosophical activity was identical to a fundamental tenet of scholasticism:
there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed
and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy.
Maimonides primarily relied upon the science of Aristotle and the
teachings of the Talmud, commonly claiming to find a basis for the
latter in the former.[73]
Maimonides' admiration for the Neoplatonic commentators led him to doctrines which the later Scholastics did not accept. For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of apophatic theology.
In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative
attributes. For example, one should not say that God exists in the usual
sense of the term; it can be said that God is not non-existent. One
should not say that "God is wise"; but it can be said that "God is not
ignorant," i.e., in some way, God has some properties of knowledge. One
should not say that "God is One," but it can be stated that "there is no
multiplicity in God's being." In brief, the attempt is to gain and
express knowledge of God by describing what God is not, rather than by
describing what God "is."[74]
Maimonides argued adamantly that God is not corporeal. This was central to his thinking about the sin of idolatry. Maimonides insisted that all of the anthropomorphic phrases pertaining to God in sacred texts are to be interpreted metaphorically.[74] A related tenet of Maimonidean theology is the notion that the commandments, especially those pertaining to sacrifices, are intended to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry.[75]
Maimonides also argued that God embodied reason, intellect, science, and nature, and was omnipotent and indescribable.[76]
He said that science, the growth of scientific fields, and discovery of
the unknown by comprehension of nature was a way to appreciate God.[76]
Maimonides taught about the developing of one's moral character. Although his life predated the modern concept of a personality,
Maimonides believed that each person has an innate disposition along an
ethical and emotional spectrum. Although one's disposition is often
determined by factors outside of one's control, human beings have free will to choose to behave in ways that build character.[77] He wrote, "One is obligated to conduct his affairs with others in a gentle and pleasing manner."[78]
Maimonides advised that those with antisocial character traits should
identify those traits and then make a conscious effort to behave in the
opposite way. For example, an arrogant person should practice humility.[79] If the circumstances of one's environment are such that it is impossible to behave ethically, one must move to a new location.[80]
Prophecy
Maimonides agreed with "the Philosopher" (Aristotle) that the use of
logic is the "right" way of thinking. He claimed that in order to
understand how to know God, every human being must, by study, and
meditation attain the degree of perfection required to reach the prophetic
state. Despite his rationalistic approach, he does not explicitly
reject the previous ideas (as portrayed, for example, by Rabbi Yehuda Halevi in his Kuzari)
that in order to become a prophet, God must intervene. Maimonides
teaches that prophecy is the highest purpose of the most learned and
refined individuals.
The problem of evil
Maimonides wrote on theodicy
(the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the
existence of evil). He took the premise that an omnipotent and good God
exists.[81][82][83][84] In The Guide for the Perplexed,
Maimonides writes that all the evil that exists within human beings
stems from their individual attributes, while all good comes from a
universally shared humanity (Guide 3:8). He says that there are people
who are guided by higher purpose, and there are those who are guided by
physicality and must strive to find the higher purpose with which to
guide their actions.
To justify the existence of evil, assuming God is both omnipotent
and omnibenevolent, Maimonides postulates that one who created
something by causing its opposite not to exist is not the same as
creating something that exists; so evil is merely the absence of good.
God did not create evil, rather God created good, and evil exists where
good is absent (Guide 3:10). Therefore, all good is divine invention,
and evil both is not and comes secondarily.
Maimonides contests the common view that evil outweighs good in
the world. He says that if one were to examine existence only in terms
of humanity, then that person may observe evil to dominate good, but if
one looks at the whole of the universe, then he sees good is
significantly more common than evil (Guide 3:12). Man, he reasons, is
too insignificant a figure in God's myriad works to be their primary
characterizing force, and so when people see mostly evil in their lives,
they are not taking into account the extent of positive Creation
outside of themselves.
Maimonides believes that there are three types of evil in the
world: evil caused by nature, evil that people bring upon others, and
evil man brings upon himself (Guide 3:12). The first type of evil
Maimonides states is the rarest form, but arguably of the most
necessary—the balance of life and death in both the human and animal
worlds itself, he recognizes, is essential to God's plan. Maimonides
writes that the second type of evil is relatively rare, and that
humanity brings it upon itself. The third type of evil humans bring upon
themselves and is the source of most of the ills of the world. These
are the result of people's falling victim to their physical desires. To
prevent the majority of evil which stems from harm one does to oneself,
one must learn how to respond to one's bodily urges.
Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from Marseille.[85]
He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either
by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy
authority. He affirms that he had studied astrology, and that it does
not deserve to be described as a science. He ridicules the concept that
the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations; he argues
that such a theory would rob life of purpose, and would make man a slave
of destiny.[86]
True beliefs versus necessary beliefs
In The Guide for the Perplexed Book III, Chapter 28,[87]
Maimonides draws a distinction between "true beliefs," which were
beliefs about God that produced intellectual perfection, and "necessary
beliefs," which were conducive to improving social order. Maimonides
places anthropomorphic personification statements about God in the
latter class. He uses as an example the notion that God becomes "angry"
with people who do wrong. In the view of Maimonides (taken from Avicenna),
God does not become angry with people, as God has no human passions;
but it is important for them to believe God does, so that they desist
from doing wrong.
Righteousness and charity
Maimonides conceived of an eight-level hierarchy of tzedakah,
where the highest form is to give a gift, loan, or partnership that
will result in the recipient becoming self-sufficient instead of living
upon others. In his view, the lowest form of tzedakah is to give begrudgingly.[88] The eight levels are:[89]
Giving begrudgingly
Giving less than you should, but giving it cheerfully
Giving after being asked
Giving before being asked
Giving when you do not know the recipient's identity, but the recipient knows your identity
Giving when you know the recipient's identity, but the recipient doesn't know your identity
Giving when neither party knows the other's identity
Perhaps one of Maimonides' most highly acclaimed and renowned
writings is his treatise on the Messianic era, written originally in Judeo-Arabic and which he elaborates on in great detail in his Commentary on the Mishnah (Introduction to the 10th chapter of tractate Sanhedrin, also known as Pereḳ Ḥeleḳ).
Resurrection
Religious Jews believed in immortality in a spiritual sense, and most
believed that the future would include a messianic era and a
resurrection of the dead. This is the subject of Jewish eschatology.
Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about
the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his
writings were usually not about the resurrection of dead
bodies. Rabbis of his day were critical of this aspect of this thought,
and there was controversy over his true views.[k]
Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the
subject, known as "The Treatise on Resurrection." In it, he wrote that
those who claimed that he believed the verses of the Hebrew Bible
referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading
falsehoods. Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a
fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement.[90]
While his position on the World to Come
(non-corporeal eternal life as described above) may be seen as being in
contradiction with his position on bodily resurrection, Maimonides
resolved them with a then unique solution: Maimonides believed that the
resurrection was not permanent or general. In his view, God never
violates the laws of nature. Rather, divine interaction is by way of angels,
whom Maimonides often regards to be metaphors for the laws of nature,
the principles by which the physical universe operates, or Platonic
eternal forms.[l] Thus, if a unique event actually occurs, even if it is perceived as a miracle, it is not a violation of the world's order.[91]
In this view, any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again. In his discussion of the 13 principles of faith,
the first five deal with knowledge of God, the next four deal with
prophecy and the Torah, while the last four deal with reward, punishment
and the ultimate redemption. In this discussion Maimonides says nothing
of a universal resurrection. All he says it is that whatever
resurrection does take place, it will occur at an indeterminate time
before the world to come, which he repeatedly states will be purely
spiritual.
The World to Come
Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one
material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the
body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily
organism. The latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect; this is his interpretation of the noûs poietikós
of Aristotelian philosophy. It is acquired as the result of the efforts
of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure
intelligence of God.[citation needed]
The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge which develops in us
the immaterial intelligence, and thus confers on man an immaterial,
spiritual nature. This confers on the soul that perfection in which
human happiness consists, and endows the soul with immortality.
One who has attained a correct knowledge of God has reached a condition
of existence, which renders him immune from all the accidents of
fortune, from all the allurements of sin, and from death itself. Man is
in a position to work out his own salvation and his immortality.[citation needed]
Baruch Spinoza's
doctrine of immortality was strikingly similar. However, Spinoza
teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality
is the progress from sense-knowledge through scientific knowledge to
philosophical intuition of all things sub specie æternitatis, while Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the Torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law.[citation needed]
Maimonides describes the world to come as the stage after a
person lives their life in this world as well as the final state of
existence after the Messianic Era. Some time after the resurrection of
the dead, souls will live forever without bodies. They will enjoy the
radiance of the Divine Presence without the need for food, drink or
sexual pleasures.[92]
Maimonides and Kabbalah
Maimonides was not known as a supporter of Kabbalah, although a strong intellectual type of mysticism has been discerned in his philosophy.[93] In The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides declares his intention to conceal from the average reader his explanations of Sod[m]
esoteric meanings of Torah. The nature of these "secrets" is debated.
Religious Jewish rationalists, and the mainstream academic view, read
Maimonides' Aristotelianism as a mutually-exclusive alternative
metaphysics to Kabbalah.[94] Some academics hold that Maimonides' project fought against the Proto-Kabbalah of his time.[95]
Maimonides employed rationalism to defend Judaism rather than limit inquiry of Sod only to rationalism. His rationalism, if not taken as an opposition,[n] also assisted the Kabbalists, purifying their transmitted teaching from mistaken corporeal interpretations that could have been made from Hekhalot literature,[o] though Kabbalists held that their theosophy alone allowed human access to Divine mysteries.[96]
Maimonides' Mishneh Torah
is considered by Jews even today as one of the chief authoritative
codifications of Jewish law and ethics. It is exceptional for its
logical construction, concise and clear expression and extraordinary
learning, so that it became a standard against which other later
codifications were often measured.[97] It is still closely studied in rabbinic yeshivot
(seminaries). The first to compile a comprehensive lexicon containing
an alphabetically arranged list of difficult words found in Maimonides' Mishneh Torah was Tanḥum ha-Yerushalmi (1220–1291).[98] A popular medieval saying that also served as his epitaph states, "From Mosheh [of the Torah] to Mosheh [Maimonides] there was none like Mosheh." It chiefly referred to his rabbinic writings.
However, Maimonides was also one of the most influential figures in medieval Jewish philosophy. His adaptation of Aristotelian thought to Biblical faith deeply impressed later Jewish thinkers, and had an unexpected immediate historical impact.[99]
Some more acculturated Jews in the century that followed his death,
particularly in Spain, sought to apply Maimonides' Aristotelianism in
ways that undercut traditionalist belief and observance, giving rise to
an intellectual controversy in Spanish and southern French Jewish circles.[100] The intensity of debate spurred Catholic Church interventions against "heresy" and a general confiscation of rabbinic texts.
José Luis Muñoz's artistic impression of Maimonides, 2006
In reaction, the more radical interpretations of Maimonides were
defeated. At least amongst Ashkenazi Jews, there was a tendency to
ignore his specifically philosophical writings and to stress instead the
rabbinic and halakhic writings. These writings often included
considerable philosophical chapters or discussions in support of
halakhic observance; David Hartman
observes that Maimonides clearly expressed "the traditional support for
a philosophical understanding of God both in the Aggadah of Talmud and
in the behavior of the hasid [the pious Jew]."[101] Maimonidean thought continues to influence traditionally observant Jews.[102][103]
The most rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides is Hasdai Crescas' Or Adonai.
Crescas bucked the eclectic trend, by demolishing the certainty of the
Aristotelian world-view, not only in religious matters but also in the
most basic areas of medieval science (such as physics and geometry).
Crescas' critique provoked a number of 15th-century scholars to write
defenses of Maimonides.
Because of his path-finding synthesis of Aristotle and Biblical faith, Maimonides had an influence on Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas who refers to Maimonides in several of his works, including the Commentary on the Sentences.[104]
Maimonides' combined abilities in the fields of theology,
philosophy and medicine make his work attractive today as a source
during discussions of evolving norms in these fields, particularly
medicine. An example is the modern citation of his method of determining
death of the body in the controversy regarding declaration of death to
permit organ donation for transplantation.[105]
Maimonides and the Modernists
Plaque of Maimonides at Rambam Medical Center, Haifa
Maimonides remains one of the most widely debated Jewish thinkers
among modern scholars. He has been adopted as a symbol and an
intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern Judaism, and
has proven important to philosophers such as Leo Strauss; and his views on the importance of humility have been taken up by modern humanist philosophers.
In academia, particularly within the area of Jewish Studies, the
teaching of Maimonides has been dominated by traditional scholars,
generally Orthodox, who place a very strong emphasis on Maimonides as a
rationalist; one result is that certain sides of Maimonides' thought,
including his opposition to anthropocentrism, have been obviated.[citation needed] There are movements in some postmodern circles to claim Maimonides for other purposes, as within the discourse of ecotheology.[106]
Maimonides' reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has
given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality.
Issued from 8 May 1986 to 1995,[109] the Series A of the Israeli New Shekel featured an illustration of Maimonides on the obverse and the place of his burial in Tiberias on the reverse on its 1-shekel bill.[110]
In March 2008, during the Euromed
Conference of Ministers of Tourism, The Tourism Ministries of Israel,
Morocco and Spain agreed to work together on a joint project that will
trace the footsteps of the Rambam and thus boost religious tourism in
the cities of Córdoba, Fez and Tiberias.[112]
Between December 2018 and January 2019 the Israel Museum held a special exhibit dedicated to the writings of Maimonides.
